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UNITED  STATES  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


lULLETIN,  1911,  NO.  11 


WHOLE  NUMBER  457 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY 
FOR  THE  YEARS  1908-1909. 


By  LOUIS  N.  WILSON, 

LIBRARIAN  OF  CLARK  UNIVERSITY 
WORCESTER,  MASS. 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1911 


X •> 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


[The  abbreviations  used  in  periodical  and  serial  references  are  ordinary  ones  and  easily  compre- 
hended. Volume  and  page  are  separated  by  a colon.  Thus  6:386-407  means  vol.  6,  pages  386  to  407.] 


1.  Abbott,  Allan.  The  use  of  the  school  library.  Teachers  college  record,  9: 

112-125,  March,  1908. 

2.  Abbott,  Edith.  Early  history  of  child  labor  in  America.  American  journal  of 

sociology,  14:15-37,  1908. 

3.  Abbott,  Ernest  Hamlin.  On  the  training  of  parents.  Boston,  Houghton, 

Mifflin  & co.,  1908.  140  p. 

4.  Abbott,  Lyman.  A republic  in  the  republic.  Outlook,  88:351-354,  February 

15, 1908. 

Treats  of  the  George  Junior  Republic. 

5.  Abel-Musgrave , C.  Kinder  in  deutschen  gefangnissen.  ein  appell  an  das  offent- 

liche  gewissen.  Dresden,  Pierson,  1908.  75  p. 

6.  Abelson,  A.  It.  A propos  d’une  mesure  de  la  fatigue  intellectuelle.  Educa- 

teur  moderne,  3:70-77,  1908. 

7.  Achelis,  Thomas.  Tanz  und  schmuck  als  erotische  lockmittel.  Neue  genera- 

tion, 5:236-242,  1909. 

8.  Ackland,  Theodore  Dyke.  On  the  hours  of  sleep  at  public  schools.  London, 

J.  & A.  Churchill,  1905.  33  p. 

9.  Adair,  Mary.  The  natural  child  and  unnatural  authority.  Kindergarten 

review,  18:418^424,  March,  1908. 

10.  Adams,  Almeda  C.  The  education  of  the  blind  child  with  the  seeing  children 
in  the  public  schools.  In  'National  education  association.  Journal  of  pro- 
ceedings  and  addresses,  1908.  p.1137-1142. 


Also  in  Training  School,  5:1-6, 1908.  The  author  who  has  been  blind  since  infancy  was  educated 
in  the  public  schools. 


11.  Adams,  Joseph  Henry.  Harper’s  indoor  book  for  boys  ...  New  York, 
Harper  & brothers,  1908.  xiii,  363  p.  front,  illus. 

12.  Addams,  Jane.  Child  labor  and  education.  In  National  conference  of  charities 
and  corrections,  1908.  p.  364-369. 

Illustrates  experience  in  regard  to  two  model  child  labor  laws. 

13.  . Failure  of  the  modern  city  to  provide  recreation  for  young  girls.  Char- 

ities, 21:365-368,  December  5,  1908. 

14.  . The  home  and  the  special  child.  In  National  education  association. 

Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1908.  p.  1127-1131. 

Relation  of  the  home  to  the  care  and  training  of  defective  children. 

15.  . The  public  school  and  the  immigrant  child.  In  National  education 

association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1908.  p.  99-102. 

16.  . The  spirit  of  youth  and  the  city  streets.  New  York,  The  Macmillan 

company,  1909.  162  p. 

17.  Adkins,  F.  J.  Holidays  for  children.  Westminster  review,  170:574-581, 

November  1908. 


4-25618 


3 


4 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STXJDY,  1908-9. 


18.  Adler,  N.  Separate  courts  of  justice  for  children.  London,  Women’s  industrial 

council,  1908.  18  p. 

19.  Aiyangar,  S.  K.  Ramaswami.  Educational  value  and  method  of  teaching 

object  lessons.  Educational  review  (India),  15:402-406,  1909. 

20.  Albu,  A.  Der  anteil  der  schule  an  den  storungen  der  entwickelung  und 

ernahrung  der  kinder.  Zeitschrift  fiir  padagogische  psychologie,  pathologie  und 
hygiene,  10: 243-253,  1908. 

21.  Alden,  Mrs.  Margaret  (Pearse).  Child  life  and  labour.  London,  Headley 

brothers,  1908.  184  p.  (Social  service  series,  no.  6.) 

22.  Alden,  Percy.  English  child  life.  Outlook,  89:759-763,  August  1,  1908. 

23.  Alexander,  Alec,  and  Mrs.  Alec.  British  physical  education  for  girls.  London, 

McDougall’s  educational  co.,  1909.  320  p. 

24.  Alexander,  Gustav.  Uber  schularztiche  ohruntersuchungen  an  der  volks- 

schule  zu  Berndorf  in  Niederosterreich  im  friihjahr  1908.  Zeitschrift  fiir  schul- 
gesundheitspflege,  22:135-145,  1909. 

25.  Alexander,  Nora.  Across  the  centuries;  a retrospect  of  childhood.  Journal  of 

education  (London)  30  n.  s.  :347-349,  1908. 

26.  Aley,  Robert  J.  Mathematics  in  the  grades.  Journal  of  education,  68:303-305, 

339,  343-344,  September  and  October,  1908. 

27.  Allen,  William  Harvey.  Socialization  of  the  schools.  Charities,  21:1044-1046, 

March  6,  1909. 

28.  . See  also  Snedden,  David  Samuel,  and  Allen,  William  Harvey. 

29.  Allport,  Frank.  A plea  for  systematic  annual  and  universal  examination  of 

school  children’s  eyes  and  ears.  Psychological  clinic,  3:67-70,  May  1909. 

30.  . A plea  for  the  systematic  annual  and  universal  examination  of  school 

children’s  eyes,  noses,  and  throats.  In  National  education  association.  Jour- 
nal of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1909.  p.  266-273. 

31.  Alsberg,  M.  Die  geistige  leistungsfahigkeit  des  weibes  im  lichte  der  neueren 

forschung.  Archiv  fiir  rassen-und  gesellschafts  biologie,  4:476-492,  1908. 

32.  Alt,  Konrad.  Behandlung  jugendlicher  und  erwachsener  geisteskranker, 

epileptiker  und  idioten  in  gemeinsamer  anstalt.  Allgemeine  zeitschrift  fiir 
psvchiatrie,  66:437-459,  1909. 

33.  Altschul,  Theodor.  Sexuelle  aufklarung  der  jugend.  Zeitschrift  fiir  schul- 

gesundheitspflege,  758-772,  1908. 

34.  Ament,  Wilhelm.  Zur  geschichte  der  deutung  der  ersten  kinderworte;  intel- 

lectualismus  und  voluntarismus.  Bamberg,  C.  C.  Buchner,  1909.  10  p. 

35.  American  academy  of  medicine.  Prevention  of  infant  mortality;  being  the 

papers  and  discussions  of  a conference  held  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  in  1909. 
Reprinted  from  American  Academy  of  Medicine.  Bulletin.  1909.  347  p. 

36.  Anderson,  John  F.  The  relative  proportion  of  bacteria  in  top  milk  (cream 

layer)  and  bottom  milk  (skim  milk),  and  its  bearing  on  infant  feeding.  Ameri- 
can journal  of  public  hygiene,  19:567-569,  1909. 

37.  Angell,  James  R.  Doctrine  of  formal  discipline  in  the  light  of  the  principles  of 

general  psychology.  Educational  review,  36:1-14,  June  1908. 

Value  of  pursuing  disliked  studies. 

38.  Appelius,  H.  Die  behandlung  jugendlicher  verbrecher  und  verwahrloster 

kinder.  Berlin,  Guttentag,  1892.  234  p. 

39.  Arner,  George  B.  L.  Consanguineous  marriages  in  American  population. 

New  York,  Columbia  university,  1908.  99  p. 

A doctor’s  dissertation  which  deals  with  the  relation  of  consanguinity  to  reproduction,  mental 
defects,  and  the  special  senses. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


5 


40.  Arnold,  Felix.  Classification  and  education  of  afflicted  children.  Psycho- 

logical clinic,  2:180-191,  November  15,  1908. 

41.  Arnold,  Mrs.  Gertrude  Weld.  A mother’s  list  of  books  for  children.  Chicago, 

A.  C.  McClurg,  1909.  270  p. 

42.  Les  arri6r6s  pedagogiques.  Bulletin  trimestriel  de  la  Society  protectrice  de 

l’enfance  anormale,  3:117-120,  1909. 

43.  Artault,  S.  L’imagination  de  la  mere  peut-elle  agir  sur  le  foetus?  Chron- 

ique  medicale,  15:89,  265,  443-444,  1908. 

44.  Astier, . La  dictee  mobile.  Educateur  moderne,  3:351-353,  1908. 

45.  Aulard,  A.  Classe  de  perfectionnement.  Travail  manuel  du  bois.  In  Bulletin 

de  la  Society  libre,  1909.  v.  9,  p.  114-119. 

46.  Ausffihrungsbestimmungen  zu  dem  Erlasse  vom  18  August  1908  fiber  die  Neu- 

ordnung  des  hoheren  madchenschulwesens.  Berlin,  J.  G.  Cotta,  1908.  110  p. 

47.  Ayres,  Leonard  P.  The  effect  of  physical  defects  on  school  progress.  Psycho- 

logical clinic,  3:71-77,  May  1909. 

A first  attempt  at  a quantitative  measure  for  the  retarding  force  of  various  physical  defects. 

48.  . Irregular  attendance;  a cause  of  retardation.  Psychological  clinic,  3:1-9, 

March  1909. 

A discussion  of  irregular  attendance  as  a large  factor  in  the  retardation  of  from  one-quarter  to 
one-half  of  the  children  in  the  public  schools. 

49.  . Laggards  in  our  schools;  a study  of  retardation  and  elimination  in  city 

school  systems.  New  York,  Charities  publication  committee,  1909.  xv,  236 
p.  incl.  tables,  diagrs.  (Russell  Sage  foundation  [publication]) 

50.  . The  money  cost  of  the  repeater.  Psychological  clinic,  3:49-57,  April 

1909. 

A statement  of  a method  for  estimating  the  number  of  repeaters  and  the  percentage  of  the  school 
appropriation  spent  on  such  repeaters. 

51.  . Mortality  and  survival  in  the  grades.  Journal  of  education,  69:290- 

292,  March  18,  1909. 

52.  . Physical  defects  and  school  progress.  American  physical  education 

review,  14: 197-206,  1909. 

53.  . School-hygiene  in  Boston.  Charities,  21:1257-1258,  1909. 

54.  . Some  factors  affecting  grade  distribution.  Psychological  clinic,  2: 

121-133,  October  1908. 

55.  . See  also  Gulick,  Luther  Halsey,  and  Ayres,  Leonard  P. 

56.  Baccelli,  Mario.  Su  Pattendibilitit  delle  accuse  e testimonianze  dei  fanciulli. 

Ri vista  di  psicologia,  applicata  alia  pedagogia  ed  alia  psicopatologia,  5:126- 
143,  1909. 

57.  Bach,  Wilhelm  Carl.  Uber  koedukation.  Padagogische  abhandlungen,  13: 

67-71,  1908. 

58.  The  backward  child.  Training  school,  6:107-108,  1909. 

59.  Backward  children.  Kindergarten  magazine,  21:318,  June  1909. 

A brief  account  dealing  with  the  causes  of  retardation  of  children  in  the  public  schools. 

60.  Badger,  George  S.  C.  What  the  school  can  do  for  the  home  through  medical 

inspection.  Hygiene  and  physical  education,  1:858-861,  1909. 

61.  Baetke,  Walter.  Kindergestalten  bei  den  zeitgenossen  und  nachfolgern 

Shakespeares.  Inaug.  Diss.  (Ph.D.),  Halle.  Halle  a.  S.,  C.  A.  Kaemmerer 
& co.,  1908.  108  p. 

62.  Baggallay,  F.  W.  Child  labor  in  factories  and  workshops.  Economic  review, 

19:293-308,  1909. 

63.  Bagley,  Wilham  C.  The  pedagogy  of  morality  and  religion  as  related  to  the 

periods  of  development.  Religious  education,  4:91-96,  1909. 


6 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


64.  Bagley,  William  C.  Psychology  of  school  practice.  Psychological  bulletin, 

6:74-83,  March  15,  1909. 

Reviews  very  briefly  some  of  the  recent  literature  of  the  subject. 

65.  . Recent  studies  on  periodicity  in  mental  development.  Psychological 

bulletin,  6:188-193,  June  15,  1909. 

66.  Bailey,  Carolyn  Sherwin.  Rainy  day  plays.  Kindergarten  review,  19:30-33; 

100-103,  September  1908. 

67.  Bailey,  Thomas  P.  Organic  sensation  and  organismic  feeling.  Journal  of  phi- 

losophy, psychology,  and  scientific  methods,  5:406-412,  1908. 

68.  Baird,  J.  W.  The  problems  of  color-blindness.  Psychological  bulletin,  5: 

294-300,  September  1908. 

69.  Baldrian,  Karl.  Gedanken  iiber  beobachtungen,  wie  sich  kinder  bei  der 

spracherwerbung  fremdwortern  gegeniiber  verhalten.  Zeitschrift  fur  kinder- 
forschung,  13:326-329,  1908. 

70.  Baldwin,  William  A.  Physical  activities  as  a basis  for  education  in  the  school 

and  at  home.  Child  study,  1:4—11,  1908. 

71.  . Poultry-raising  as  a school  occupation.  Elementary  school  teacher,  9: 

359-363,  1909. 

72.  Balmforth,  R.  The  moral  development  of  the  native  races  in  South  Africa. 

International  journal  of  ethics,  18:137-150,  1908. 

73.  Bancroft,  Jessie  Hubbell.  Games  for  the  playground,  home,  school,  and 

gymnasium.  New  York,  Macmillan,  1909.  456  p. 

74.  Bancroft,  Jessie  H.  School  gymnastics  free  hand;  a graded  course  of  physical 

exercises  for  schools.  Boston,  I>.  C.  Heath,  1908.  364  p. 

75.  Barbarin,  Paul,  and  others.  L’hygiene  de  l’enfant,  de  la  naissance  a l’adoles- 

cence.  Paris,  O.  Doin,  1908.  376  p. 

76.  Barker,  J.  D.  What  a high  school  can  and  should  do  for  a boy  about  to  enter 

business.  Journal  of  education,  67:122;  131,  January  30,  1908. 

77.  Barnes,  Clifford  Palmer.  Child  study  in  relation  to  elementary  art  education. 

Kindergarten  review,  19:396-401,  March  1909. 

A brief  discussion  of  the  various  stages  a child  passes  through  in  acquiring  an  appreciation  of 
art. 

78.  . Moral  training  through  the  agency  of  the  public  schools.  In  National 

education  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1909.  p.  129-140. 
Also  in  Journal  of  education,  70 : 536-537, 1909. 

79.  . Fundamental  factors  in  the  making  of  a kindergarten  curriculum. 

Kindergarten  review,  19:65-71,  October  1908. 

Also  in  National  education  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1908.  p. 
502-507. 

80.  . The  public  school  and  the  special  child.  In  National  education  asso- 

ciation. Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1908.  p.  1118-1127. 

Also  in  Journal  of  education  (Boston)  68:115;  119, 1908. 

An  excellent  account  of  the  provisions  being  made  for  the  care  and  training  of  backward  children. 

81.  . What  England  is  doing  to  secure  healthy  school  children.  In  National 

education  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1908.  p.  952-957. 

82.  Barnes,  Florence  Berenice.  Some  aspects  of  memory  in  the  insane.  Ameri- 

can journal  of  psychology,  19:43-57,  January  1908. 

83.  Barnett,  H.  O.  Babies  of  the  state.  Cornhill  magazine,  100:89-100,  1909. 

84.  Barr,  Martin  W.  The  criminal  irresponsible.  Alienist  and  neurologist, 

30:611-621,  1909. 

85.  Barran.  Rose  C.  The  George  junior  republic.  Nineteenth  century,  66:503- 

508,  1909. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


7 


86.  Barrett,  Jean  Newell.  The  invasion  of  our  homes  by  the  popular  songs 

of  the  day;  influence  on  children.  Kindergarten  review,  18:424-425,  March 
1908. 

87.  Barter,  Amy.  Children’s  story  books  a hundred  years  ago.  Journal  of  edu- 

cation (London),  31:710-711,  1909. 

88.  Barth,  Paul.  Die  geschichte  der  erziehung  in  soziologischer  beleuchtung. 

Vierteljahrsschrift  fur  wissenschaftliche  philosophic  und  soziologie,  33:66-94; 
228-256;  361-404;  467-500,  1909. 

89.  Barth,  S.  Ein  urteil  uber  meine  klasse  im  zeitraume  von  vier  monaten  nach 

aufnahme  der  kinder  zeitschrift  fiir  kinderforschung,  13:212-215,  April  1908. 

90.  Bascom,  John.  Co-education.  Educational  review,  35:442^151,  December 

1908. 

91.  Basso,  Emanuel.  Les  colonies  de  vacances,  historiques,  fonctionnement, 

resultats.  (Diss.  (M.  D.)  Lyon.)  Lyon,  Schneider,  1906.  69  p. 

92.  Baumer,  Gertrud,  and  Droescher,  Lili.  Von  der  kindesseele.  Leipzig, 

Voigtlander,  1908.  429  p. 

93.  Baur,  Alfred.  Die  abortdesinfektion  in  schulhausern . Gesundheitswarte  der 

schule,  6:136-143,  1908. 

94.  . Der  ermudungsfordernde  bohnenkaffee.  Gesundheitswarte  der  schule, 

6:193-208,  1908. 

95.  . Die  ermiidungsmessungen  mit  dem  Scheinerschen  versuch.  Gesund- 

heitswarte der  schule,  6:1-6,  1908. 

96.  — — . Zwei  plagen  der  schule.  Gesundheitswarte  der  schule,  7:16-27,  1909. 

97.  Baxter,  Rex  Mitchell.  Annotated  book  list  for  use  of  the  probation  officers 

of  the  Marion  county  juvenile  court,  Indianapolis,  Indiana.  Indianapolis, 
Ind.,  1908.  31  p. 

98.  Bean,  C.  Homer.  Starvation  and  mental  development.  Psychological  clinic, 

3:78-85,  May  1909. 

The  history  of  a sixteen  year  old  boy,  showing  a lack  of  certain  fundamental  elements  of  devel- 
opment due  to  a condition  of  practical  starvation  through  failure  to  assimilate  food  given  before 
the  sixth  year. 

99.  Beattie,  J.  Macklin.  Ellen  Key,  the  Swedish  philosopher.  A description 

of  the  ideal  training  of  the  child.  Kindergarten  review,  18:257-262,  January 
1908. 

100.  Beatty,  Herbert  Macartney.  Education  in  a Prussian  town.  London, 

Blackie  & son,  1907.  54  p. 

101.  Beaufreton,  Maurice.  Y aurait-il  une  langue  originale  des  enfants?  Enfant, 

18:491-507,  1908. 

102.  Bell,  Catherine  F.  What  can  be  done  for  mentally  defective  children  in  the 

public  schools.  Training  school,  6:69-72,  1909. 

103.  Belot,  A.  De  l’enfance  h P adolescence.  In  Bulletin  de  la  Soci6te  libre  pour 

l’etude  psychologique  de  l’enfant,  9:52-53,  1909. 

104.  Bendix,  Bernhard.  See  Neuiert,  C.  J.  H.,  and  Bendix,  B. 

105.  Bennett,  Arthur  E.  School  hygiene  and  efficiency.  Hygiene  and  physical 

education,  1:14-18,  1909. 

106.  Bennett,  Charles  A.  Which  of  the  manual  arts  shall  be  taught  in  the  schools? 

Education,  30:151-157,  1909. 

107.  Benoit-Levy,  Georges.  Des  terrains  de  jeux  pour  les  enfants.  Enfant, 

18:539-545,  1908. 

108.  Berry,  J.  W.  The  pedagogy  of  educational  handicraft.  London,  Blackie  & 

son,  1909.  100  p. 


8 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


109.  Berthollet,  H.  Influence  de  la  teneur  en  beurre  du  lait  de  femme  sur  la 

sant6  du  nourrisson.  Paris,  A.  Michalon,  1906.  104  p. 

110.  Bertrand,  Ernest.  L’enseignement  public  est-il  moralisateur?  Enfant, 

18:182-183,  1909. 

111.  Bestimmungen  iiber  die  neuordnung  des  hoheren  madchenschulwesens  in 

Preussen.  2d  ed.  Halle,  Waisenhaus,  1909.  31  p. 

112.  Bettinger,  M.  C.  Nagging  in  the  school.  Journal  of  education,  67:172-173, 

February  1908. 

113.  . Principles  involved  in  nagging.  Journal  of  education,  67:204-205, 

February  1908. 

114.  Bevan,  J.  O.  How  to  extend  child-study.  Child  study,  1:33-37,  1908. 

115.  Bierbower,  Austin.  Are  we  making  too  much  of  music?  Education,  28: 

361-363,  February  1908. 

116.  Bigelow,  Edward  F.  Making  it  a tonic,  not  a task.  School  journal,  76:381- 

382,  June  1909. 

This  urges  the  formation  of  school-nature  societies,  and  gives  an  extract  from  the  handbook  of 
the  Agassiz  association. 

117.  Binet,  Alfred.  L’age  de  la  lecture.  In  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  libre  pour 

l’etude  psychologique  de  l’enfant,  1909.  v.  9,  p.  112-114. 

118.  . A propos  de  l’enquete  sur  les  enfants  paresseux.  In  Bulletin  de  la 

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119.  . Causerie  pedagogique.  Annee  psychologique,  14:405-431,  1908. 

Treats  of  vision,  abnormal  children,  anthropometry,  etc. 

120.  . Les  idees  modernes  sur  les  enfants.  Paris,  E.  Flammarion,  1909. 

346  p. 

121.  . Les  methodes  permettant  de  controler  le  rendement  scolaire  d’un 

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anormaux.  In  Bulletin  de  la  Society  libre  pour  l’etude  psychologique  de 
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122.  . Reflexions  sur  quelques  problemes  qui  ont  ete  etudies  a la  societe. 

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123.  and  Simon,  Th.  Le  ddveloppement  de  l’intelligence  chez  les  enfants. 

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124.  . L’intelligence  des  imbeciles.  Ann4e  psychologique,  15:  1-147,  1909. 

Discusses  character  of  violent  and  docile  imbeciles;  perceptive,  attentive,  and  reasoning  ability; 
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125.  . Langage  et  pensee.  Annee  psychologique,  14:284-339,  1908. 

126.  Bing,  Robert.  Myopathia  rachitica.  Jahrbuch  fur  kinderheilkunde  und 

physische  erziehung,  1908.  ser.  3,  v.  18,  649-667  p. 

127.  Bingham,  Robert.  Co-education.  Asheville,  N.  C.,  Pen  & plate  club,  1907. 

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Opposes  co-education  of  adolescents. 

128.  Bird,  Charles.  Teaching  of  educational  handwork.  Educational  times,  62: 

237-238,  1909. 

129.  Bimbaum,  Karl.  Erblichkeit  und  entartung.  Sexual-probleme,  5:825- 

842,  1909. 

130.  Black,  Jessie  E.  Literary  expression  in  the  third  grade.  Elementary  school 

teacher,  8:592-596,  June  1908. 

131.  Blanchard,  Alice  A.  Story  telling  as  a library  tool.  Pedagogical  seminary, 

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9 


132.  Blanchard,  F.  G.  See  Welton,  James,  and  Blanchard,  F.  G. 

133.  Blay,  A.  de.  Le  th&itre  scolaire  dans  l’enseignement  du  frangais  en  Am^rique. 

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134.  Bleuler,  Paul  Eugen.  Affektivitat,  suggestibilitat,  paranoia.  Halle,  Mar- 

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135.  Blewett,  Ben.  The  department  of  school  hygiene  in  St.  Louis  public  schools. 

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Discusses  the  establishment  of  Boards  of  examiners  for  the  medical  inspection  of  school  children 
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136.  . Department  of  school  hygiene,  St.  Louis  public  schools.  In  U.  S. 

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Plan  for  establishing  a department  of  school  hygiene,  “ the  function  of  which  should  be  to  discover 
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137.  Bloch,  Adolphe.  Sur  la  mongolisme  infantile  dans  la  race  blanche  et  sur 

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138.  Blow,  Susan  Elizabeth.  Educational  issues  of  the  kindergarten.  New  York, 

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139.  Blumenbach,  Edmund.  Zur  hygiene  der  schuljugend  im  eltemhause.  Riga, 

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140.  Boas,  Kurt  W.  F.  Die  aufgabe  des  schularztes  in  der  bekampfung  des  alko- 

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141.  . Das  haus  im  kampfe  gegen  den  alkoholismus.  Werde  gesund,  8:163- 

168;  191-198,  1908. 

142.  . Die  sexuelle  belehrung  schwachsinniger.  Zeitschrift  fur  die  erforsch- 

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143.  . Soli  sich  die  sexualbelehrung  der  jugend  auch  auf  die  geschlechts- 

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1909. 

144.  Bobbitt,  John  Franklin.  The  growth  of  Philippine  children.  Pedagogical 

seminary,  16:137-168.  June  1909. 

Gives  charts  recording  weights  and  measurements  of  Philippine  children,  also  charts  comparing 
them  with  American  children  in  the  same  respects. 

145.  — . Practical  eugenics.  Pedagogical  seminary,  16:385-394,  September 

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Shows  that  heredity  has  much  to  do  with  children’s  temperaments  and  development.  Measures 
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146.  Bocquillon,  E.  Enqu6te  sur  la  paresse.  In  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  libre  pour 

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147.  Bodansky,  S.  Determinismus  und  erziehung.  Zeitschrift  fur  padagogische 

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148.  Bode,  B.  H.  The  problem  of  objectivity.  Journal  of  philosophy,  psychology, 

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149.  Boggs,  L.  Pearl.  Is  it  feasible  for  child-helping  agencies  to  maintain  research 

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150.  . The  question  in  the  learning  process.  Journal  of  philosophy,  psychol- 

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151.  Bohm,  A.  Schulkinder  und  kinematograph.  Zeitschrift  fiir  philosophie  und 

padagogik,  17:69-75,  1909. 

152.  . Zur  analyse  des  kindlichen  gedankenkreises.  Deutsche  schule,  13: 

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153.  Bohme,  Franz  Magnus,  comp.  Deutsches  kinderlied  und  kinderspiel. 

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154.  Bolton,  T.  L.  A genetic  study  of  make-believe.  Journal  of  philosophy,  psy- 

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155.  Boltz,  R.  Entwicklungsjahre  und  madchenturnen.  Zeitschrift  fur  schul- 

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156.  Boncour,  Georges  Paul.  A propos  de  1’  “affaire  de  Mettray”;  les  enfants 

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157.  — — . Sur  le  pretendu  “caractere  epileptique”  des  ecoliers.  Educateur 

moderne,  3:21-25,  1908. 

158.  . Les  troubles  d’ intelligence  et  de  caractere  dans  la  polydipsie  habituelle 

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159.  . Quelques  considerations  sur  P education  des  ecoliers  anormaux  d’apres 

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160.  Boodin,  John  E.  Consciousness  and  reality.  Negative  definition  of  con- 

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161.  Boodstein,  O.  Die  erziehungsarbeit  der  schule  an  schwachbegabten.  Berlin, 

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162.  Book,  William  Frederick.  Psychology  of  skill.  Missoula,  Mont.,  1908.  188  p. 

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163.  Bories,  Lewis.  Colonies  de  vacances  et  carnet  sanitaire  scolaire  (examen 

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164.  The  Borstal  system  for  the  treatment  of  juvenile  criminals.  Medical  record, 

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165.  Bosnyak,  Soltan,  and  Edelsheim-Gyulai,  Leopold.  Le  droit  de  l’enfant 

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166.  Bouquet,  Henri.  L’evolution  psychique  de  Penfant.  Paris,  Bloud,  1909. 

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167.  Bourhill,  Mrs.  E.  J.  and  Drake,  Mrs.  J.  B.  Fairy  tales  from  South  Africa. 

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168.  Boutet  de  Monvel,  M.  La  civilite  puerile  et  honnete  expliquee  par  l’oncle 

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169.  Boutroux,  Emile.  L’education  morale  des  jeunes  frangais.  Revue  pedagogi- 

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170.  Bowen,  W.  P.  Meaning  of  work  and  play.  Hygiene  and  physical  education, 

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171.  The  boy  scouts.  Spectator,  103:373-374,  463-464,  1909. 

172.  Boyer,  J.  L’enseignement  de  la  lecture  k l’lnstitut  medico-pedagogique  de 

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173.  Boynton,  F.D.  Disillusioned;  another  view.  Educational  review,  35:217-226, 

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174.  Boynton,  H.  W.  Reading  for  children.  Nation,  89:562-563,  1909. 


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175.  Brautigam,  L.  Freudige  schule.  Werde  gesund,  8:134-138,  1908. 

176.  Brennan,  T.  Social  training  in  our  national  schools.  Irish  educational  review, 

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177.  Br  ere  ton,  Cloudesley.  The  true  inwardness  of  moral  instruction  in  France. 

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178.  Brereton,  Mrs.  M.  A.  C.  The  mother’s  companion.  London,  Mills  & Boon, 

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179.  Bres,  Mile.  L’ecolier  de  deux  a six  ans.  In  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  libre  pour 

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180.  Bresgen,  M.  Nasenbluten  und  schule.  Gesundheitswarte  der  schule,  6:49-55, 

1908. 

181.  Breukink,  H.  liber  die  erziehbarkeit  der  aussage.  Zeitschrift  fur  angewandte 

psychologie,  3:32-87,  1909. 

182.  Brewer,  Dustan.  Mind  of  the  child.  Kindergarten  magazine,  November, 

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An  interesting  article  on  the  study  of  the  development  of  the  mind  from  birth  to  three  years  of  age. 

183.  Brieux,  Caron.  Education  corporelle  des  enfants.  Educateur  moderne,  4:380- 

386,  1909. 

184.  Briggs,  Franklin  H.  Boys  as  they  are  made  and  how  to  remake  them.  Syra- 

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185.  Brinckmann,  A.  E.  Kunstgewerblicher  unterricht  in  den  schulen.  Schul- 

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186.  British  Association  for  labor  legislation.  Report  on  employment  of  children 

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187.  Brooklyn  public  library.  The  welfare  of  children.  A reading  list  on  the 

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188.  Brooks,  Stratton  D.  Industrial  education.  Journal  of  education,  70:597-599, 

627-628,  December  9 and  16,  1909. 

189.  Brown,  Abbie  Farwell.  Tales  of  the  red  children.  New  York.  D.  Appleton, ' 

1909.  125  p. 

190.  Brown,  Bertha  Millard.  Good  health  for  girls  and  boys.  Boston,  D.  C. 

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191.  Brown,  George  P.  The  physiology  and  psychology  of  elementary  education. 

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192.  Brown,  Harold  Chapman.  Infinity  and  the  generalization  of  the  concept  of 

number.  Journal  of  philosophy,  psychology,  and  scientific  methods,  5:628-634, 
November  5,  1908. 

193.  Brown,  It.  M.  Haig.  Moral  education.  Journal  of  education.  (London) 

31:116-117,  1909. 

194.  Brownlee,  Jane.  Moral  training  in  the  public  schools.  Springfield,  Holden, 

1908.  29  p. 

195.  Bruere,  Robert  W.  Psychological  age  and  child  labor.  In  National  education 

association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1908.  p.  924-932. 

196.  . The  work  of  the  New  York  association  for  improving  the  condition  of 

the  poor  in  saving  child  life.  Pedagogical  seminary,  16:450-456,  December, 

1909. 

197.  Bruner,  F.  C.  The  hearing  of  primitive  peoples.  Archives  of  psychology, 

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198.  Bruner,  Frank  G.  Abnormal  children:  their  classification  and  instruction. 

In  National  education  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1909. 
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Describes  methods  used  in  instruction;  tests  made  in  regard  to  maturity  of  mental  functions,  and 
bodily  growth,  etc. 

199.  Buchner,  Martin.  Die  entwicklung  der  gemtitswegungen  im  ersten  lebens- 

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200.  Buck,  G.  Ein  auschaulicher  demonstrationsapparat  der  physiologisch-chemis- 

chen  wirkungen  beim  sehen.  Gesundheitswarte  der  schule,  6:33^1,  1908. 

201.  Buckham,  John  Wright.  The  Sunday  newspaper  and  the  boy.  Kindergarten 

review,  19:169-171,  November,  1908. 

202.  Budde,  Gerhard.  Schiilerselbstmorde.  Hannover,  Janecke,  1908.  59  p. 

203.  Budin,  Pierre.  The  nursling.  Tr.  by  W.  J.  Maloney.  London,  Caxton  pub- 

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204.  Bue,  Vincent,  and  others.  Puericulture  et  hygiene  infantile.  Paris,  F.  Alcan, 

1908.  182  p. 

205.  Burbank,  Luther.  Train  children  as  I do  the  plants.  Journal  of  education, 

67:14-15,  June  25,  1908. 

206.  Burgess,  Isaac  B.  The  cultural  motive  in  the  school.  Education,  28:574-584, 

May  1908. 

207.  Burke,  C.  E.  Child  study  and  education.  Dublin,  Brown  & Nolan,  1908. 

184  p. 

208.  Burke,  J.  E.  Hygiene  in  the  Boston  public  schools.  In  National  education 

association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1909.  p.  118-123. 

The  investigation  of  hygienic  conditions  in  Boston  schools;  the  practice  of  programs  for  bettering 
affairs;  and  health  of  students  and  pupils. 

209.  Burnham,  William  H.  Attention  and  interest.  American  journal  of  psy- 

chology. 19:14-18,  January  1908. 

210.  . The  home  in  relation  to  other  factors  in  education.  Pedagogical 

seminary,  16:485-487,  December,  1909. 

How  home  education  is  neglected.  Home  should  be  the  proper  correlating  agent. 

211.  . The  hygiene  of  the  kindergarten.  Kindergarten  review,  19:590-599, 

June  1909. 

The  value  of  hygienic  conditions  in  the  kindergarten. 

212.  . The  hygiene  of  the  nose.  Pedagogical  seminary  15:155-169,  June  1908. 

Treats  of  adenoids  in  school  children.  Select  bibliograghy  of  nineteen  titles. 

213.  . The  hygiene  of  physical  training.  American  physical  education 

review,  14:468-478,  521-528,  600-608,  1909. 

214.  . One  session  a day,  or  two,  in  the  public  schools.  Springfield,  F.  A. 

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Reprinted  from  Hygiene  and  physical  education,  March  1909. 

215.  . The  problem  of  fatigue.  American  journal  of  psychology,  19:385- 

398,  July  1908. 

216.  . Scientific  study  of  children.  In  National  education  association. 

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Discusses  the  variations  under  which  children  have  been  studied — variations  due  to  (1)  growth 
and  development,  (2)  disease,  (3)  changes  in  nutrition,  (4)  changes  of  stimuli,  and  to  suggestions, 
and  (5)  learning. 

217.  . The  scientific  study  of  hygiene.  Pedagogical  seminary,  16:435-441, 

December  1909. 

Discusses  old  and  new  ways  of  studying  hygiene. 

218.  Burns,  James  Aloysius.  The  Catholic  school  system  in  the  United  States. 

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219.  Bums,  John.  Education  of  poor-law  children.  Irish  educational  review, 

2:  338-346,  1909. 

220.  Burt,  Cyril.  Experimental  tests  of  general  intelligence.  British  journal  of 

psychology,  3:  94-177,  1909. 

221.  Buseman,  A.  Ueber  das  traumleben  des  schulkindes.  Zeitschrift  fiir  pada- 

gogische  psychologie,  pathologie,  und  hygiene,  10:294-301,  1908. 

222.  Busick,  Hilda.  Values  of  the  kindergarten.  Kindergarten  magazine,  21:230- 

231,  April  1909. 

The  kindergarten  is  to  help  develop  the  right  channels  of  the  brain,  which  will  be  a help  to 
the  child  later  in  life. 

223.  Bussiere,  R.  de  la.  A quand  l’ecole  parisienne  de  la  foret?  Enfant,  18:  69- 

70,  1909. 

Open-air  schools. 

224.  . Comite  oranais  de  defense  des  enfants  traduits  en  justice.  Enfant, 

18:  235-236,  1909. 

Juvenile  delinquency. 

225.  . Les  jeunes  delinquants  a responsabilite  attenuee.  Enfant,  18:132- 

135,  1909. 

Juvenile  delinquency. 

226.  . Nos  colonies  penitentiaires  et  l’application  de  la  loi  du  12  avril  1906. 

Enfant,  18:  162-164,  1909. 

Juvenile  delinquency. 

227.  Butler,  Amos  W.  The  burden  of  feeble-mindedness.  Training  school,  5:3- 

10,  1908. 

228.  Biittner,  Georg.  Ausschuss  zum  rechtsschutze  fiir  die  geistig  minderwertigen. 

Zeitschrift  fur  die  erforschung  und  behandlung  des  jugendlichen  schwachsinns, 
3:  14-18,  1909. 

229.  . Hilfsschulen  fiir  das  land.  Zeitschrift  fiir  schulgesundheitspflege,  1908, 

p.  583-586. 

230.  . Kopfumfang  und  intelligenz  bei  schulkindern.  Gesundheitswarte  des 

schule,  6:  273-281,  1908. 

231.  . Nervose  kinder.  Gesundheitswarte  der  schule,  6:121-124,  1908. 

232.  . Der  neue  personalbogen  der  hilfsschulen.  Gesundheitswarte  der 

schule,  6:  73-79,  1908. 

233.  . Schwachbegabte  an  hoheren  schulen.  Zeitschrift  fur  die  erforschung 

und  behandlung  des  jugendlichen  schwachsinns,  3:187-196,  1909. 

234.  . Vom  formen  und  seiner  bedeutung  fur  die  geistige  entwicklung  des 

kindes.  Gesundheitswarte  der  schule,  7:225-231,  1909. 

235.  . Vom  schulschwanzen.  Gesundlheitswarte  der  schule,  6:249-259, 

1908. 

236.  . Vom  schutz  der  geistig  minderwertigen  in  der  rechtspflege.  Gesund- 

heitswarte der  schule,  7:251-256,  1909. 

237.  . Von  den  geistig  minderwertigen  in  der  rechtspflege.  Zeitschrift  fiir 

die  erforschung  und  behandlung  des  jugendlichen  schwachsinns,  3:347-352, 

1909. 

238.  . Wormser  erholungsheim.  fiir  krankliche,  schwachliche  schulkinder. 

Zeitschrift  fiir  schulgesundheitspflege,  1908,  p.  361-370. 

239.  Button,  L.  L.  Medical  inspection  in  public  schools.  Training  school,  6:129- 

133,  1909. 

240.  Byles,  A.  Holden.  Open-air  school.  World’s  work,  13:197-208,  1909. 


14  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 

241.  Cada,  Frantisek.  Mravini  v^chova  mladeze  dorusta-ici.  Prague,  1909.  19  p. 

A study  of  the  moral  training  of  adolescents. 

242.  . V^chova  krasocitu.  Prague,  1908.  26  p. 

Place  of  art  in  education. 

243.  — — . Vyznam  P6£o  o SlabomiyslnA  Prague,  1909.  16  p. 

Possibilities  in  mental  training  for  the  feeble-minded. 

244.  . Zkoum&ni  ditete:  do  Strucneho  Slovniku  paedagogickeho.  Prague, 

1909. 

An  article  on  child  study  in  the  Bohemian  pedagogical  dictionary,  which  discusses  methods  and 
purposes,  and  gives  an  account  of  the  movement  in  Germany,  France,  Italy,  the  United  States, 
and  in  the  Slavonic  countries. 

245.  Caine,  William  R.  H.,  comp.  The  children’s  hour;  an  anthology  of  poems, 

stories,  sketches,  etc.,  by  leading  authors.  London,  Newnes,  [19 — ].  127  p. 

246.  California.  State  Normal  school,  Los  Angeles.  Training  department. 

Children’s  literature.  Los  Angeles,  Neuner  co.,  1908.  88  p. 

247.  Calkins,  Mary  Whiton.  The  relation  of  feeling  (affection)  to  emotion.  Psy- 

chological bulletin,  5:  340-345,  October  1908. 

248.  Canby,  Henry  Seidel.  The  teaching  of  English  literature.  Education,  29: 

179-186,  November  1908. 

249.  Cannell,  E.  Maud,  and  Wise,  Margaret  E.  Outlines  for  kindergarten  and 

primary  classes,  in  the  study  of  nature  and  related  subjects.  New  York,  A.  S. 
Barnes,  [c1897].  162  p. 

250.  Capell,  — . Welchen  einlluss  kann  die  volksschule  auf  die  berufswahl  der 

schuler  ausiiben?  Padagogische  abhandlungen,  13:  121-138,  1908. 

251.  Carley,  Pearl  Backus.  A morning  exercise;  the  correlation  of  constructive 

work  with  the  history  of  Chicago.  Elementary  school  teacher,  9 : 38-42, 
September  1908. 

252.  Carlton,  Frank  Tracy.  Education  and  industrial  evolution.  New  York, 

Macmillan  co.,  1908.  320  p. 

253.  Carrie,  W.  Die  psychopathisch  minderwertigen  in  der  strafrechtspflege.  Zeit- 

schrift  fur  ldnderforschung,  15:  33-39,  November  1909. 

254.  Carstens,  C.  C The  statistical  test  in  children’s  work.  In  National  conference 

of  charities  and  correction,  1908.  p.  253-257. 

Why  statistics  should  be  given,  and  brief  sketch  of  the  work  of  various  children’s  organizations. 

255.  Carter,  Marion  H.  The  conservation  of  the  defective  child.  McClure’s  mag- 

azine 33:  160-171,  June  1909. 

An  account  of  the  work  done  with  defective  children,  by  Dr.  Lightner  Witmer  in  the  psychologi- 
cal laboratory  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

256.  Carus,  Paul.  How  to  teach  the  Bible  in  schools.  Open  court,  23:  484-188, 

1909. 

257.  Cattell,  J.  McKeen.  The  school  and  the  family.  Popular  science  monthly, 

74:  84-95,  January  1909. 

Gives  many  reasons  for  a close  relationship  of  schools  and  home. 

258.  Catty,  Nancy.  Selected  list  of  stories,  fables,  etc.,  for  young  children.  Child 

life,  10:  178-180,  1908. 

259.  Chabot,  Charles.  Enquete  sur  les  images  mentales  des  nombres.  In  Bulletin 

de  la  Societe  libre  pour  l’etude  psychologique  de  l’enfant,  1909.  v.  10,  p.  9-14. 

260.  . Hygiene  et  p^dagogie.  Annee  psychologique,  14:  340-354,  1908. 

261.  Chabrier,  Charles.  Etude  sur  la  tutelle  des  enfants  naturels  autres  que  les 

pupilles  de  l’assistance  publique.  Paris,  Imprimerie  Bonvalot-Jouve,  1907. 
150  p. 


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15 


262.  Chadsey,  Charles  E.  The  proper  relation  of  organized  sports  on  public  play- 

grounds and  in  public  schools.  In  National  education  association.  Journal  of 
proceedings  and  addresses,  1909.  p.  771-777. 

Discusses  the  needs  and  influences  of  play  and  games,  and  the  great  need  of  city  playgrounds. 

263.  Chamberlain,  Alexander  F.  Notes  on  lefthandedness  among  North  American 

Indians.  American  anthropologist,  10:  498-500,  September  1908. 

264.  . Notes  on  some  aspects  of  the  folk-psychology  of  night.  American 

journal  of  psychology,  19:  19-41,  January  1908. 

265.  and  Isabel  C.  Studies  of  a child,  IY.  “Meanings  and  definitions  in  the 

forty-seventh  and  forty-eighth  months.  Pedagogical  seminary,  16 : 64-103, 
March  1909. 

Presents  lists  of  words  and  opposite  them  the  definitions  given  by  a four-year-old  child. 

266.  Chambers,  Will  Grant.  Why  children  play.  Kindergarten  review,  20:78- 

85,  1909. 

Also  in  National  education  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1909.  p.  720-726. 

267.  Chancellor,  William  E.  Our  city  schools,  their  direction  and  management. 

Boston,  D.  C.  Heath  & co.,  1908.  338  p. 

268.  . Practical  conclusions  by  the  American  statistical  association  (physical 

defects  of  school  children).  Journal  of  education,  67  : 35-36,  January  1908. 

269.  . Our  school  houses.  Psychological  clinic,  3 : 98-105,  June  1909. 

A criticism  of  the  condition  of  the  public  schools  in  America.  The  author  points  out  the  essen- 
tials for  safe  and  hygienic  construction,  and  believes  that  superintendents  and  principals  can  do 
much  to  better  architectural  conditions. 

270.  Chandler,  Edward  H.  How  much  children  attend  the  theatre;  the  quality  of 

the  entertainment  they  choose,  and  its  effect  upon  them.  Pedagogical  semi- 
nary, 16:367-371,  September  1909. 

271.  Charming,  Walter,  and  Wissler,  Clark.  The  hard  palate  in  normal  and  feeble- 

minded individuals.  American  museum  of  natural  history.  Anthropological 
papers,  1908.  v.  1,  part  5,  p.  283-349. 

For  a study  of  sub-normal  types  this  paper  deserves  to  be  called  a classic. 

272.  Chapin,  Henry  Dwight.  A plan  of  dealing  with  weak  infants  and  children. 

Charities,  21:1267-1270,  November  1909. 

273.  Chapman,  John  Jay.  Four  plays  for  children.  New  York,  Moffat,  Yard  & 

co.,  1908.  156  p. 

Contents:  The  lost  prince;  King  Ithuriel;  the  hermits;  Christmas  in  Leipsic. 

274.  Chardome,  Emile.  L ’image  dans  l’education.  Education,  9:537-542;  10: 

11-15,  74-77,  1909. 

275.  Charra,  Elisee.  Contribution  a P etude  de  l’alcoolisme  hereditaire.  Re- 

cherches  sur  les  anomalies  de  d6veloppement  observees  chez  les  enfants  de 
parents  alcooliques.  Lyon,  A.  Rey,  1906.  96  p. 

276.  Chase,  H.  J.  Geometry  in  elementary  schools.  Elementary  school  teacher, 

8 : 59-62,  June  1908. 

277.  Chase,  H.  W.  Some  aspects  of  the  attention  problem.  Pedagogical  seminary, 

16  : 281-297,  September  1909. 

States  types  of  attention;  conditions  affecting  attention;  other  mental  functions. 

278.  Chaucer,  Geoffrey.  The  Chaucer  story  book.  Ed.  by  Eva  March  Tappan. 

Boston,  Houghton,  Mifflin  & co.,  1908.  215  p. 

279.  Chaumet,  Edmond.  Recherches  sur  la  croissance  des  enfants  des  ecoles  de 

Paris.  Paris,  Jouve,  1906.  60  p. 

280.  Chauveron,  Pierre  de.  Le  jeu  chez  l’enfant  et  chez  Panimal.  Enfant,  18: 

443-450,  1908. 

281.  Chazal,  Eugene.  Contribution  a l’etude  de  l’enfance  anormale;  les  anormaux 

psychiques.  Paris,  A.  Maloine,  1907.  150  p. 


16 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 

282.  Chesterton,  G.  K.  L’enfance  de  Dickens.  Revue  pedagogique,  53  : 241-251, 

1908. 

283.  Chesterton,  Thomas.  Organized  playground  games,  suitable  for  elementary 

and  secondary  schools.  London,  Educational  supply  association,  1901.  115  p. 

284.  Chew,  Thomas.  Character  making  on  the  street.  Religious  education,  3 : 24- 

27,  1908. 

285.  Chicago.  Board  of  Education.  Parental  school.  Annual  report.  6th. 

Chicago,  Board  of  education,  1907.  18  p. 

286.  Chicago  public  schools.  Department  of  child  study  and  pedagogic  investiga- 

tion. Special  report  on  children  attending  the  public  day  schools  for  the  deaf, 
[ed.  by  D.  P.  MacMillan].  Chicago,  Chicago  newspaper  union,  1908.  88  p. 

287.  Child  conference  for  research  and  welfare.  I.  Proceedings,  1909.  Held 

at  Clark  university  in  connection  with  the  celebration  of  its  20th  anniversary, 
Worcester,  Mass.,  July  6-10,  1909.  New  York,  G.  E.  Stechert  co.  257  p. 

Contents.— Introduction,  by  G.  Stanley  Hall,  p.  iii-x.— Constitution,  p.  1.— The  ideational 
types  of  school  children,  by  S.  S.  Colvin,  p.  2.— Reading  clubs  for  older  boys  and  girls,  by  Miss 
C.  M.  Hewins,  p.  13.— Youth  and  the  Marathon,  by  William  J.  Cromie,  p.  19.— Boys’  clubs,  by 
William  Byron  Forbush,  p.  25.— The  growth,  present  extent,  and  prospects  of  the  playground 
movement  in  America,  by  Henry  S.  Curtis,  p.  32.— Story  telling  as  a library  tool,  by  Alice  A. 
Blanchard,  p.  39.— The  functioning  of  the  Sunday  school— Abstract  of  address  by  Patterson  Dubois, 
p.  45.— What  is  being  done  for  girls  who  go  wrong,  by  Mrs.  Jessie  D.  Hodder,  p.  49.— How  much 
children  attend  the  theatre,  the  quality  of  the  entertainment  they  choose  and  its  effect  upon  them, 
by  Edward  H.  Chandler,  p.  55.— The  work  of  the  juvenile  protective  association,  by  Charles  T. 

Walker,  p.  60.— Notes  on  tuberculosis  in  school  children,  by  F.  L.  Wachenheim,  p.  65. Practical 

eugenics,  by  John  Franklin  Bobbitt,  p.  93.— Public  responsibility  for  the  health  of  infants  and 
children,  by  Irving  Fisher,  p.  83.— The  work  of  the  New  York  society  for  the  prevention  of  vice, 
and  its  bearings  on  the  morals  of  the  young,  by  Anthony  Comstock,  p.  91.— A characterization  of 
the  prevailing  defects  in  backward  children  and  a method  of  studying  and  helping  them,  by  George 
E.  Dawson,  p.  109.— The  scientific  study  of  hygiene  (abstract),  by  William  H.  Burnham,  p.  117.— 
Good  and  bad  air  and  its  effects  upon  children,  by  William  Perry  Northrup,  p.  122.— The  impor- 
tance of  training  the  growing  child  in  correct  postural  habits,  by  Joel  E.  Goldthwait,  p.  124.— The 
welfare  of  feeble-minded  children,  by  E.  R.  Johnstone,  p.  127. — The  work  of  the  New  York  associa- 
tion for  improving  the  condition  of  the  poor  in  saving  child  life,  by  Robert  W.  Bru6re,  p.  130. 

The  occupation  treatment  for  sick  children,  by  S.  E.  Tracy,  p.  137.— Exploring  the  New  World  for 
children,  by  Samuel  McCune  Lindsay,  p.  139.— The  care  of  the  dependent  child  in  the  family,  by 
Hastings  H.  Hart,  p.  144. — The  home  as  the  basis  of  civic,  social,  and  moral  uplift,  by  Mrs.  Fred- 
erick Schoff,  p.  153.— Home  and  school  visiting,  by  Katharine  Ware  Smith,  p.  162.— The  home 
in  relation  to  the  other  factors  in  education,  by  William  H.  Burnham,  p.  165.— The  psychological 
clinic,  by  Arthur  Holmes,  p.  168.— Home  economics,  by  Mabel  P.  Huddleston,  p.  172.— Children’s 
rooms  in  household  architecture  and  home  playgrounds,  by  Louis  N.  Wilson,  p.  174.— The  sub- 
urban child,  by  Mrs.  Samuel  McCune  Lindsay,  p.  178.— Day  nurseries,  by  Mrs.  Arthur  Dodge, 
p.  185.— The  achievements  and  future  possibilities  of  the  New  York  milk  committee  (abstract), 
by  Wilbur  C.  Phillips,  p.  189.— The  ideals  of  ethical  culture  for  children,  by  David  Muzzey,  p.  193.— 
Criticism  of  present  Sunday-school  fads,  curriculum,  and  grades,  with  demonstration  of  textbooks, 
by  Edward  P.  St.  John,  p.  199. — The  development  of  social  consciousness  in  the  Sunday  school, 
by  Richard  Morse  Hodge,  p.  203. — New  departures  in  Sunday-school  pedagogy,  by  Raymond  G. 
Clapp,  p.  210.— The  national  story  teller’s  league,  by  Richard  Thomas  Wyche,  p.  217.— Play 
and  story-telling  in  institutions,  by  Miss  Helen  Glenn,  p.  222.— Story-telling— a public  library 
method,  by  Frances  Jenkins  Olcott,  p.  225. — Work  with  clubs  in  the  Queensborough  public  library, 
by  J.  F.  Hume,  p.  228.— The  influence  of  kindergarten  methods  on  the  socialization  of  the  school, 
by  Colin  A.  Scott,  p.  230.— The  place  and  function  of  the  kindergarten  as  an  institution,  by  Luella 
Palmer,  p.  239.— The  younger  grades  in  the  Sunday  school,  by  Lester  Bradner,  p.  243.— The  edu- 
cational value  of  dolls,  by  Laura  B.  Starr,  p.  246.— The  physical  and  social  needs  of  adolescent 
boys,  by  Winthrop  Talbot,  p.  248.— Plays  by  school  children  (abstract),  by  George  P.  Baker, 
p.  250.— Is  it  feasible  for  child-helping  agencies  to  maintain  research  experts,  by  L.  Pearl  Boggs, 
p.  252. 

288.  Child  employment  and  evening  continuation  schools.  Nature,  81: 50-51,  July  8, 

1909. 

289.  Child  labor  and  the  Roentgen  rays.  Harper’s  weekly,  53:31,  April  24,  1909. 

290.  Child  labor  legislation  in  the  South.  Charities,  19:1723-1724,  1908. 

291.  Children  and  child  labor.  Everybody’s  magazine,  21:75-87,  1909. 

292.  Children’s  festivals,  Hudson-Eulton  celebration.  Playground,  3:1-22,  1909. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


17 


293.  The  children’s  judge.  Outlook,  88:476-478,  1908. 

294.  A children’s  pageant.  Living  age,  262,  49-52,  1909. 

295.  Chubb,  Percival.  The  comic  supplement,  newspaper  and  the  child.  Kinder- 

garten review,  20:1-5,  September  1909. 

296.  Cirese,  Eugenio.  I disegni  infantili.  Ri vista  di  psicologia  applicata,  5:248- 

254,  1909. 

297.  Claparede,  Ed.  Psychologie  de  l’enfant  et  pedagogie  experimentale.  2d  ed. 

rev.  & enl.  Gen&ve,  Lib.  Kiindig,  1909.  283  p. 

298.  Clapp,  Henry  Lincoln.  Self-government  in  public  schools.  Education, 

29  : 335-344,  1909. 

299.  Clapp,  Raymond  G.  New  departures  in  Sunday  school  pedagogy.  Peda- 

gogical seminary,  16  : 530-536,  December  1909. 

300.  Clarez,  J.  Moralisation  de  l’enfance  coupable.  Enfant,  18  : 85-86,  1909. 

Juvenile  delinquents. 

301.  Clark,  Mrs.  Ida  Hood.  Open-air  schools.  In  National  education  association. 

Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1909.  p.  894-901. 

302.  Clark,  W.  A.  The  pedagogical  laboratory  in  the  scientific  study  of  education. 

In  National  education  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1907. 
p.  747-752,  760-778,  804-820. 

303.  Clarke,  Helen  Archibald.  A child’s  guide  to  mythology.  New  York,  Baker 

& Taylor,  1908.  399  p. 

304.  Clarke,  K.  M.  Froebel’s  “Mutter-und  kose-lieder-.”  Child  life,  10  : 53-56, 

173-176,  239-242,  1908. 

305.  Clement,  A.  Education  et  dressage.  Educateur  mod  erne,  3:193-196,  1908. 

306.  Coe,  George  Albert.  Moral  and  religious  education  from  the  psychological 

point  of  view.  Religious  education,  3:165-179,  1908. 

307.  Coeducation  and  secular  education  in  the  United  States.  Educational  review, 

36  : 295-306,  October  1908. 

308.  Coffin,  Ernest  W.  On  the  education  of  backward  races.  Pedagogical  semi- 

nary, 15  : 1-63,  March,  1908. 

Bibliography  of  78  titles. 

309.  Colgan,  Katherine  A.  R.  Open-air  schools  of  London.  Hygiene  and  physi- 

cal education,  1 : 259-261,  1909. 

310.  Collard,  Charles.  A la  recherche  de  l’education  protectrice  en  Prusse.  Lou- 

vain, Charles  Peeters,  1908.  150  p. 

311.  . L’education  protectrice  de  l’enfance  en  Prusse.  Louvain,  Charles 

Peeters,  1908.  351  p. 

312.  Collins,  Joseph  V.  Religious  education  and  the  Sunday  school.  Educational 

review,  37  : 271-283,  March  1909. 

313.  Colozza,  G.  A.  L’education  des  seus  (Esiste  l’educazione  dei  sensi?)  Rivista 

pedagogica,  2 : 6-7,  1909. 

314.  Colvin,  S.  S.  The  ideational  types  of  school  children.  Pedagogical  seminary, 

16  : 314-324,  September  1909. 

Discusses  importance  of  the  knowledge  of  ideational  development. 

315.  Committee  on  school  hygiene,  Worcester  public  education  association. 

Report.  Pedagogical  seminary,  15  : 271-283,  June  1908. 

Treats  of  diphtheria,  scarlet  fever,  measles,  tuberculosis,  health  inspection,  and  playgrounds, 

96987°— 11 2 


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316.  Compayre,  Jules  Gabriel.  L’adolescence;  Etudes  de  psychologie  et  de  peda- 

gogie.  Paris,  F.  Alcan,  1909.  196  p. 

317.  . Les  adolescents  au  theatre  et  l’education  de  la  puberte.  Educateur 

moderne,  4 : 3-14,  1909. 

Discussion  of  Wedekind’s  “Fruhlings  erwachen”  and  the  problem  of  sex  instruction. 

318.  . L’4ducation  intellectuelle  et  morale.  Paris,  Delaplane,  1908.  456  p. 

319.  . Oil  en  est  la  psychologie  de  l’enfant?  Educateur  moderne,  4 : 257-262, 

305-307,  449-452,  1909. 

320.  . Les  oublies  de  la  p6dagogie.  D.  Levi-Alvares  et  les  cours  d’ education 

maternelle.  Educateur  moderne,  4 : 418-436,  1909. 

321.  Compulsory  education  and  child  labor  laws.  In  U.  S.  Bureau  of  education. 

Report  of  the  Commissioner  for  the  year  1909.  v.  1.  p.  228-233. 

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322.  Comstock,  Anthony.  The  work  of  the  New  York  society  for  the  prevention 

of  vice  and  its  bearings  on  the  morals  of  the  young.  Pedagogical  seminary, 
16  : 403-420,  September  1909. 

323.  Conant,  Grace  Wilbur.  Patriotism  in  the  schoolroom.  Kindergarten  review, 

19  : 98-99,  October  1908. 

324.  Conference  on  care  of  dependent  children,  Washington,  D.  C.,  1909. 

Proceedings,  etc.  Washington,  Government  printing  office,  1909.  231  p. 

325.  Conklin,  Edmund  Smith.  Psychology  of  young  manhood,  or  observations 

on  the  psychology  of  later  adolescence.  Association  seminar,  16  : 164-171, 

1908. 

326.  Conner,  Mary  E.  The  social  function  of  the  school.  Social  education  quar- 

terly, 1 : 39-51,  January  1908. 

327.  Connolly,  John  M.  Infant  mortality — what  is  being  done  in  Boston.  An 

authoritative  statement  by  the  medical  director  of  the  committee  on  milk 
and  baby  hygiene.  Aims  and  plan.  Hygiene  and  physical  education,  1 : 
672-682,  1909. 

328.  Consultations  pedologiques  par  correspondance;  observation  d’une  fillette  de 

six  ans.  Revue  psychologique,  2 : 465-471,  1909. 

Studies  of  individual  children. 

329.  Contribution  a l’education  de  la  purete.  Education  familiale,  10  : 376-379, 

1909. 

A protest  against  introducing  children  and  adolescents  to  the  literature  of  passion  and  emotion 
on  the  ground  of  its  value  as  literary  training. 

330.  A convention  on  industrial  education.  Outlook,  88  : 290-291,  1908. 

331.  Cooley,  Alice  Woodworth.  How  to  teach  series:  How  to  teach  language. 

Education,  28  : 613-622,  June  1908. 

332.  Cooley,  Charles  H.  A study  of  the  early  use  of  self- words  by  a child.  Psy- 

chological review,  15  : 339-357,  November  1908. 

333.  Cope,  Henry  F.  Character  development  through  social  living.  Religious 

education,  4 : 401-409,  1909. 

334.  Corbin,  Alice  M.  The  function  of  use  in  gift  work.  Children’s  interests  from 

Earl  Barne’s  study.  Kindergarten  review,  18  : 516-521,  May  1908. 

335.  Cornell,  Walter  S.  Mentally  defective  children  in  the  public  schools.  Psy- 

chological clinic,  2 : 75-86,  1908. 

336.  . The  need  of  improved  records  of  the  physical  condition  of  school 

children.  Psychological  clinic,  3 : 161-163,  November  1909. 

A plea  for  more  scientific  methods  of  keeping  and  making  records  of  the  physical  condition  of 
the  children. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


19 


337.  Cornell,  Walter  S.  The  physical  condition  of  the  school  children  of  the  school 

of  observation,  University  of  Pennsylvania.  Psychological  clinic,  3:134-135, 
October  1909. 

A report  made  during  the  summer  of  1909,  showing  the  percentage  of  defect  and  classifying 
same. 

338.  . The  relation  of  physical  to  mental  defect  in  school  children.  Psycho- 

logical clinic,  1 : 231-234,  January  1908. 

339.  Cornman,  Oliver  P.  Pupil  government.  Journal  of  education,  67  : 292-293, 

March  12,  1908. 

340.  . The  retardation  of  the  pupils  of  five  city  school  systems.  Psychologi- 

cal clinic,  1 : 245-257,  February  1908. 

341.  . Size  of  classes  and  school  progress.  Psychological  clinic,  3 : 206-212, 

December  1909. 

A discussion  of  the  influence  of  the  size  of  the  class  upon  the  progress  of  the  pupils  and  the  value 
of  the  small  class,  especially  for  the  backward. 

342.  Cossey,  Ada  F.  Girls’  schools  in  Switzerland.  Journal  of  education  (London) 

31  : 36-38,  1909. 

343.  Courtis,  S.  A.  Measurement  of  growth  and  efficiency  in  arithmetic.  Ele- 

mentary school  teacher,  10  : 58-74,  177-199,  1909. 

3*44.  Cousinet,  Roger.  Les  interrogations  a l’ecole.  Educateur  moderne,  3 : SOS- 
317,  1908. 

345.  . Les  jeux  et  la  tradition  scolaire.  In  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  libre  pour 

l’etude  psychologique  de  l’enfant,  1909.  v.  9.  p.  54-57. 

346.  . Les  sciences  et  les  lettres  a l’ecole  primaire.  Educateur  moderne, 

4 : 71-79,  126-142,  1909. 

347.  . La  solidarity  enfantine;  etude  de  psychologie  sociale.  Revue  philo- 

sophique,  66  : 281-300,  1908. 

349.  Couyba,  Charles  Maurice,  and  others.  L’art  a l’ecole.  Paris,  Larousse  [1908] 

144  p. 

350.  Crackenthorpe,  M.  Eugenics  as  a social  force.  Nineteenth  century,  63  : 962- 

972,  1908. 

351.  Cradock,  Mrs.  H.  C.  The  training  of  children  from  cradle  to  school.  A guide 

for  young  mothers,  teachers  and  nurses.  London,  George  Bell,  1909.  91  p. 

352.  Craig,  Anne  Thro  op.  The  development  of  a dramatic  element  in  education. 

Pedagogical  seminary,  15  : 75-81,  March  1908. 

Thinks  we  might  utilize  children's  dramatic  instincts  as  an  aid  in  the  work  of  the  school.  See 
also  article  by  Miss  Curtis. 

353.  Cramaussel,  Edmond.  Le  premier  eveil  intellectuel  de  l’enfant.  Paris, 

Felix  Alcan,  1909.  200  p. 

354.  Cramer,  A.  Pubertat  und  gesetzgebung.  Zeitschrift  fur  die  erforschung  und 

behandlung  des  jugendlichen  schwachsinns,  3 : 97-112,  1909. 

355.  Crampton,  C.  Ward.  Anatomical  or  physiological  age  versus  chronological  age. 

Pedagogical  seminary,  15  : 230-237,  June  1908. 

“All  observations,  records  and  investigations  of  children  . . . must  regard  physiological  age  as  a 
primary  and  fundamental  basis.” 

356.  . Education  by  play.  Educational  review,  38  : 488-492,  December  1909. 

Account  of  the  insistent  demand  for  natural  education;  play,  natural  preparation  for  life  and 
social  adjustment. 

357.  Craske,  M.  Girl-life  in  a slum.  Economic  review,  18  : 184-189,  1908. 

358.  Cromie,  William  J.  Youth  and  the  Marathon.  Pedagogical  seminary,  16: 

331-336,  September  1909. 

Treats  of  physical  training  for  boys. 


20 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


359.  Cron,  L.  Innervationsstorungen  in  heilpadagogischer  behandlung.  Zeit- 

schrift  fur  die  erforschung  und  behandlung  des  jugendlichen  schwachsinns, 
2 : 161-188,  257-271,  1908. 

360.  Cronin,  John  J.  The  health  of  New  York  school  children  from  the  point  of 

view  of  the  department  of  health.  Archives  of  pediatrics,  23  : 728-738,  October 
1906. 

361.  . The  physical  defects  of  school  children.  New  York  institute  of  soma- 

tology and  allied  societies.  Report,  December  1907.  9 p. 

362.  Cross,  James  F.  Eskimo  children.  Southern  workman,  37:433-437,  1908. 

363.  Cross,  Wilbur  L.  English  in  the  schools.  Education,  28  : 537-551,  May  1908. 

364.  Crossley,  Arnold.  The  complete  baby  book.  London,  E.Yellon,  1908.  85  p. 

365.  Crowley,  Ralph  H.  Need,  objects  and  method  of  the  medical  inspection  of 

primary  schools.  London,  J.  and  A.  Churchill,  1907.  24  p. 

366.  Cruchet,  R.  Les  arrieres  scolaires.  Paris,  Masson,  1908.  39  p. 

367.  . Les  periodes  de  1’evolution  psychique  au  moment  de  la  puberte. 

Progres  medical,  24  : 529-532,  1908. 

368.  Culin,  Robert  Stewart.  Korean  games,  with  notes  on  corresponding  games 

of  China  and  Japan.  Philadelphia,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  1895.  177  p. 

369.  Curtis,  Elnora  W.  The  dramatic  instinct  in  education.  Pedagogical  semi- 

nary, 15  : 299-346,  September  1908. 

An  interesting  study,  with  a list  of  46  references. 

370.  — . Outdoor  schools.  Pedagogical  seminary,  16  : 169-194,  June  1909. 

States  origin  of  summer  schools  and  their  daily  routine.  Discusses  English  and  American  sum- 
mer schools. 

371.  Curtis,  Henry  S.  Annual  report  of  American  playground  association.  Journal 

of  education,  69  : 597-598,  June  1909. 

372.  . The  growth,  present  extent,  and  prospects  of  the  playground  movement 

in  America.  Pedagogical  seminary,  16  : 344-350,  September  1909. 

373.  . A normal  course  in  play.  Kindergarten  magazine,  22  : 80-82,  Novem- 

ber 1909. 

A discussion  of  the  playground  movement  in  relation  to  a course  in  play. 

374.  . Play  for  physical  trainers.  American  physical  education  review, 

14  : 561-565,  1909. 

375.  . Playgrounds.  Playground  association  of  America.  Annual  report. 

In  Hygiene  and  physical  education,  1 : 47-49;  270-273,  1909. 

376.  . Playgrounds  for  Porto  Rico.  American  physical  education  review, 

14  : 371-375,  1909. 

377.  Cushman,  Lilhan  S.  The  art  impulse;  its  early  forms  and  relation  to  mental 

development.  In  National  education  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and 
addresses,  1908.  p.  515-523. 

378.  Dau,  Hans  Theodor.  Die  sauglingssterblichkeit  in  Greifswald  (1901-1905). 

Diss.  (M.  D.)  Greifswald.  Greifswald,  Abel,  1906.  41  p. 

379.  Czerny,  Adalbert.  Der  arzt  als  erzieher  des  kindes.  2d  ed.  Leipzig,  Franz 

Deuticke,  1908.  103  p. 

380.  Damaschke,  Adolphe.  Wohnungsnot  und  kinderelend.  Langensalza,  Beyer 

und  sohne,  1907.  13  p. 

381.  Damrow,  Marie.  Der  kindergarten  als  vorstufe  der  nach  fahigkeitsklassen 

gegliederten  schule.  Zeitschrift  fur  kinderforschung,  13  : 113-117;  166-173, 
1908. 

382.  Darwin,  Maud.  A Swedish  experience  in  education.  Nineteenth  century, 

65  : 1018-1025,  1909. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


21 


383.  Davenport,  Charles  Benedict.  Eugenics,  the  science  of  human  improvement 

by  better  breeding.  New  York,  Henry  Holt  & co.,  1910.  35  p. 

384.  Davidson,  Mrs.  Lelia.  The  origin  of  folk-lore  and  its  place  in  child  life.  Story 

hour,  2 : 43-49,  1909. 

385.  Davies,  Maud  F.  School  care  committees.  London,  Burleigh,  1909.  94  p. 

386.  Davis,  Mrs.  Edith  Smith.  The  result  of  the  teaching  of  the  effect  of  alcohol 

on  the  human  system.  In  Annals  of  the  American  academy  of  political  and 
social  science,  Philadelphia,  1908.  v.  32  p.  604-61 1. 

387.  Davis,  Lilian  E.  See  McFadden,  Elizabeth  A.,  and  Davis,  L.  E. 

388.  Davy,  H.  The  cultivation  of  the  mind  in  children.  Child  study,  1 : 48-52, 

1908. 

389.  Dawson,  George  E.  A characterization  of  the  prevailing  defects  in  back- 

ward children  and  a method  of  studying  and  helping  them.  Pedagogical 
seminary,  16  : 339-436,  December  1909. 

390.  . The  child  and  his  religion.  Chicago,  University  of  Chicago  press, 

1909.  124  p. 

A valuable  contribution  to  the  literature  of  the  religious  education  of  the  child.  Treats  of  (1) 
Interest  as  a measure  of  values;  (2)  The  natural  religion  of  children;  (3)  Children’s  interest  in  the 
Bible;  and  (4)  The  problem  of  religious  education. 

391.  Day,  Caspar.  The  boy,  the  girl,  and  the  union.  Century,  56  : 785-795, 

1909. 

392.  Daynes,  Henri.  Un  service  d’allaitement  au  dispensaire  pour  enfants  mala- 

des  de  Toulouse.  Toulouse,  Imprimerie  Saint-Cyprien,  1907.  88  p. 

393.  Decroly, . Principes  g^neraux  relatifs  au  traitement  des  enfants  irreguliers. 

In  Bulletin  de  la  Society  de  medecfne  mentale  de  Belgique,  1908.  no.  138. 
Also  in  Policlinique  de  Paris,  17  : 81-87, 1908. 

394.  De  Garmo,  Charles.  Kind  and  amount  of  formal  moral  instruction  to  be 

given  in  public  schools.  Religious  education,  3 : 125-128,  1908. 

395.  De  Groot,  E.  B.  The  boy  in  competition.  Playground,  3 : 9-12,  1909. 

396.  Dekker,  Hermann.  Naturgeschichte  des  kindes.  Stuttgart,  Kosmos,  [1908] 

101  p. 

397.  Delcuve,  Georges.  Faut-il  endurcir  les  jeunes  enfants?  Education  famili- 

ale,  8 : 115-121,  182-187,  224-232,  1907. 

398.  . Erreurs  et  prejug£s  dans  l’education  physique  des  enfants.  Educa- 

tion familiale,  9 : 6-15,  68-73,  119-126,  1908. 

399.  . La  vulgarisation  de  P hygiene  infantile.  Education  familiale,  8 : 439- 

446,  1907. 

400.  Delitsh,  Johannes.  Ursachen  der  kinderverwahrlosung  Zeitschrift  fiir  kinder- 

forschung.  15  : 83-87,  1909. 

401.  Delorme,  Henri.  See  Dursent,  Georges,  and  Delorme,  Henri. 

402.  Dendy,  Mary.  The  feeble-minded.  Training  school,  6 : 82-89,  98-106,  1909. 

403.  Denny,  Charles  O.  How  far  shall  the  elective  privilege  be  extended?  Edu- 

cation, 28  : 434-446,  March  1908. 

404.  De  Sales,  Brother.  Child  life.  Irish  educational  review,  1 : 671-684,  1908. 

405.  Deswarte,  Rene.  Les  creches;  leur  pass6,  leur  present,  leur  avenir;  etude 

d’hygiene  sociale.  Paris,  A.  Michalon,  1906.  170  p. 

406.  Deuchler,  G.  Psychologie,  ethik  und  padagogik  auf  dem  Internationalen 

kongress  fiir  philosophic  zu  Heidelberg,  1908.  (Padagogisch-psychologische) 
studien,  10  : 17-26,  1909. 

407.  . Uber  das  Mannheimer  schulsystem.  Zeitschrift  fur  padagogische 

psychologie  pathologie  und  hygiene,  10  : 384-421,  1909. 


22  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 

408.  Devas,  B.  W.  Catholic  boys’  clubs  in  London.  Dublin  review,  144  : 339- 

356,  1909. 

409.  Devereux,  Helena  T.  Report  of  a year’s  work  on  defectives  in  a public 

school.  Psychological  clinic,  3 : 45-48,  April  1909. 

A brief  statement  of  the  general  work  done  and  the  results  accomplished  on  forty-three  children 
attending  a special  class  for  periods  varying  from  one  month  to  a year. 

410.  Devine,  E.  T.  New  view  of  the  child.  In  Annals  of  the  American  academy 

of  political  and  social  science,  Philadelphia,  1908.  v.  32,  supp.  p.  4-10. 

411.  Dinsmore,  John  Wirt.  Teaching  a district  school.  New  York,  American 

book  co.  [c1908]  246  p. 

412.  Dirks,  Gustav.  Der  tic  im  kindesalter  und  seine  erziehlihce  behandlung. 

Zeitschrift  fur  kinderforschung,  13  : 257-267,  290-297,  1908. 

413.  Dix,  Kurt  Walther  Nervose  kinder  aus  normalen  klassen  der  hoheren  tochter- 

und  knabenschule  zu  Meissen  i.  S.  Zeitschrift  fur  die  erforschung  und  behand- 
lung des  jugendlichen  schwachsinns,  3 : 289-306,  1909. 

Observation  and  treatment  of  individual  cases. 

.414.  . Notwendige  aufklarung  der  madchen  in  der  schule  iiber  kinderpflede 

und  kindererziehung.  Zeitschrift  fur  kinderforschung,  13  : 161-165,  193- 
201,  1908. 

415.  Dixon,  Samuel  G.  Measures  to  promote  the  health  of  school  children.  Ameri- 

can journal  of  public  hygiene,  19  : 27-34,  1909. 

416.  Dodge,  Mrs.  Arthur.  Day  nurseries.  Pedagogical  seminary,  16  : 505-508, 

December  1909. 

The  use  and  importance  of  day  nurseries  in  cities. 

417.  Dole,  Nathan  Haskell,  comp,  and  tr.  The  Russian  fairy  book.  New  York, 

T.  Y.  Crowell  & co.,  [c1907]  126  p. 

418.  Doll,  Louise  M.  A Cincinnati  special  class.  Psychological  clinic,  3 : 34-45, 

1909. 

A report  of  the  success  of  a special  class  for  backward  children.  General  results  are  given  and  a 
number  of  cases  reported  in  detail. 

419.  “ Dominie.”  A problem  for  boys’  boarding  schools.  Education,  29  : 453- 

459,  1909. 

420.  Donaldson,  H.  H.  Comparison  of  the  albino  rat  with  man  in  respect  to  the 

growth  of  the  brain  and  of  the  spinal  cord.  Journal  of  comparative  neurology 
and  psychology,  18  : 345-392,  1908. 

421.  Donnelly,  Helen  L.  The  kindergarten  child.  Kindergarten  magazine,  21: 

256-257,  May  1909. 

An  article  in  which  the  characteristics  of  a kindergarten  child  are  compared  to  a child  who  has 
not  had  kindergarten  training. 

422.  Dorland,  William  Alexander  Newman.  The  age  of  mental  virility.  New 

York,  Century  co.,  1908.  229  p. 

423.  Dorn,  Else.  Ein  besuch  im  sauglingsheim.  Werde  gesund,  8 : 146-148,  1908. 

424.  Dowling,  P.  J.  Character  building  in  primary  schools.  Irish  educational 

review,  1 : 230-235,  349-354,  1909. 

425.  Downen,  John  M.  The  renaissance  of  the  three  R’s.  Educational  review, 

37  : 449-455,  May  1909. 

Discussion  of  the  value  of  a more  thorough  drill  in  the  elementary  subjects  to  the  exclusion  of 
the  more  diversified  type,  i.  e.,  a study  of  the  essential  and  practical  parts  of  common  English 
branches. 

426.  Downey,  June  E.  Variational  factors  in  handwriting.  Popular  science 

monthly,  75  : 147-157,  August  1909. 

Gives  many  reasons  for  variety  of  handwriting  of  adults  and  school  children. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OP  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9.  23 

427.  Downing,  Bertha  C.  Defective  speech  in  backward  and  feeble-minded 

children.  Medical  record,  76  : 729-733,  1909. 

428.  Dozier,  Cynthia  P.  A bad  child.  Kindergarten  review,  19  : 452-459,  April 

1909. 

The  influence  of  the  kindergarten  on  a bad  child,  which  is  due  to  environment,  heredity  or  his 
own  will. 

429.  . Child  portraits.  Kindergarten  review,  19  : 1-8,  82-88,  130-135,  Sep- 

tember 1908. 

430.  . The  normal  child.  Kindergarten  review,  19  : 519-525,  May  1909. 

431.  . The  spoiled  child.  Kindergarten  review,  19  : 402-409,  March  1909. 

Influence  of  a spoiled  child  upon  other  children. 

432.  Drake,  Mrs.  J.  B.  See  Bourhill,  Mrs.  E.  J.,  and  Drake,  Mrs.  J.  B. 

433.  Draper,  Andrew  G.  From  manual  training  to  technical  and  trades  schools. 

Educational  review,  35  : 401-411,  April  1908. 

434.  Dresslar,  F.  B.  Twenty-five  years  of  child-study.  In  National  education 

association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1907^  p.  910-914. 

435.  Drewke,  H.  Die  neugestaltung  des  erdkundlichen  unterrichts.  Padagogische 

abhandlungen,  13  : 73-86,  1908. 

436.  Dr e wry,  William  F.  Care  and  condition  of  the  insane  in  Virginia.  In  Na- 

tional conference  of  charities  and  correction,  1908.  p.  307-316. 

437.  Droescher,  Lili.  See  Baumer,  Gertrud,  and  Droescher,  Lili. 

438.  Du  Bois,  Patterson.  Early  withdrawal  from  school.  Part  I — The  responsi- 

bility of  the  home.  In  Philadelphia  teachers’  association,  1908.  16  p. 

Very  suggestive  report  on  the  causes  which  led  Philadelphia  children  to  leave  school  in  Feb- 
ruary and  March,  1907. 

439.  . The  things  that  abide  (Children’s  interests).  Kindergarten  review, 

18  : 321-324,  February  1908. 

440.  Dubois,  Paul.  L’education  de  soi-meme.  Paris,  Masson  & co.,  1908.  264  p. 

441.  Duckworth,  J.  The  development  of  initiation.  Educational  times,  62  : 378- 

380,  1909. 

442.  Dugas,  L.  Mes  souvenirs  affectifs  d’enfant.  Revue  philosophic,  68  : 504-516, 

1909. 

443.  Duncan,  Isadora.  Der  tanz  der  zukunft.  Leipzig,  E.  Diederichs,  1903. 

46  p. 

444.  Dunphy,  M.  C.  Modern  ideas  of  education  applied  to  the  training  of  mental 

defectives.  In  National  conference  of  charities  and  correction,  1908.  p. 
325-333. 

Discusses  modern  educational  aims  in  dealing  with  defectives. 

445.  Duprat,  Guillaume  L.  La  criminalite  dans  1’ adolescence;  causes  et  remedes 

d’un  mal  social  actuel.  Paris,  F.  Alcan,  1909.  260  p. 

446.  . Die  Luge.  Zeitschrift  fur  padagogische  psychologies  pathologie  und 

hygiene,  10  : 17-33,  July  1908. 

Study  of  children’s  lies. 

447.  . L’ethique  des  adolescents;  necessity  d’une  morale  sexuelle.  Revue 

Internationale  de  sociologie,  16  : 161-174,  1908. 

448.  Dursent,  Georges,  and  Delorme,  Henri.  Code  pratique  de  l’enseignement 

primaire.  Paris,  A.  Picard  [1907].  884  p. 

449.  Dutton,  Samuel  Train.  School  management;  practical  suggestions  concern- 

ing the  conduct  and  life  of  the  school.  New  York,  C.  Scribners  sons,  1908. 
278  p. 


24 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


450.  Dyer,  F.  B.  The  place  of  the  kindergarten  in  the  public  school.  In  National 

education  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1909.  p.  439-440. 

Discusses  the  place  of  the  kindergarten  in  relation  to  the  development  of  the  child,  the  home, 
and  the  school. 

451.  Earhart,  Lida  Bell.  An  experiment  in  teaching  children  to  study.  Educa- 

tion, 30  : 236-244,  1909. 

452.  . Systematic  study  in  the  schools.  New  York,  Teachers  college,  Colum- 

bia university,  1908.  97  p. 

453.  Earle,  E.  Lyell.  The  right  of  the  child  to  a proper  life  equipment.  Kinder- 

garten primary  magazine,  21  : 71-79,  1908. 

454.  Echternach,  H.  Das  orthopadische  turnen  in  der  Stadt  Hagen  i.  W.  Gesunde 

jugend,  8 : 296-307,  1909. 

455.  Eckhardt,  K.  Ein  beitrag  zur  frage  nach  der  entwicklung  der  ersten  zahlvor- 

stellungen  zeitschrift  fur  kinderforschung,  14  : 21-25,  48-52,  October  1908. 

456.  L’ecole  nhmagere  ambulante  agricole.  Enfant,  18  : 190-191,  1909. 

457.  Edelsheim-Gyulai,  Leopold.  See  Bosnyak,  Zoltan,  and  Edelsheim- 

Gyulai,  Leopold. 

458.  Eddy,  Jean  E.  Physical  betterment  for  growing  girls.  Educational  review, 

36  : 190-194,  September  1908. 

459.  Edgar,  J.  Individuality  and  imitation  in  children.  Child  study,  1 : 12-23, 

1908. 

460.  Edson,  Andrew  W.  The  education  in  public  schools  of  the  deaf,  cripples, 

and  mental  defectives.  Education,  28  : 351-355,  February  1908. 

461.  . Group  teaching  in  elementary  grades.  School  journal,  76  : 249-250, 

March  1909. 

This  article  gives  the  essentials  of  a well-arranged  system  and  suggestions  for  dividing  classes. 

462.  Education  of  children  at  home.  Science,  30,  n.  s.  : 910-911,  1909. 

463.  The  education  of  infants.  Irish  educational  review,  2 : 30-40,  1908. 

464.  Edwards,  A.  D.  Evolution,  economy  and  the  child.  Westminster  review, 

171  : 78-85,  1909. 

465.  Eggers,  Dr.  Zur  reform  der  hoheren  madchenschule.  Deutsche  schule, 

12  : 465-474,  614-628,  1908. 

466.  Elliott,  C.  A.  Feeding  of  school  children,  in  London,  by  the  state.  Nine- 

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467.  Ellis,  F.  A.  Character  forming  in  school.  New  York,  Longmans,  1907.  235  p. 

Compiled  to  show  a method  applied  in  a large  elementary  school  in  England. 

468.  Ellis,  Havelock.  Sexual  education  and  nakedness.  American  journal  of  psy- 

chology, 20  : 297-317,  July  1909. 

Deals  with  subject  of  clothing  of  different  countries,  and  how  far  children  should  be  enlightened 
in  matters  of  sex. 

469.  Ellis,  William  T.  Miss  Japan,  the  school  girl.  Outlook,  88  : 447-455,  1908. 

470.  Ellison,  Louise.  Children’s  capacity  for  abstract  thought  as  shown  by  their  use 

of  language  in  the  definition  of  abstract  terms.  American  journal  of  psychology, 
19  : 253-260,  April  1908. 

471.  Elston,  F.  Organized  games  for  the  school,  the  hall,  or  play-ground.  Leeds, 

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472.  Elwes,  Harvey,  comp.  The  modern  child.  London,  Foulis,  1908.  246  p. 

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BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


25 


474.  Les  enfants  anormaux  dans  les  6coles  communales  de  la  ville  de  Charleroi.  Rap- 

port pr^sentd  au  College  des  Bourgmestre  et  Echevins.  In  Bulletin  trimestriel 
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475.  L’enseignement  des  enfants  arrieres.  In  Bulletin  de  la  Soci6te  libre  pour  l’6tude 

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476.  L’enseignement  special  en  France,  Loi  relative  a la  creation  de  classes  de  per- 

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is  ranked  as  the  best  law  on  special  schools  now  existing. 

477.  Equipment  for  teaching  of  domestic  science.  Teachers  college  record,  10  : 179- 

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478.  Ermert,  Otto.  Vom  deutschen  aufsatz  in  der  volksschule.  Sammlung  pada- 

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479.  Evans,  Florence.  Purity,  birth  and  sexual  problems  for  mothers.  Boston, 

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480.  Falconer,  Martha  P.  Work  of  the  girls’  department,  House  of  refuge,  Phila- 

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481.  Falkner,  Roland  P.  Elimination  of  pupils  from  schools.  Psychological  clinic, 

2 : 255-275,  February  1909. 

A study  of  the  relation  of  retardation  to  elimination  and  the  enormous  percentage  of  those  leaving 
school  before  completing  the  work  of  the  elementary  grades. 

482.  . Medical  inspection  of  schools.  Journal  of  education,  69  : 120,  Feb- 

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483.  . Retardation:  its  significance  and  requirements.  Educational  review, 

38  : 122-131,  September  1909. 

Retardation  the  most  serious  question  of  school  management.  Practical  measures  should  be 
taken  to  lessen  it. 

484.  . Some  further  considerations  upon  the  retardation  of  the  pupils  of  five 

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485.  Farrell,  Elizabeth  E.  The  problem  of  the  special  class.  In  National  educa- 

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486.  Fau,  Fernaud.  See  Perrot,  Jean,  and  Fau,  Fernand. 

487.  Faure,  Maurice.  L’enseignement  public  est-il  moralisateur?  Enfant, 

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488.  Fausey,  J.  R.  What  does  the  kindergarten  accomplish?  Kindergarten  review, 

18  : 289-290,  January  1908. 

489.  Felix-Faure-Goyau,  Lucie.  L’dducation  des  enfants.  Education  familiale, 

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490.  Felling er,  Ferd.  Das  kind  in  der  altfranzosischen  literatur.  Gott.,  Vanden- 

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491.  Fentress,  Luther  L.  The  worth  of  music  in  education.  Education,  28  : 646- 

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492.  Ferree,  C.  E.  The  intermittence  of  minimal  visual  sensations.  American 

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493.  . The  streaming  phenomenon.  American  journal  of  psychology,  19 : 

484-503,  October  1908. 


26 


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494.  Ferris,  Warren  Albert.  Plea  for  chronic  insane.  In  National  conference  of 

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495.  Ferrari,  G.  C.  Die  therapie  der  jugendlichen  kriminalitat.  Eos,  3 : 161-178, 

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496.  Festival  of  play  and  folk  dance.  Outlook,  90  : 145-146,  1908. 

497.  Feuchtw  anger,  Alb.  Warum  kommen  viele  kinder  in  der  schule  nicht  vor- 

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499.  . On  the  government  of  children.  Educational  times,  62  : 116-120,  1909. 

500.  Finlay,  W.  T.  B.  S.  Nature  study  in  the  first  four  years.  Kindergarten  maga- 

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501.  Fischer,  Alfons  S.  Der  kindergarten.  6th  ed.  besorgt  von  Max  Fischer. 

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502.  . Zur  verminderung  der  unehelichen  geburt.  Sexual-probleme,  5 : 881- 

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503.  Fisher,  George  J.  Character  development  through  social  and  personal 

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504.  Fisher,  Irving.  Public  responsibility  for  the  health  of  infants  and  children. 

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505.  Fischer,  Richard.  Wie  kann  der  nervosen  jugend  unserer  hoheren  lehran- 

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506.  Fiske,  John.  Meaning  of  infancy.  Boston,  Houghton,  1909.  42  p. 

507.  Fitts,  Alice  E.  The  aesthetic  problem  in  the  kindergarten  room.  Kinder*. 

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508.  Flatau,  Georg.  Zur  psychologie  der  nervosen  kinder.  Zeitschrift  fiir  pada- 

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509.  Fleshman,  Arthur  Cary.  The  educational  process.  Philadelphia,  J.  B. 

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510.  Flexner,  B.  Children’s  charter.  Survey,  23  : 7-9,  1909. 

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512.  Floyd,  Cleavland.  The  care  of  phthisis  in  children  through  the  out-door  school. 

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513.  Foa,  Pio.  Problemi  di  pedagogia  sessuale.  Ri vista  di  psicologia  applicata 

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515.  Forbush,  William  Byron.  Boys’  clubs.  Pedagogical  seminary,  16  : 337-343, 

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517.  Forel,  Auguste  Henri.  Die  gehirnhygiene  der  schfiler.  Wien,  Manzsche, 

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518.  . Jugend,  evolution,  kultur  und  narkose;  eine  ansprache  an  die  jugend. 

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519.  Forsyth,  David.  Children  in  health  and  disease;  a study  of  child  life.  Lon- 

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521.  Fraenkel,  Manfred.  Wert  und  einfluss  der  doppelhandigen  ausbildung  auf 

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522.  Franklin,  Fabian.  Should  psychology  supervise  testimony?  Popular  science 

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523.  Franz,  Shepherd  Ivory.  Claparede  on  La  fonction  du  sommeil.  Journal 

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524.  Freeman,  R.  G.  Fatigue  in  school  children  as  tested  by  the  ergograph.  Amer- 

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525.  Freimark,  Hans.  Vorgeburtliche  erziehung.  Neue  generation,  5 : 76-81, 

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526.  Freire-Marreco,  Barbara.  Notes  on  the  hair  and  eye  colour  of  591  children 

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527.  French,  F.  C.  Group  self-consciousness:  A stage  in  the  evolution  of  the  mind. 

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528.  Frenzel,  Franz.  Zur  sprachpflege  unserer  kleinen.  Gesundheitswarte  (der 

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529.  Frequentation  scolaire  et  jeux.  Education  familiale,  9 : 237-242,  1908. 

530.  Frere,  Margaret.  Children’s  care  committees.  London,  P.  S.  King,  1909. 

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532.  Freund,  Walther.  Zur  pathologie  des  langenwachstums  bei  sauglingen,  und 

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533.  Friedel,  V.  H.  Les  tribunaux  pour  enfants  criminels  dans  les  pays  etrangers. 

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Juvenile  courts  in  England  and  Germany. 

534.  Friedemann,  . Die  haarmikrosporie  in  Sehoneberg  bei  Berlin.  Zeit- 

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535.  Friedjung,  Josef  K.  Die  sexuelle  aufklarung  der  kinder.  Wien,  J.  Safar, 

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536.  Friedrichs,  Fr.,  ed.  Ffinfzig  deutsche  volkskinderlieder  ffir  eine  singstimme 

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538.  Frobenius,  Leo.  The  childhood  of  man.  London,  Seeley,  1909.  504  p. 

539.  Frolich,  R.  Was  kann  die  volksschule  zur  hebung  des  proletariates  beitragen? 

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540.  The  function  of  the  farm  school.  Elementary  school  teacher,  9 : 421-432,  1909. 

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542.  Fiirst,  Moritz.  Beitrag  zu  einer  erleichterten  sehpriifung  der  schulrekruten. 

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543.  Fuster,  M.  Sentiments  d’enfants.  In  Bulletin  de  la  Soci6t6  libre  pour  l’etude 

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544.  G-aiffe,  F.  La  musique  k Tecole.  Educateur  moderne,  4 : 308-318,  1909. 

545.  Gallup,  Anna  Billings.  The  children’s  museum  as  an  educator.  Popular 

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546.  Galpin,  Frederic  Tower.  The  normal  religion  of  a boy.  Religious  education, 

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547.  Galton,  Francis.  Memories  of  my  life.  London,  Methuen  & co.,  1908.  339  p. 

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549.  Gard,  Willis  L.  Some  neurological  and  psychological  aspects  of  shock.  Peda- 

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550.  Gaspero,  H.  di.  Der  psychische  infantilismus.  Archiv  fiir  psychiatrie  und 

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551.  Gastpar,  Dr.  Die  beurteilung  des  ernahrungszustandes  der  schulkinder. 

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552.  Gazin,  J.  Le  role  du  beau  et  de  l’art  a l’ecole  primaire.  Revue  p6dagogique, 

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553.  Gehin,  M.  Les  colonies  scolaires  de  vacances.  Revue  pedagogique,  53  : 35- 

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554.  Geissler,  Friedrich  Kurt,  and  Geissler,  Wilhelmine.  Uber  sexual-soziale 

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555.  Geissler,  Wilhelmine.  Der  dichterische  geschmack  des  kindes.  Zeitschrift 

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556.  Gerhard,  Elmer  Schultz.  Rapid  transit  education.  Education,  28  : 290-299, 

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557.  Gheorgov,  I.  A.  Ein  beitrag  zur  grammatischen  entwicklung  der  kinder- 

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558.  Gill  system  of  moral  and  civic  training  as  exemplified  in  the  school  cities  and 

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559.  Gilman,  Charlotte  Perkins.  Child  labor  in  the  schools.  Independent,  64 : 

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560.  Gilman,  Mary  Louise,  and  Williams,  Elizabeth  B.  Seat  work  and  industrial 

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561.  Girardey,  Ferreol.  Popular  instructions  to  parents  on  the  bringing  up  of 

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563.  Glaser,  E.  Die  beseitigung  des  religionsunterrichtes  aus  der  schule.  Samm- 

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564.  Goblot,  E.  La  paresse  scolaire.  In  Bulletin  de  la  Soci6t6  libre  pour  l’6tude 

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29 


565.  Goddard,  Henry  H.  Bibliography  on  mental  deficiency.  Training  school 

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One  hundred  and  fifty-six  titles.  A complete  bibliography  promised  later. 

566.  . A group  of  feeble-minded  children  with  special  regard  to  their  number 

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567.  . A measuring  scale  of  intelligence.  Training  school  (Vineland,  N.  J.), 

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569.  Godlewski,  Dr.  L’education  morale  des  enfants  nerveux.  Enfant,  18  : 355- 

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570.  Goedhart,  Anna.  Educational  rhythm  training.  In  National  education 

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571.  Gofferje,  Fritz.  Die  tagesschwankungen  der  korpertemperatur  beim  gesun- 

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572.  Goldbaum,  Helene.  Les  cours  de  vacances  au  Frobelseminar  a Cassel,  1908. 

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573.  Goldsmith,  Evelyn  May.  Schools  for  crippled  children  abroad.  In  U.  S. 

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574.  Goldthwait,  Joel  E.  The  importance  of  training  the  growing  child  in  correct 

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States  ways  and  means  of  training  a child  to  good  postures. 

575.  Goliner,  Joseph.  Die  Schulgesundheitspflege.  Ulm,  Ebner,  1909.  112  p. 

576.  Gomme,  Mrs.  Lawrence.  A school  festival;  some  suggestions.  Child  study, 

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577.  Gonin,  J.  Un  cas  d’aphasie  visuelle  pure.  Archives  de  psychologie,  9 : 51-62, 

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578.  Goodlander,  Mabel  Ray.  Primitive  songs  and  dances:  a second  grade  assem- 

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579.  Goodwin,  Edward  J.  Exclusion  of  religious  instruction  from  the  public 

schools.  Educational  review,  35  : 129-138,  February  1908. 

580.  . The  New  York  system  of  secondary  schools.  Educational  review, 

35  : 491-500,  May  1908. 

581.  Gordon,  Jean  M.  Forward  step  in  child-labor  legislation  in  Louisiana.  An- 

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582.  — - — . Why  the  children  are  in  the  factory.  In  National  conference  of  charities 

and  correction,  1908.  p.  346-351. 

Article  discusses  school  system;  boy’s  feeling  of  independence;  and  demand  for  cheap  labor. 

583.  Gottschalk,  R.  Die  verheiratete  lehrerin.  Padagogische  zeitung,  38  : 1021- 

1023,  1909. 

584.  Gould,  F.  J.  Stories  for  moral  instruction.  (Supp.  vol.  to  “The  children’s 

book  of  moral  lessons.”  London,  Watts,  1909.  202  p. 

585.  Gould,  George  Milbry.  Righthandedness  and  lelthandedness,  with  chapters 

treating  of  the  writing  posture,  the  rule  of  the  road,  etc.  Philadelphia,  J.  B. 
Lippincott  co.,  1908.  210  p.  illus.,  pi. 


30 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


586.  A governmental  study  of  children.  Medical  record,  75  : 317-318,  1909. 

A short  sketch  of  a bill  introduced  in  the  House  by  Mr.  Herbert  Parsons,  for  the  establishment 
of  a Bureau  to  investigate  matters  pertaining  to  child  welfare. 

587.  Gowdy,  Jean  L.  The  educational  value  of  the  essentially  motor  activities. 

Manual  training  magazine,  10  : 97-103,  1908. 

588.  Gray,  H.  S.  The  boy  and  the  cigarette  habit.  Education,  29:294-315,  1909. 

589.  Grabke,  Heinrich.  Kinder  als  schauspieler.  Jugendschriften-warte,  17  : 5-6, 

1909. 

590.  Grant,  P.  S.  Children’s  street  games.  Survey,  23:232-236,  1909. 

591.  Grau,  H.  Ergebnisse  und  bedeutung  der  waldschule.  Centralblatt  fur  allge- 

mine  gesundheitspflege,  25  : 473-480,  1906. 

592.  Great  Britain.  Board  of  Education.  Provision  made  for  children  under 

compulsory  school  age  in  Belgium,  France,  Germany,  and  Switzerland.  Lon- 
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593.  . Report  of  the  consultative  committee  upon  the  school  attend- 

ance of  children  below  the  age  of  five.  London,  Wyman  & sons,  1908.  350  p. 

594.  . School  excursions  and  vacation  schools.  London,  Wyman  & 

sons,  1907.  89  p.  (Special  reports  v.  21) 

595.  . Parliament.  The  children  act,  1908.  London,  Wyman,  1909.  93  p. 

596.  Green,  J.  A.  The  study  of  types  in  the  mental  life  of  children.  Child  study, 

2 : 45-59,  July  1909. 

Gives  essentials  and  methods  of  studying  different  types,  also  various  types  of  mental  life. 

597.  Greene,  Mary  Belle.  A class  of  backward  and  defective  children.  Psycho- 

logical clinic,  3 : 125-133,  October  1909. 

A report  of  work  accomplished  in  a special  class  for  backward  children,  showing  what  may  be 
done  with  such  children  if  treated  in  small  numbers  and  with  intelligent  methods. 

598.  Greenwood,  James  M.  Disregard  for  law.  Journal  of  education,  69: 511-512, 

May  13,  1909. 

599.  . Miring  in  the  grades  and  the  promotion  of  pupils.  Educational  re- 

view, 36  : 139-161,  September  1908. 

600.  . Progress  of  pupils  through  elementary  and  high  schools.  Education, 

29  : 276-282,  1909. 

601.  . Retardation  of  pupils  in  their  studies  and  how  to  minimize  it.  Journal 

of  education,  69:260-262,  March  11,  1909. 

Also  in  Educational  review,  37:342-348,  1909. 

602.  Grein,  Heinrich.  Die  schule  im  Dienste  sozialer  erziehung.  Leipzig,  Quelle, 

1908.  98  p. 

603.  Grimshaw,  John.  Your  child’s  health.  London,  Churchill,  1908.  144  p. 

604.  Groebel,  P.  Sexualpadagogik  in  den  oberklassen  hoherer  lehranstalten. 

Hamburg,  Voss,  1909.  88  p. 

605.  Groos,  Karl.  Das  seelenleben  des  kindes.  2d  rev.  & enl.  ed.  Berlin,  Reu- 

ther  & Richard,  1908.  260  p. 

606.  Grothmann,  H.  Das  zeichnen  an  den  allgemeine  bildenden  schulen.  3d  ed. 

Berlin,  Ashelm,  1908.  176  p. 

607.  Gruyelle,  L.  Exercises  d’orthopedie  mentale.  In  Bulletin  de  la  Soci<$t6  fibre 

pour  l’etude  psychologique  de  l’enfant,  8 : 174-182,  1908. 

608.  Gualino,  Lorenzo.  II  sogno  erotico  nell’uomo  normale.  Rivista  di  psicologia, 

3 : 47-63,  1907. 

609.  Guilbeau, . De  l’enseignement  de  la  geographie  aux  aveugles.  Edu- 

cateur  mod  erne,  3 : 241-256,  1908. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


31 


610.  Guillet,  Cephas.  Retentiveness  in  child  and  adult.  American  journal  of  psy- 

chology, 20  : 318-352,  July  1909. 

Comparative  study  of  retentiveness  of  child  and  adult  and  some  psychological  and  pedagogical 
conclusions  drawn  from  study. 

611.  Gulick,  Luther  Halsey.  Constructive  medicine.  How  it  has  grappled  with  a 

single  problem  in  school  hygiene.  American  physical  education  review,  14 : 
261-270,  1909. 

612.  . Mind  and  work.  New  York,  Doubleday,  Page  & co.,  1908.  201  p. 

613.  . The  place  and  limitations  of  folk  dancing  as  an  agency  in  physical 

training.  American  physical  education  review,  13  : 377-382,  1908. 

614.  . Popular  education  and  public  morality.  In  Annals  of  the  American 

academy  of  political  and  social  science,  Philadelphia,  34  : 33-42,  1909. 

615.  and  Ayres,  Leonard  P.  Medical  inspection  of  schools.  New  York, 

Charities  publication  committee,  1908.  x,  276  p.  incl.  illus.,  tables.  (Russell 
Sage  foundation) 

Bibliography:  p.  204-221. 

616.  Gurlitt,  Ludwig.  Knabenfreundschaften.  Sexual-probleme,  5 : 741-745, 1909.* 

617.  . Schiilerselbstmorde.  Berlin,  Ehbock  [1908].  59  p. 

618.  . Sexuelle  verirrungen  der  schuljugend.  Neue  generation,  5 : 24-42, 

1909. 

619.  . Was  unseren  jungen  nottut.  Werde  gesund,  8 : 130-134,  1908. 

620.  Gutzmann,  Hermann  Albert  Karl,  ed.  Sprachstorungen  und  sprachheil- 

kunde;  beitrage  zur  kenntnis  der  physiologie,  pathologic  und  therapie  der 
sprache.  Berlin,  S.  Karger,  1908.  189  p.  (Sonderabdruck  aus  der  monats- 

schrift  fur  sprachheilkunde,  Band  17) 

621.  Hall,  Bert.  Truancy;  a few  causes  and  a few  cures.  In  National  education 

association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1909.  p.  217-222. 

Describes  the  formation  of  ideal  truant  laws;  and  mentions  the  aid  that  school  playgrounds  afford 
to  lessen  truant  list;  deals  with  home  conditions  favoring  truancy. 

622.  Hall,  Fred.  S.  Pennsylvania’s  child  labor  laws.  Survey,  22  : 321-324,  1909. 

623.  Hall,  G.  Stanley.  Adolescence  and  race  suicide.  American  magazine,  66 : 

249-254,  1908. 

624.  . The  awkward  age  of  boys.  Appleton’s  magazine,  12  : 149-156,  1908. 

625.  - — — . Background  of  genetic  psychology.  American  journal  of  psychology, 

19  : 149-211,  April  1908. 

626.  . The  budding  girl.  Appleton’s  magazine,  13  : 47-54,  1909. 

627.  . Conscience,  health,  and  honor.  Social  education  quarterly,  1 : 66-71, 

January  1908. 

628.  . Elements  of  strength  and  weakness  in  physical  education  as  taught  in 

colleges.  Pedagogical  seminary,  15  : 347-352,  September  1908. 

A plea  for  a more  scientific  study  of  athletics. 

629.  — . The  medical  profession  and  children.  Pedagogical  seminary,  15  : 207- 

216,  June  1908. 

A plea  for  more  special  attention  to  children  on  the  part  of  medical  men. 

630.  . The  needs  and  methods  of  educating  young  people  in  the  hygiene  of 

sex.  Pedagogical  seminary,  15  : 82-91,  March  1908. 

Urges  careful  instruction  in  the  fundamental  principles  of  sex  in  order  to  insure  a healthier  and 
a higher  race. 

631.  . Psychology  of  childhood  as  related  to  reading  and  public  library. 

Pedagogical  seminary,  15  : 105-116,  March  1908. 

Calls  attention  to  differences  in  reading  tastes  between  boys  and  girls  and  at  different  ages. 
Gives  21  references  to  articles  on  children’s  reading. 


32 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


632.  Hall,  G.  Stanley.  The  psychology  of  music  and  the  light  it  throws  upon 

musical  education.  In  National  education  association.  Journal  of  proceedings 
and  addresses,  1908.  p.  848-853. 

633.  . Recent  advances  in  child  study.  Pedagogical  seminary,  15  : 353-357, 

September  1908. 

Also  in  National  education  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1908.  p.  945-952. 
Historical  sketch  of  child  study  during  the  past  twenty  years. 

634.  . Relation  of  the  church  to  education.  Pedagogical  seminary,  15  : 186- 

196,  June  1908. 

Treats  of  the  importance  of  moral  education.  Says  that  7,000,000  children  between  5 and  18 
do  not  attend  school. 

635.  Hall,  Mary  E.  What  the  librarian  may  do  for  the  high  school.  Library  journal, 

34  : 154-159,  1909. 

636.  Hall,  Winfield  S.  Teaching  of  social  hygiene  and  the  bearing  of  such  teaching 

on  the  moral  training  of  the  child.  Religious  education,  3 : 129-132,  1908. 

637.  Hall  club,  10th  anniversary,  October  23,  1908.  Pedagogical  seminary  15  : 563- 

579,  December  1908. 

Tells  what  an  enthusiastic  group  of  young  mothers  has  accomplished  in  Worcester,  Mass. 

638.  Hamburger,  C.  Kinderzahl  und  kindersterblichkeit  in  Berliner  arbeiter- 

familien.  Neue  generation,  5 : 309-317,  1909. 

639.  Hampe,  J.  Uber  die  priigelstrafe.  Sexual-probleme,  5 : 252-255,  1909. 

640.  Hanauer,  W.  Elternbeirate  fiir  schulen.  Zeitschrift  fur  schulgesundheits- 

pflege,  22:730-735,  1909. 

641.  Hancock,  J.  A.  Social  demands  on  education  Journal  of  education,  68  : 240- 

241,  September  10,  1908. 

642.  Hand,  W.  H.  Compulsory  education.  National  conference  of  charities  and 

corrections,  1908.  p.  338-346. 

An  able  exposition  of  the  child  labor  problem  as  related  to  the  illiteracy  of  juveniles. 

643.  Harmon,  John.  Home — or  boarding — school?  Irish  educational  review, 

2 : 469-477,  1909. 

644.  Hannsen,  Hanns.  Schauspielkunst  und  kinderkomodie.  Allgemeine 

deutsche  lehrerzeitung,  61  : 449-451,  1909. 

645.  Hansch,  Rudolf.  Gemiitspflege;  eine  volkstumliche  darstellung  ihrer  mittel 

und  wege  unter  beriicksichtigung  der  gegenwart.  Piidagogische  abhandlungen, 
13  : 157-176,  1909. 

646.  Hanson,  R.  J.  E.  Lord  Roberts’  boys.  Schiessklub  der  Londoner  schul- 

knaben.  Yierteljahrschrift  fiir  korperliche  erziehung,  4 : 21-27,  1908. 

Lord  Roberts’s  plan  for  training  the  boys  of  the  country  for  national  defense. 

647.  Hanus,  Paul  H.  Industrial  education.  Journal  of  education,  67  : 677-678, 

June  18,  1908. 

648.  Hard,  W.  Children  who  work  at  night.  Everybody’s  magazine,  18  : 25-37, 

1908. 

649.  Harmon,  W.  E.  Commercial  value  of  playgrounds.  Survey,  23  : 359-361, 

1909. 

650.  Harrington,  Thomas  Francis.  Boston  public  schools.  Report  on  depart- 

ment of  school  hygiene.  Boston,  Municipal  print,  office,  1908.  81  p. 

651.  . The  health  of  school  children.  Journal  of  education,  70  : 89-90,  July 

22,  1909. 

652.  . Medical  inspection  in  public  schools  as  contributing  to  health  and 

efficiency.  In  National  education  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and 
addresses,  19Q8,  p.  200-210. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


33 


653.  Harrington,  Thomas  Francis.  Medical  inspection  (in  the  schools).  Journal 

of  education,  67  : 289-290,  March  12,  1908. 

654.  Harris,  Ada  Van  Stone.  What  should  the  public  do  for  the  care  and  training 

of  children  before  they  are  admitted  to  the  public  school,  counting  the  kinder- 
garten as  a public  school?  Kindergarten  primary  magazine,  20  : 198-201, 
1908. 

655.  Harris,  James  Hugh.  An  educational  pre-view.  Education,  28  : 428^34, 

March  1908. 

656.  Harris,  J.  W.  The  associative  power  of  odors.  American  journal  of  psychology, 

19  : 557-561,  1908. 

657.  Harris,  Mrs.  L.  H.  Hindering  the  children.  Independent,  64  : 582-583,  1908. 

658.  . The  mind  of  the  child.  Independent,  64  : 1398-1399,  1908. 

659.  Harris,  M.  O’Brien.  The  rank  and  file  in  our  public  schools.  Pedagogical 

seminary,  16  : 305-313,  September  1909. 

States  lines  of  training  which,  if  taken  up  in  our  schools,  would  interest  pupils  and  prepare  them 
for  future  work. 

660.  Harrison,  Elizabeth.  The  religious  training  of  children.  Religious  educa- 

tion, 4 : 256-260,  1909. 

661.  Harrison,  S.  M.  Federated  boys’  clubs.  Survey,  23  : 143-146,  1909. 

662.  Hart,  Hastings  H.  Backward,  truant,  and  delinquent  children.  Charities, 

20  : 277-280,  1908. 

663.  . The  care  of  the  dependent  child  in  the  family.  Pedagogical  seminary, 

16  : 464-472,  December  1909. 

Deals  with  destitute  children  and  their  treatment  in  families  that  care  for  them. 

664.  . A study  of  delinquent  boys.  Survey,  23  : 146-150,  1909. 

665.  . Unity  of  child  helping  work.  National  conference  of  charities  and  cor- 

rections, 1909.  p.  42-45. 

666.  Hayden,  Mary.  Training  of  Irish  girls  for  citizenship.  Irish  educational 

review,  2 : 10-18,  1908. 

667.  Headland,  I.  T.  Games  of  Chinese  children.  Everybody’s  magazine,  21  : 201- 

211,  1909. 

668.  He e ter,  S.  L.  Conservation  of  health  in  the  schoolroom.  Psychological 

clinic,  3 : 121-124,  October  1909. 

Mr.  Heeter  recommends  that  the  care  of  the  physical  environment  should  be  in  the  hands  of 
an  expert,  and  the  teacher’s  responsibility  should  be  the  discovery  of  defects  which  prevent 
progress. 

669.  . Medical  inspection  in  the  Saint  Paul  schools.  Psychological  clinic, 

3 : 61-66,  May  1909. 

Superintendent  Heeter  believes  that  medical  inspection  should  be  maintained  by  boards  of 
education,  and  submits  rules  and  regulations  for  such  a department. 

670.  Hefferan,  Mrs.  William  S.  Nurture,  care,  and  education  of  children;  what 

the  National  congress  of  mothers  is  doing.  Kindergarten  review,  19  : 40-42, 
September  1908. 

671.  Heffron,  John  L.  The  moral  value  of  the  teaching  of  the  physiology  and 

hygiene  of  sex  in  the  public  schools.  Religious  education,  4 : 543-560,  1910. 

672.  Heilman,  J.  D.  A clinical  examination  blank  for  backward  children  in  the 

public  schoQls.  Psychological  clinic,  1 : 217-230,  258-267,  1908. 

673.  Heligon,  Emile.  Le  travail  des  enfants  en  France  en  1906.  Enfant,  18  : 1-10, 

1908. 

674.  Heller,  Julius.  Die  bedeutung  der  durch  tierische  parasiten  hervorgerufenen 

hautkrankheiten  fur  die  schule  und  die  mittel  zur  wirksamen  prophylaktischen 
bekampfung  dieser  affektionen.  Gesunde  jugend,  8 : 161-169,  1908. 

96987°— 11 3 


34 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


675.  Heller,  Theodor.  Ein  franzosisches  hilfsschulgesetz.  Zeitschrift  fur  kinder- 

forschung,  14  : 193-196,  April  1909. 

676.  . Uber  dementia  infantilis.  Zeitschrift  fur  die  erforschung  und  behand- 

lung  des  jugendlichen  schwachsinns,  2 : 17-28,  1909. 

A study  of  early  forms  of  dementia  which  Kraepelin  refers  to  dementia  praecox,  but  which, 
in  the  opinion  of  the  author,  form  a special  group. 

677.  . Uber  die  sexuelle  aufklarung  der  kinder.  Zeitschrift  fur  kinderfor- 

schung,  13  : 278-284,  June  1908. 

678.  . Uber  krankhaften  sammeltrieb  bei  kinder  und  jugendlichen.  Zeit- 

schrift fur  kinderforschung,  15  : 87-89,  December  1909. 

679.  . Zur  klassifikation  des  infantilen  schwachsinns.  Zeitschrift  fiir  pada- 

gogische  psychologie,  11  : 52-56,  1909. 

700.  Helling,  Fritz.  Unwichtiges  und  wichtiges  aus  der  sprachlehre.  Sammlung 

padagogischer  vortrage,  18  : 89-105,  1908. 

701.  Hemenway,  Herbert  Daniel.  How  to  make  school  gardens;  a manual  for 

teachers  and  pupils.  New  York,  Doubleday,  1909.  110  p. 

702.  Hemon,  Camille.  Psychologie  de  la  lecture.  Educateur  moderne,  4 : 228- 

238,  1909. 

703.  Henck,  W.,  and  Traudt,  Valentin.  Schafft  frohe  jugend!  Jena,  Thiiringer, 

1904.  148  p. 

704.  Henseling,  Adolf.  Der  gesamtgeist  der  schulklasse.  Padagogisch-psycholo- 

gische  studien,  10  : 1-11,  33-43,  49-64,  81-93,  97-103,  1909. 

705.  . Erfahrungen  uber  die  stellung  der  schulkinder  zur  religiosen  tradition. 

Zeitschrift  fiir  padagogische  psychologie,  11  : 42-52,  1909. 

Study  of  the  religious  interests  of  children. 

706.  Herbert,  Clara  W.  Establishing  relations  between  the  children’s  library  and 

other  civic  agencies.  Library  journal,  34  : 195-196,  1909. 

707.  . Relation  of  the  children’s  library  to  other  civic  agencies.  Library 

journal,  34  : 195-196,  1909. 

708.  Hercod, . The  legal  protection  of  the  child  in  the  struggle  against  alco- 

holism. Alienist  and  neurologist,  30  : 648-651,  1909. 

709.  Herding,  J.  F.  Einrichtung  und  ausstattung  der  raume  fiir  den  unterricht, 

in  der  naturlehre.  Schulzimmer,  7 : 140-152,  1909. 

710.  Herford,  . Uber  Feststellung  und  haufigkeit  der  tuberkulose  in  den 

schulen.  Zeitschrift  fiir  schulgesundheitspflege,  22  : 687-709,  1909. 

711.  Herford,  C.  The  preparatory  school  and  its  relation  to  the  kindergarten. 

Child  study,  2 : 1-5,  April  1909. 

Shows  how  various  subjects  in  kindergarten  should  lead  to  subjects  taken  in  preparatory 
schools. 

712.  Herfort,  Karl.  Die  pathologische  anatomie  der  idiotie.  Eos,  4 : 233-242, 

1908. 

713.  Herlin,  A.  L’acquisition  du  langage  par  l’enfant.  Education  familiale,  10  : 

100-106,  1909. 

Extracts  from  a lecture  given  at  Schaerbeck,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Belgian  society  for 
pedotechnie. 

714.  . Les  troubles  de  la  parole:  enquetes  scolaires  en  Italie.  In  Bulletin 

trimestriel  de  la  Societe  protectrice  de  1’enfance  anormale,  3 : 106-108,  1909. 
A report  of  Italian  investigation  of  prevalence  of  speech  defects  in  school  children. 

715.  Herman,  Ernst.  Responsibility  for  physical  phase  of  the  school.  Journal 

of  education,  69  : 350-351,  375,  403-404,  429-430,  April  1,  8,  15,  22,  1909. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


35 


716.  Hermann,  Dr.  “Gefiihlsbetonte  komplexe”  im  seelenleben  des  kindes,  im 

alltagsseelenleben  und  im  wahnsinn.  Zeitschrift  f lir  kinderforschung,  13: 
129-143,  1908. 

717.  . Uber  die  entartung  und  einige  ihrer  psychischen  ausserungsformen 

beim  kinde.  Zeitschrift  fur  kinderforschung,  14  : 353-368,  September  1909. 

718.  Herr,  Charlotte  B.  The  value  of  dramatic  work  in  the  teaching  of  English. 

Journal  of  education,  67  : 95-97,  January  23,  1908. 

719.  Herrick,  C.  J.  On  the  phylogenetic  differentiation  of  the  organs  of  smell  and 

taste.  Journal  of  comparative  neurology  and  psychology,  18:157-166,  1908. 

720.  Hertel,  E.  Ftinfundzwanzig  jahre  im  dienste  der  schulgesundheitspflege; 

riickblicke  und  betrachtungen.  Zeitschrift  fur  schulgesundheitspflege,  22: 
249-261,  1909. 

721.  Herts,  Alice  M.  Dramatic  instinct;  its  use  and  misuse.  Pedagogical  semi- 

nary, 15  : 550-562,  December  1908. 

“ Dramatic  instinct  is  a significant  factor  in  the  life  of  every  individual.” 

722.  Hetherington,  Clark  W.  The  foundation  of  amateurism.  American  phy- 

sical education  review,  14  : 566-578,  1909. 

723.  . A normal  course  in  play  for  professional  directors.  Hygiene  and  phy- 

sical education,  2 : 701-707,  770-776,  863-868,  1909. 

724.  . Spirit  and  aims  in  the  conduct  of  play.  Journal  of  education,  70  : 405, 

459-460,  488,  544,  658-659,  October  21,  November  4,  11,  25,  December  23, 
1909. 

725.  Hewins,  C.  M.  Reading  clubs  for  older  boys  and  girls.  Pedagogical  seminary, 

16  : 325-330,  September  1909. 

Discusses  methods  of  organizing  clubs,  and  books  suitable  for  such. 

726.  Hewitt,  Mrs.  Emma  Churchman.  How  to  train  children.  London,  Paul 

[1908]  192  p. 

727.  Hewitt,  T.  H.  The  value  of  handicraft  as  a factor  in  mental  evolution.  Child 

study,  2 : 83-92,  October  1909. 

Results  of  an  experiment. 

728.  Heyward,  Richard.  The  high  school  (requirements  which  fit  the  needs  of  the 

children).  Journal  of  education  67  : 89-91,  January  23,  1908. 

729.  Higgins,  Mae  B.  The  use  and  abuse  of  design  (in  the  kindergarten).  Kinder- 

garten review,  19  : 118-123,  October  1908. 

730.  Higgs,  Mary.  The  moral  development  of  the  child.  Child  life,  10  : 203-206, 

230-235,  1908,  11  : 6-11,  39-43,  71-74,  1909. 

731.  Hill,  Elizabeth  Sewall.  The  school  garden  movement.  Journal  of  education, 

67  : 150-151,  179-180,  February  1908. 

732.  Hinckley,  G.  W.  The  story  of  Good  Will  farm.  3d  ed.  [Hinckley,  Maine] 

1909.  232  p. 

733.  Hine,  L.  W.  Day  laborers  before  their  time;  a story  in  pictures.  Outlook, 

93  ’:  435-443,  1909. 

734.  Hines,  Linnalus  N.  The  effect  of  school  room  temperature  on  the  work  of 

pupils.  Psychological  clinic,  3 : 106-113,  June  1909. 

The  results  of  experiments  with  different  temperatures  on  the  work  of  children  in  school. 

735.  Hippius,  A.  Der  kinderarzt  als  erzieher.  Miinchen,  C.  II.  Beck,  1909.  324  p. 

736.  Hirsch,  Emil  G.  The  moral  aspect  of  industrial  education.  Educational 

review,  35  : 449-454,  May  1908. 

737.  Hocking,  William  Ernest.  Theory  of  value  and  conscience  in  their  biological 

context.  Psychological  bulletin,  5 : 129-143,  May  1908. 


36 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STTJDY,  1908-9. 


738.  Hodder,  Jessie  D.  What  is  being  done  for  girls  who  go  wrong.  Pedagogical 

seminary,  16  : 361-366,  September  1909. 

Points  out  means  of  help  to  these  girls.  Emigrant  girls  should  be  shielded. 

739.  Hodge, . Widener  memorial  industrial  training  school  for  crippled  chil- 

dren. In  National  conference  of  charities  and  cgrrection,  1908.  p.  389-391. 
Description  of  the  school,  its  aim  and  work. 

740.  Hodges,  George.  When  the  king  came;  stories  from  the  four  gospels.  Boston, 

Houghton,  Mifflin  co.,  1904.  399  p. 

741.  Hofer,  Amalie.  Extracts  from  story  telling  in  the  playground.  (From  Mr. 

Leland’s  notes)  Hygiene  and  physical  education,  1 : 528-529,  1909. 

742.  Hofer,  Mari  Ruef.  Children’s  singing  games,  old  and  new,  for  vacation 

schools,  play  grounds,  etc.  Chicago,  Flanagan  co.,  1901.  42  p. 

743.  Hogarth,  A.  H.  Medical  inspection  of  schools.  London,  Henry  Frowde,  1909. 

360  p. 

744.  Holden,  Frances  C.  Child  study.  Kindergarten  primary  magazine  20  : 165- 

166,  254,  303,  1908. 

745.  Home  rule  and  education.  Dial,  46  : 247-249,  1909. 

746.  Hope,  Arthur  H.  See  Norwood,  Cyril,  and  Hope,  Arthur  H. 

747.  Horne,  H.  The  psychological  principles  of  education.  New  York,  Macmillan 

co.,  1907.  435  p. 

748.  Horrix,  H.  See  Schrakanys, , and  Horrix,  H. 

749.  Hotchkiss,  H.  V.  The  problem  of  slow  pupils:  how  to  handle  them.  In 

National  education  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1909. 
p.  326-329. 

Discusses  the  causes  for  slowness  in  pupils;  methods  used  to  aid  them;  need  of  separate  schools 
for  such  pupils  and  the  reasons. 

750.  House,  It.  T.  The  limitations  of  pedagogy.  Education,  28  : 335-349,  Febru- 

ary 1908. 

751.  Houser,  Frantisek.  Vydelecna  prace  skolnich  detf.  Prague,  Dedictui  kom- 

enskeho,  1907.  157  p. 

A study  of  the  child  labor  problem  in  Prague,  Bohemia. 

752.  Howson,  John  L.  Games  in  day  secondary  schools.  Journal  of  education, 

London,  31  : 105-106,  1909. 

753.  Hoxie,  Jane  L.  Hand -work  suggestions.  Kindergarten  review,  18  : 273-278, 

338-349,  403-408,  468-471,  529-536,  586-590,  January  1908. 

754.  Hubbell,  George  Allen.  Preventable  blindness.  In  National  conference  of 

charities  and  correction,  1909.  p.  91-97. 

Discusses  ophthalmia  as  a preventable  infection  with  the  new-born. 

755.  Huddersfield.  England.  Health  office.  Report  on  infantile  mortality  by 

S.  G.  H.  Moore.  4th  ed.  Huddersfield,  Daily  chronicle  printing  works,  1908. 
144  p. 

756.  Huey,  Edmund  Burke.  The  psychology  and  pedagogy  of  reading  and  writing, 

with  a review  of  the  history  of  reading  and  writing  and  of  methods,  texts  and 
hygiene  in  reading.  New  York,  Macmillan  co.,  1908.  xvi,  469  p.  illus. 

Bibliography:  p.  433-445. 

Contains  the  latest  word  on  the  subject  by  a well-trained  psychologist.  An  admirable  book. 

757.  Hutchinson,  Woods.  The  evil  influences  of  school  conditions  upon  the  health 

of  school  children.  Hygiene  and  physical  education,  1 : 233-237,  1909. 

Also  in  National  education  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1909.  p.  262-266. 
Gives  present  conditions  of  schools  and  their  programmes,  also  the  ideal  methods  used  to  better 
conditions. 

758.  Hutton,  A.  J.  The  problem  of  the  delinquent  boy.  Children’s  charities, 

16  : 12-14,  April  1909, 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


37 


759.  Hiitzer,  Dr.  Uber  walderholungsstiitten  und  waldschulen.  Centralblatt.  fur 

allgemeine  gesundheitspflege,  25  : 72-77,  1906. 

760.  Hyre,  Sarah  E.  What  the  state  owes  the  child.  Journal  of  education,  67: 

115-116,  January  30,  1908. 

761.  Imhofer,  It.  Uber  musikalisches  gehor  bei  schwachsinnigen.  Stimme,  2: 

1-6,  45-51,  69-75,  1907-08. 

762.  Important  milk  reform.  Individual  feedings  of  modified  milk  to  be  dispensed 

by  the  milk  and  baby  hygiene  committee.  Hygiene  and  physical  education, 
1 : 494-495,  1909. 

763.  Ingalls,  Grace.  An  open-air  public  school.  Children’s  charities,  16  : 7-8, 

May  1909. 

764.  Institut  d’education  familiale.  Education  familiale,  10  : 491-495,  1909. 

765.  International  congress  for  the  welfare  and  protection  of  children. 

Report  of  proceedings.  3d  sess.,  London,  1902.  Special  sess.,  London,  1906. 
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766.  International  congress  on  school  hygiene.  2d  session.  London,  1908. 

1,008  p. 

767.  International  moral  education  congress.  1st.  London,  1908.  Papers  on 

moral  education.  London,  D.  Nutt,  1908.  404  p. 

768.  Ioteyko,  I.  Notice  sur  le  Seminaire  de  pedologie.  Revue  psychologique,  2: 

490-495,  1909. 

Establishment  of  a seminary  for  experimental  pedagogy  at  Brussels. 

769.  . Revue  generale  des  travaux  recents  sur  l’enfance  anormale.  Revue 

psychologique,  2 : 238-248,  1909. 

770.  . Revue  generale  des  travaux  recents  sur  la  psychologie  et  la  pedagogie 

des  sexes.  Revue  psychologique,  2 : 84-96,  1909. 

771.  Israels,  B.  L.  Children’s  theatre,  New  York.  Charities,  19  : 1310-1311,  1908. 

772.  Ivanoff,  E.  Recherches  experimentales  sur  le  dessin  des  ecoliers  de  la  Suisse 

romande.  Archives  de  psychologie,  8 : 97-156,  1908. 

773.  Jackman,  Mrs.  Ellen  It.  How  to  organize  round  tables  for  mothers’  associa- 

tions, with  outlines  for  child-study.  Chicago,  Werner  school  book  co.  [1896] 
37  p. 

774.  Jackson,  Cyril.  Child  employment  and  evening  continuation  schools.  Nature, 

81  : 50-51,  1909. 

775.  Jackson,  Mrs.  F.  Nevill.  Toys  of  other  days.  New  York,  C1.  Scribner’s  sons, 

1908.  309  p. 

776.  Jacquard,  Charles.  Nostout  petits;  dociles  ou  rebelles.  Enfant,  18  : 433— 

442,  481-492,  1908. 

777.  Jantzen,  Hermann.  Die  hohere  madchen  und  lehrerinnenbildung  in  Preus- 

sen.  Goslar,  R.  Danehl,  1909.  268  p. 

778.  Jardine,  E.  L.  Care  of  children.  Survey,  22  : 856-858,  1909. 

779.  Jeannot,  C.  Le  but  de  l’education  physique.  Educateur  moderne,  3 : 452- 

456,  1908. 

780.  Jenks,  Jeremiah  W.  Citizenship  and  the  schools.  New  York,  Henry  Holt, 

1909.  264  p. 

781.  . Life  questions  of  high  school  boys.  New  York,  Y.  M.  C.  A.  press,  1908. 

139  p. 

782.  Jerusalem,  D.  W.  Marie  Heurtin;  erziehung  einer  blind  und  taub  geborenen. 

Osterreichische  rundschau,  3 : 292-302,  1905. 

An  account  of  the  education  of  a French  child  born  deaf  and  dumb.  Her  instructor  was  Soeur 
Ste.  Marguerite  of  the  convent  at  Lomay , which  conducts  an  institution  for  deaf  mutes.  This  case 
is  of  great  psychological  and  pedagogical  interest.  In  1899  the  French  Academy  bestowed  upon 
Soeur  Ste.  Marguerite  the  Montmorency  prize  in  recognition  of  the  value  of  her  work. 


38 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


783.  Jerusalem,  D.  W.  Was  lehrt  uns  die  erziehung  der  taub-blinden  Marie 

Heurtin?  Osterreichische  rundschau,  3 : 425-438,  1905. 

This  article  discusses  the  psychological  aspects  of  Marie  Heurtin’s  case  and  the  points  in  which 
it  differs  from  the  other  cases  of  the  deaf  blind  who  have  been  educated. 

784.  Jessen, . An  account  of  the  city  clinic  for  the  teeth  in  Strassburg.  Hy- 

giene and  physical  education,  1 : 327-328,  1909. 

785.  Jewell,  James  It.  Agricultural  education  including  nature  study  and  school 

gardens.  2d  ed.  rev.  Washington,  Government  printing  office,  1908.  148  p. 

(U.  S.  Bureau  of  education.  Bulletin  no.  2,  1907) 

Bibliography:  p.  128-133. 

A wide  study,  embracing  nearly  all  countries. 

786.  Johnny:  A child  study.  By  C.  A.  R.  Journal  of  education  (London)  30  n.  s.: 

284-285,  April  1908. 

787.  Johnson,  Alexander.  Custodial  care  [of  feeble-minded  children].  In  Na- 

tional conference  of  charities  and  correction,  1908.  p.  333-336. 

788.  . “The  innocents”  in  school.  Children’s  charities,  16  : 5-10,  January 

1909. 

789.  Johnson,  Bertha.  Ethical  lessons  from  Froebel’s  “Mother  plays.”  Kinder- 

garten magazine,  22  : 16-20,  September  1909. 

A brief  account  of  the  physical,  mental  and  moral  nurture  of  the  child,  and  results  produced. 

790.  Johnson,  Fanny.  School  plays.  School  world,  11  : 100-104,  1909. 

791.  Johnson,  George  E.  Child  study  on  the  playground.  In  National  education 

association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1908.  p.  917-924. 

792.  . Games  every  boy  and  girl  should  know.  American  physical  education 

review,  14  : 63-67,  1909. 

793.  . The  playground  as  a factor  in  school  hygiene.  Hygiene  and  physical 

education,  1 : 223-228,  1909. 

Also  in  National  education  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1909.  p.  257-262. 
States  the  factors  which  led  to  the  necessity  of  playgrounds;  their  value  to  physical,  moral  and 
mental  development  of  children. 

794.  . Playgrounds  in  Athens.  Survey,  22  : 165-166,  1909. 

795.  . Why  teach  a child  to  play?  American  physical  education  review, 

14  : 500-507,  1909. 

796.  Johnson,  Henry.  The  problem  of  adapting  history  to  children  in  the  elemen- 

tary school.  Teachers’  college  record,  9 : 293-352,  November  1908. 

797.  Johnson,  Ralph  L.  Irregular  attendance  in  the  primary  grades.  Psycho- 

logical clinic,  3 : 89-95,  June  1909. 

A report  made  up  from  the  examination  of  the  attendance  records  of  Upper  Darby,  Pennsylvania, 
showing  irregular  attendance  in  the  primary  grades  as  a cause  of  retardation. 

798.  Johnston,  Charles  Hughes.  The  feeling  problem  in  recent  psychological  con- 

troversies. Psychological  bulletin,  5 : 65-78,  March  1908. 

799.  . Ribot’s  “Theory  of  the  passions.”  Journal  of  philosophy,  psychology 

and  scientific  methods,  5 : 197-207,  April  9,  1908. 

800.  Johnston,  J.  Wastage  of  child  life  as  exemplified  by  conditions  in  Lancashire. 

Manchester,  J.  Heywood,  1908.  48  p. 

801.  Johnstone,  Edward  R.  Defective  child.  Training  school,  6 : 1-5,  1909. 

802.  . Function  of  the  special  class.  In  National  education  association. 

Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1908.  p.  1114-1118. 

Discusses  the  problem  of  the  education  of  the  feeble-minded  child. 

803.  . Inadequacy  of  our  care  of  the  feeble-minded.  Training  school,  6 : 72- 

76,  1909. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


39 


804.  Johnstone,  Edward  R.  Practical  provision  for  the  mentally  deficient.  In 

National  conference  of  charities  and  correction,  1908.  p.  316-325. 

Questionnaires  sent  to  New  Jersey  schools  to  ascertain  number  of  backward  and  defective  children. 

805.  . Practical  provision  for  the  mentally  deficient.  In  National  conference 

of  charities  and  correction,  1908.  p.  316-335. 

806.  Some  reasons  for  mental  deficiency.  Training  school,  5,  supp.  no.  1: 

13-18,  December  1907. 

807.  . The  welfare  of  feeble-minded  children.  Training  school,  6 : 134-136, 

1909. 

808.  . The  welfare  of  feeble-minded  children.  Pedagogical  seminary,  16:  447- 

449,  December  1909. 

Discusses  what  is  thought  best  for  feeble-minded  children  and  youth. 

809.  -.  What  are  we  trying  to  do?  Training  school,  5 : 3-9,  1908. 

Treats  of  work  with  feeble-minded  children. 

810.  . Who  is  the  special  child?  Training  school,  5 : 21-30,  1908. 

811.  Jonckheere,  Tobie.  Contribution  a l’etude  de  la  vocation,  devient-on  insti- 

tuteur  par  vocation?  Archives  de  psychologie,  8 : 55-62,  1908. 

812.  . La  pedagogie  en  Belgique.  Enfant,  18  : 170-178,  1908. 

813.  Jones,  Adam  Leroy.  Riley’s  American  philosophy;  the  early  schools.  Jour- 

nal of  philosophy,  psychology  and  scientific  methods,  5 : 157-161,  March  12, 
1908. 

814.  Jordan,  Alice  M.  German  principles  for  selection  of  children’s  books.  Public 

libraries,  13  : 1-3,  1908. 

815.  Jordan,  David  Starr.  The  high  school  course.  Popular  science  monthly, 

73  : 28-31,  1908. 

816.  Joyce,  Adeline  T.  The  advance  of  beauty;  a description  of  art  in  kindergar- 

ten. Kindergarten  review,  18  : 513-515,  May  1908. 

817.  Judd,  Charles  H.  Relation  of  special  training  and  general  intelligence.  Edu- 

cational review,  36  : 28-42,  1908. 

818.  Juderias,  Julian.  Le  mouvement  pour  la  protection  de  l’enfance  en  Espagne. 

Enfant,  18  : 216-219,  1908. 

819.  Judson,  Harry  Pratt.  Religion  in  the  public  schools.  Elementary  school 

teacher,  9 : 223-232,  1909. 

820.  Julhiet,  Ed.  La  liberte  surveillee  et  les  tribunaux  pour  enfants.  Enfant, 

18  : 104-111,  1908. 

821.  and  Kleine,  Marcel.  Les  tribunaux  pour  enfants  et  le  parlement. 

Enfant,  18  : 72-74,  1909. 

Juvenile  court. 

822.  Jung,  C.  G.  Psychology  of  dementia  praecox;  auth.  trans.  by  F.  Peterson 

and  A.  A.  Brill.  Journal  of  nervous  and  mental  disease,  (New  York)  1909. 
153  p.  (Nervous  and  mental  dis'.  monograph.  Series  no.  3.) 

823.  Junger,  Otto.  Was  kinder  zu  ihrem  vergniigen  zeichnen  und  der  zeichnen- 

unterricht.  Kiel,  Cordes,  1907.  50  p. 

824.  Kafemann,  Rudolf.  Schuluntersuchungen  des  kindlichen  nasen-  und  rachen- 

raumes  an  2238  kindern.  Danzig,  A.  W.  Kafemann,  1890.  29  p. 

825.  Kahn,  Paul.  Les  mineurs  de  dix-huit  ans  devant  leurs  juges.  Enfant,  18: 

9-11,  34-36,  52-54,  89-92,  110-112,  135-136,  1909. 

Juvenile  court. 

826.  Karnitzky,  A.  O.  Zur  physiologie  des  wachstums  und  der  entwicklung  des 

kindlichen  organismus.  Jahrbuch  fur  kinderheilkunde,  18  : 462-474,  1908. 


40 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


827.  Karstadt,  O.  Padagogisches  Chinesentum.  Padagogische  zeitung,  38  : 793- 

796,  1909. 

828.  . Schiller  als  erzieher.  Padagogische  zeitung,  38  : 997-999,  1909. 

829.  Kassel,  Carl.  Versuchsschule,  ein  weg  zur  besseren  hygiene  der  jugend. 

Zeitschrift  fur  schulgesundheitspflege,  231-238,  1908. 

830.  Katscher,  Leopold.  Mehr  linkskultur.  Soziale  medizin  und  hygiene,  4 : 520- 

526,  1909. 

831.  Kauffman,  Eunice  Hughes.  A school  in  the  forest.  Outlook,  90  : 793-795, 

1908. 

832.  Kaylor,  M.  A.  Feelings,  thought,  and  conduct  of  children  toward  animal  pets. 

Pedagogical  seminary,  16  : 205-239,  June  1909. 

833.  Keatinge,  M.  W.  Suggestion  in  education.  London,  A.  & C.  Black,  1907. 

202  p. 

Discusses  hypnotic  suggestion,  but,  while  interesting,  the  book  has  little  scientific  value. 

834.  Keck,  Christine.  The  socialization  of  the  child.  Journal  of  education,  67: 

91-92,  January  23,  1908. 

835.  Keifer,  A.  M.  Is  the  kindergarten  idea  wrong?  Journal  of  education,  67  : 678- 

679,  June  18,  1908. 

836.  Keller,  Helen  Adams.  The  world  I live  in.  New  York,  Century  co.,  1908. 

195  p. 

837.  Kelley,  Mrs.  Florence.  The  invasion  of  family  life  by  industry.  In  Annals 

of  the  American  academy  of  political  and  social  science,  34  : 90-96,  1909. 

838.  Kellogg,  Alice  M.  Spring  and  summer  school  celebrations;  exercises,  recita- 

tions, pantomimes,  tableaux,  drills,  songs,  for  Easter,  Arbor  day,  etc.  Phila- 
delphia, Penn  pub.  co.,  1908.  208  p. 

839.  Kellogg,  J.  H.  Suggestions  toward  checking  race  degeneracy  due  to  the 

conditions  of  school  life.  Hygiene  and  physical  education,  1 : 245-251,  312- 
314,  402-405,  1909. 

840.  Kelly,  Beatrice  M.  The  selection  of  juvenile  books  for  a small  library.  Pub- 

lic libraries,  14  : 367-372,  1909. 

841.  Kelly,  Kuhn.  Luge  und  ohrfeige.  Zeitschrift  fur  kinderforschung,  15  : 72-82, 

December  1909. 

842.  Kelter,  Edmund.  Ein  Jenaer  student  um  1630  (Eberhard  von  Todenwarth). 

Jena,  E.  Diederich,  1908.  82  p. 

843.  Kelynack,  Theophilus  N.  Infancy.  London,  R.  Cully,  1910.  186  p.  (Na- 

tional health  manuals.) 

844.  Kemsies,  Ferdinand.  Zehn  satze  zur  reform  der  schulstrafen  in  Preussen. 

Zeitschrift  fur  padagogische  psychologie,  pathologie  und  hygiene,  10  : 302-305, 
1908. 

845.  Kendall,  Calvin  N.  Modifications  necessary  to  secure  suitable  recognition  for 

pupils  of  varying  ability,  particularly  for  the  ablest.  Journal  of  education, 
69  : 61-63,  January  1909. 

Suggestions  for  special  classification  of  bright  children,  that  they  may  not  be  held  back  by  the 
slow. 

846.  Kennard,  Beulah.  Pittsburg’s  playgrounds.  Survey,  22  : 184-196,  1909. 

847.  Kennedy,  James  B.  Does  South  Carolina  need  a compulsory  school  system? 

Charities,  21  : 961-964,  1909. 

848.  Kennedy,  Mildred.  The  Miiller-Walle  school  of  lip  reading.  Educational 

review,  35  : 267-271,  March  1908. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


41 


849.  Kerley,  Charles  Gilmore.  Short  talks  with  young  mothers  on  the  manage- 

ment of  infants  and  young  children.  New  York,  G.  P.  Putnam’s  sons,  1909. 
327  p. 

850.  Kerr,  James.  Physiological  variations  in  children.  Child  study,  2:  65-82, 

October  1909. 

851.  Kerr,  Le  Grand.  Modern  school  life  in  relation  to  the  health  of  children.  New 

York  medical  times,  37  : 33-38,  1909. 

852.  Key,  Ellen  K.  S.  Century  of  the  child.  New  York,  G.  P.  Putnam,  1909. 

339  p. 

853.  Keys,  Tessie  M.  Some  cases  of  the  children’s  court.  World’s  work,  18  : 11612- 

11616,  1909. 

854.  Kiefer,  O.  Erlebtes  und  erdachtes  aus  dem  verkehr  mit  knaben.  Zeitschrift 

fiir  experimentelle  padagogik,  7 : 5-10,  1908. 

Some  after  reflections  based  on  experiences  with  boys,  especially  on  matters  of  discipline. 

855.  Kiernan,  James  G.  Is  genius  a sport,  a neurosis,  or  a child  potentially  devel- 

oped? Alienist  and  neurologist,  30  : 169-177,  262-274,  567-576,  1909. 

856.  Kik,  C.  Die  ubernormale  Zeichenbegabung  bei  kindern.  Zeitschrift  fiir 

angewandte  psychologie,  2 : 92-149,  1909. 

Individual  studies  of  eight  children,  8|  to  14  years  old,  who  showed  special  artistic  talent.  Illus- 
trations for  this  article  follow,  p.  186. 

857.  Kilpatrick,  Van  Evrie.  Departmental  teaching  in  elementary  schools.  New 

York,  Macmillan  co.,  1908.  130  p. 

858.  . The  school  desk  and  the  health  of  children.  Education,  30  : 113-119, 

1909. 

859.  Kimmins,  Grace  T.  Guild  of  play  book  of  festival  and  dance.  London, 

Curwen,  1907.  48  p. 

860.  King,  Charles  A.  The  public  school  and  industrial  education.  Education, 

29  : 407-419,  1909. 

861.  Kingsford,  Beresford.  Play.  Child  study,  1 : 78-86,  1908. 

862.  Kipiani,  V.  Revue  sur  la  psychologie  et  la  pedagogie  des  aveugles.  Revue 

psychologique,  2 : 249-258,  1909. 

863.  Kirk,  Florence,  and  others.  Points  in  practice.  Child  life,  10  n.  s.:  19-21, 

59-61,  97-100,  1908. 

Discusses  children’s  drawing,  perspective,  and  clay  modeling. 

864.  Kirkpatrick,  Edwin  A.  Genetic  psychology:  an  introduction  to  an  objective 

and  genetic  view  of  intelligence.  New  York,  Macmillan  co.,  1909.  373  p. 

865.  . A simple  and  practical  test  of  hearing.  Psychological  clinic,  3 : 96- 

97,  June,  1909. 

A simple  and  practical  test  of  hearing  in  which  the  children  are  tested  in  groups. 

866.  . A study  of  habit.  Fitchburg,  Mass.,  State  normal  school,  1909.  17  p. 

Very  brief  studies  made  by  students  in  a State  normal  school. 

867.  . Studies  in  development  and  learning.  New  York,  Science  press,  1909. 

101  p.  (Archives  of  psychology,  March  1909.) 

868.  Kirmisse-Ketschendorf,  M.  Drei  vorkampfer  der  kinderforschung  vor 

fiinfzig  Jahren.  Zeitschrift  f.  Kinderforschung;  xiii  : 307-315,  July  1908. 

869.  Kirmsse,  M.  Zur  geschichte  der  kinderseelenkunde.  Zeitschrift  fiir  kinder- 

forschung, 14  : 149-157,  February  1909. 

870.  Kirsch,  E.  Ergebnisse  der  riickgratuntersuchungen  Magdeburger  schulkinder 

im  Jahre  1906-1907.  Gesunde  jugend,  8 : 136-146,  1908. 

871.  Kleine,  Marcel.  Les  tribunaux  pour  enfants  en  Allemagne.  Enfant,  18  : 17- 

18,  227-228,  1909. 

Juvenile  courts. 


42 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OP  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


872.  Kleine,  Marcel.  Les  tribunaux  pour  enfants  en  Angleterre.  Paris,  A.  Rous- 

seau, 1908.  91  p. 

873.  . See  also  Julhiet,  Ed.,  and  Kleine,  Marcel. 

874.  Kleist,  Karl.  Untersuchungen  zur  kenntnis  der  psychomotorischen  bewe- 

gungs-storungen  bei  geisteskranken.  Leipzig,  Klinkhardt,  1908.  171  p. 

875.  Klemm,  Louis  Richard.  Die  schulstadt.  Selbstregierung  und  biirgertugend 

in  der  schule.  Von  einem  alten  Deutsch-Amerikauer.  Minden  i.  W.,  C. 
Maromsky  [1908]  26  p.  (Sammlung  padagogische  vortrage.  Hrsg.  von  W. 
Meyer-Markau.  bd.  xvii,  hft.  v.) 

876.  Klieneberger,  Otto  Ludwig.  Uber  die  juvenile  paralyse.  Allgemeine 

zeitschrift  fur  psychiatrie,  65  : 936-971,  1908. 

877.  Kline,  Linus  W.  The  nature,  origin,  and  function  of  humor.  Popular  science 

monthly.  73  : 144-156,  August  1908. 

878.  Klinke,  W.  Das  volksschulwesen  des  Kan  tons  Zurich  zur  zeit  der  Helvetik. 

Zurich,  Leeman  & co.,  1907.  175  p. 

879.  Kloberg,  Dr.  Uber  forderklassen.  Zeitschrift  fur  schulgesundheitspflege, 

22  : 717-730,  1909. 

880.  Klose,  Heinrich.  Uber  den  sand uhrmagen  der  kinder.  Jahrbuch  fur  kinder- 

heilkunde,  18  ser.  3:  318-352,  1908. 

881.  Knapp,  Kate  Louise.  Stories  and  story-telling.  Kindergarten  review,  18: 

269-271,  January  1908. 

882.  Kobrak,  Franz.  Beziehungen  zwischen  schwachsinn  und  schwerhorigkeit. 

Zeitschrift  fur  schulgesundheitspflege,  1908.  p.  87-97. 

883.  Koch,  K.  Die  volks-  und  jugendspiele  nach  den  grundsatzen  des  zentralaus- 

schusses.  Padagogische  abhandlungen,  13  : 89-102,  1908. 

884.  Koenigsbeck,  Hans.  Welche  schulhygienischen  fortschritte  zeigen  die  neuen 

preussischen  “ Vorschriften  fiber  die  ausseren  einrichtungen  und  den  lehr- 
betrieb  in  den  hoheren  madchenschulen,  lyzeen  und  studienanstalten  ” vom 
12.  Dezember  1908?  Zeitscrhrift  fur  schulgesundheitspflege,  22  : 389-402, 
497-503,  575-581,  1909. 

885.  Kohler,  J.  Zur  frage  der  rechtschreibung.  Allgemeine  deutsche  lehrerzeitung, 

61  : 281-284,  293-296,  1909. 

886.  Kohlstock,  Karl.  Abstinenz,  nicht  massigkeit!  Allgemeine  deutsche  lehr- 

erzeitung, 61  : 588-589,  1909. 

887.  Kolling,  H.  Schiilerwanderungen;  ein  kapitelchen  padagogik.  Padagogische 

zietung,  38  : 814-815,  1909. 

888.  Kolossova,  Anna.  Pression  sanguine  chez  les  enfants  dans  les  conditions 

physiologiques  et  pathologiques  avec  le  tonometre  de  Gaertner.  Diss.  (M.  D.) 
Lausanne.  Lausanne,  Jaunin,  1902.  64  p. 

889.  Konig,  Robert.  Der  erste  cechische  kongress  fur  schwachsinn igenfiirsorge 

und  hilfsschulwesen  in  Prag.  Zeitschrift  fur  kinderforschung,  15  : 24-29, 
October  1909. 

890.  Kornfeld,  Joseph  S.  The  Bible  in  the  Sunday-school.  Open  court,  23  : 476- 

483,  1909. 

891.  Koster,  Hermann  L.  Geschiclite  der  deutschen  jugendliteratur  in  mono- 

graphien.  Hamburg,  A.  Jenssen,  1906-08.  251  p. 

A history  of  literature  for  children  and  youth.  Critical  bibliographies  are  a valuable  feature. 

892.  . Leitfaden  zur  geschichte  der  deutschen  jugendliteratur.  Hamburg, 

Janssen,  1909.  86  p. 

893.  Kraft,  A.  Waldschulen.  Zurich,  Art.  Inst.  Orell  Fussli,  1908.  28  p. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-0. 


43 


894.  Krahn,  Fritz.  Bedeutung  und  einrichtung  der  elternund  volksunterhal- 

tungsabende.  Padagogische  abhandlungen,  13  : 105-119,  1908. 

895.  Krasnogorski,  N.  Uber  die  bedingungsreflexe  im  kindesalter.  Jahrbuch 

fur  kinderheilkunde,  19  : 1-24,  1909. 

An  experimental  study  of  conditioned  reflexes  in  children,  suggested  by  Pawlow’s  work  with  dogs. 

896.  Krauss,  Dr.  Aus  der  arbeit  fur  hilfsbediirftige  kinder.  Zeitschrift  fiir  kinder- 

forschung,  14  : 318-319,  July  1909. 

897.  Kruppa,  K.  Flegeljahre  und  pubertatszeit  als  ursachen  der  kriminalitat 

jugendlicher.  Zeitschrift  fiir  kinderforschung,  14:  197-207,  225-235,  April  1909. 

898.  Kiigelgen,  Carlo  von.  Zur  statistik  uber  selbstmorde  und  selbstmordversuche 

von  schiilern  und  hochschulern  in  Russland.  Zeitschrift  fur  kinderforschung, 
13  : 298-307,  1908. 

899.  Kuhlmann,  F.  The  present  status  of  memory  investigation.  Psychological 

bulletin,  5 : 285-293,  September  1908. 

900.  Kundius,  Emil.  Brauchen  wir  eine  spezifische  jugendliteratur?  Deutsche 

schule,  12  : 751-755,  1908. 

901.  Kunz,  Martin,  ed.  Geschichte  der  blindenanstalt  zu  Illzach-Miilhausen  i.  E. 

wahrend  der  ersten  fiinfzig  jahre  ihrer  tatigkeit,  ferner  deutsche,  franzcsische 
und  italienische  kongressvortrage  und  abhandlungen  liber  das  blindenwesen. 
Leipzig,  W.  Engelmann,  1907.  346  p. 

902.  Kurtz,  C.  Die  fiirsorge  fiir  jugendliche  personen  und  die  reform  des  strafrechts. 

Allgemeine  deutsche  lehrerzeitung,  61:117-119,  129-131,  1909. 

903.  Laing,  Mary  E.  Field  notes  in  reading.  Elementary  school  teacher,  10  : 14- 

28,  1909. 

904.  L ambling,  E.  L’alimentation  des  enfants.  Revue  pedagogique,  52  : 549-563, 

1908. 

905.  .Lamprecht,  E.  Die  erste  taubstummenschule  in  China.  Eos,  4 : 250-255, 

1908. 

906.  . Die  taubstummen  und  die  musik.  Zeitschrift  fur  padagogische  psy- 

chologic, 10  : 84-91,  1908. 

An  account  of  music  instruction  for  the  deaf. 

907.  . Ursache  und  beseitigung  der  schlechten  aussprache  der  volksschulre- 

kruten.  Gesundheitswarte  der  schule,  6 : 79-85,  1908. 

908.  Lamy,  Georges.  See  Petit,  Edouard,  and  Lamy,  Georges. 

909.  Lande,  Pierre.  L’ecriture  en  miroir  chez  les  enfants  anormaux.  Educateur 

moderne,  3 : 289-304,  1908. 

Contains  bibliography. 

910.  Landsberg,  J.  F.  Das  recht  der  zwangsund  fursorgeerziehung.  Berlin,  W. 

Rothschild,  1908.  373  p. 

911.  Lane-Claypon,  Janet  E.  The  waste  of  infant  life.  Nineteenth  century, 

65  : 48-64,  1909. 

912.  Lang,  Ossian.  City  school  problems.  School  journal,  76  : 288-289,  April  1909. 

This  deals  with  the  feeding  of  hungry  school  children  and  gives  a report  of  an  investigation  into 
causes  of  retardation  in  grades. 

913.  . French  school  cantines.  School  journal,  76  : 253,  March  1909. 

914.  . School  lunches — what  to  eat  and  how  to  carry  it.  School  journal, 

77  : 56,  October  1909. 

This  gives  hints  for  proper  lunches  and  proper  ways  of  carrying  them. 

915.  . Simplifying  school  programs.  School  journal,  77  : 43-44,  October, 

1909. 

Treats  of  the  need  of  simplification  of  programs  because  of  increasing  complexity  of  them  and 
gives  suggestions  along  this  line. 


44 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


916.  Lange,  Richard.  “Zur  frage  der  rechtschreibung.”  Eine  entgegnung.  All- 

gemeine  deutsche  lehrerzeitung,  61  : 473-476,  1909. 

917.  Langer,  Leo.  Tier-und  kindesseele  bei  Theodor  Storm.  Zeitschrift  fur  den 

deutschen  unterricht,  22  : 545-561,  624-638,  706-714,  1908. 

918.  Langley,  Euphrosyne.  Constructive  activities  as  an  essential  and  important 

factor  in  the  elementary  school  course.  Elementary  school  teacher,  9 : 32-37, 
September  1908. 

919.  Launay,  F.  “L’dcole  maternelle”  de  Comenius.  Educateur  moderne,  4: 

462-478,  1909. 

920.  Lavergne,  Antonin.  Jean  Coste,  ou  l’instituteur  de  village.  2d  ed.  Paris, 

Paul  Ollendorf,  1903.  314  p. 

921.  Law,  Mary  E.  Friedrich  Froebel,  the  sociologist;  aim  of  the  kindergarten. 

Kindergarten  review,  18  : 449-^54,  April  1908. 

922.  Laws,  Annie  E.  Nurture,  care  and  education  of  children;  what  the  Inter- 

national Kindergarten  Union  is  doing.  Kindergarten  review,  19  : 47-50,  Sep- 
tember 1908. 

923.  Lay,  W.  A.  Experimented  padagogik,  mit  besonderer  rticksicht  auf  die 

erziehung  durch  die  tat.  Leipzig,  B.  G.  Teubner,  1908.  125  p. 

924.  . Uber  koedukation  und  experimental-padagogik.  Padagogische-psy- 

chologische  studien,  10  : 65-74,  1909. 

925.  Leadman,  W.  M.  Voice  of  the  child.  Westminster  review,  172  : 191-193, 

1909. 

926.  Leahy,  E.  M.  Some  educational  aims  in  a school  for  girls.  Journal  of  educa- 

tion, London,  31:  285-288,  1909. 

927.  Leather,  Herbert.  Medical  inspection  in  English  primary  schools.  Elemen- 

tary school  teacher,  9 : 455^62,  1909. 

928.  Leawyd,  Jessie  P.  Our  school  garden.  Journal  of  education,  67  : 233-235, 

February  1908. 

929.  Leblanc,  Rene.  La  reforme  des  dcoles  primaires  superieures.  Paris,  Lib. 

Larousse  [1907]  216  p. 

930.  Leclere,  Albert.  L’education  morale  rationnelle.  Paris,  Hachette,  1909. 

291  p. 

931.  Lee,  Joseph.  The  boy  who  goes  to  work.  Educational  review,  38  : 325-343, 

1909. 

An  account  of  the  boy  and  his  dominant  impulses  at  this  age;  problem  of  fitting  him  for  world’s 
work  and  making  him  a worthy  citizen. 

932.  . End  of  play  period  in  education.  Journal  of  education,  67  : 64,  Janu- 

ary 16,  1908. 

933.  Legel,  O.  Des  kindes  sprachstorungen  (stottern,  stammeln,  lispeln  usw.)  und 

ihre  heilung.  Potsdam,  Stein,  1908.  222  p. 

934.  Lehmann-Nitsche,  R.  Dibujos  infantiles  de  la  raza  blanca.  National  uni- 

versity of  La  Plata.  Extension  universitaria,  1909.  p.  111-132. 

935.  Lehnert,  Georg.  Altes  spielzeng — hierzn  13  Aufnahmen  von  Christof  Muller. 

Woche,  10  : 2250-2254,  December  1908. 

An  illustrated  article  on  toys  of  past  times  calling  attention  to  their  historical  value  and  discussing 
the  relation  of  toys  to  the  child’s  imagination. 

936.  Leland,  Arthur,  and  Leland,  Lorna  Higbee.  The  evolution  of  St.  Paul, 
Minn,  playground.  Hygiene  and  physical  education,  1 : 274-277,  339-343, 
436-441,  1909. 

. Playground  technique  and  playcraft.  Springfield,  F.  A.  Bassette  co., 

1909.  v.  1. 


937. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


45 


938.  Lemaitre,  Aug.  Contribution  a la  psychologie  de  l’adolescent.  Archives  de 

psychologie,  8 : 221-262,  1909. 

939.  Leslie,  Elsie.  Children  on  the  stage.  Cosmopolitan,  47  : 267-277,  503-512, 

1909. 

940.  Leuba,  James  H.  On  three  types  of  behavior,  the  mechanical,  the  coercitive, 

and  the  anthropopathic  (including  religion).  American  journal  of  psychology, 
20  : 107-119,  January  1909. 

A comparative  study  of  three  modes  of  behavior  given  in  title. 

941.  Leubuscher,  Dr.  Ziele  und  grenzen  der  schularztlichen  tatigkeit.  Zeitschrift 

fur  padagogische  psychologie,  pathologie  und  hygiene,  10  : 217-235,  1908. 

942.  Leupolt,  Edmund.  Der  lehrer  ein  vorbild  der  korperkultur.  Schulzimmer, 

7 : 68-83,  1909. 

943.  . Die  erziehung  zum  raumbewusstsein  durch  das  schulzimmer.  Schul- 

zimmer, 7 : 200-207,  1909. 

944.  Libby,  Walter.  The  imagination  of  adolescents.  American  journal  of  psy- 

chology, 19  : 249-252,  April  1908. 

945.  Lichtenberger,  Andre.  La  petite.  Enfant,  18  : 129-131,  1909. 

A study  of  disappointed  affection  in  the  Backfisch  age. 

946.  Liepmann,  Hugo  Karl.  Drei  aufsatze  aus  dem  apraxiegebiet.  Berlin,  S. 

Karger,  1908.  80  p. 

947.  Lievevouw-Coopman,  M.  Enfants  imbeciles  et  idiots.  Revue  psycholo- 

gique,  1 : 238-243,  1908. 

948.  Lincoln,  Jennette  E.  C.  May  pole  possibilities,  with  dances  and  drills  for 

modern  pastime.  Boston,  American  gymnasia  co.,  1907.  56  p. 

949.  Lind,  George  Dallas.  Best  method  of  teaching  in  country  schools.  New 

York,  Hinds  & Noble,  1900.  249  p. 

950.  Linde,  Ernst.  Marchen  in  der  schule.  Allgemeine  deutsche  lehrerzeitung, 

61  : 626-627,  1909. 

951.  . Die  nationalbuhne  als  volks-  und  reichstagssache.  Allgemeine 

deutsche  lehrerzeitung,  61  : 153-155,  1909. 

952.  . Zur  schulentlassung.  Allgemeine  deutsche  lehrerzeitung,  61  : 141- 

144,  1909. 

953.  Lindsay,  Samuel  McCune.  Exploring  the  new  world  for  children.  Peda- 

gogical seminary  16  : 459-463,  December  1909. 

954.  — — — . The  suburban  child.  Pedagogical  seminary,  16  : 498-504,  December 

1909. 

The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  suburban  child. 

955.  Lindsey,  Ben  Barr.  The  child  and  the  community.  In  National  education 

association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1909.  p.  737-743. 

Discusses  the  relation  of  children’s  play  activities  to  laws  in  the  community  and  also  to  the  laws 
of  nature  which  are  developing  the  youths.  Explained  by  specific  example. 

956.  . Childhood  and  morality.  Kindergarten  review,  20  : 129-142,  Novem- 

ber 1909. 

Discusses  the  relation  of  childhood  to  morality. 

957.  . The  child  of  the  South.  Journal  of  education,  67  : 314-316,  March  19, 

1908. 

958.  . Public  playgrounds  and  juvenile  delinquency.  Independent,  65  : 420- 

423,  1908. 

959.  Linzen-Ernst,  Clara.  Sexuelle  belehrung  durch  die  mutter.  Neue  genera- 

tion, 5 : 110-122,  1909. 

960.  Lipmann,  Otto.  Die  entwicklung  der  intelligenz.  Zeitschrift  fur  angewandte 

psychologie,  2 : 534-544,  1909. 


46 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


961.  Lipmann,  Otto.  Methodologische  beitrage  zur  aussage-  forschung.  Zeitschrift 

fur  angewandte  psychologie,  2 : 424-439,  1909. 

962.  . Die  wirkung  von  suggestivfragen.  Zeitschrift  fur  angewandte  psy- 

chologie, 2 : 198-242,  1909. 

963.  Lobsien,  Marx.  Einiges  liber  die  unterrichtliche  bedeutung  der  wirkung  von 

suggestivfragen.  Piidagogisch-  psychologische  studien,  10  : 113-128,  1909. 

964.  . Psychogensis  und  padagogik.  Padagogische  studien,  29  : 320-341, 

1908. 

965.  . Statistische  erhebungen  liber  beliebtheit  und  unbeliebtheit  der  unter- 

richtsfacher.  Piidagogisch-  psychologische  studien,  9 : 9-14,  1908. 

966.  . Ueber  schwankungen  der  psychischen  jahreskurve  bei  schulkindern. 

Zeitschrift  fur  philosophic  uud  padagogik,  15  : 261-270,  1908. 

967.  . Ueber  schulversaumnisse  und  schwankungen  physischer  energie  bei 

schulkindern.  Zeitschrift  fur  padagogische  psychologie,  pathologie  und 
hygiene  10  : 236-242,  1908. 

968.  Loi  du  11  avril  1908.  Enfant,  18  : 55-57,  95,  112-117,  1909. 

Juvenile  court. 

969.  Lombroso,  Paola.  La  vie  des  enfants.  Enfant,  18  : 26-32,  76-79,  122-126, 

227-233,  274-280,  316-326,  371-380,  420-427,  469-474,  1908. 

970.  . Weshalb  finden  die  kinder  an  den  marchen  gefallen?  Ubersetzung 

von  Helene  Goldbaum.  Zeitschrift  fur  kinderforschung,  13  : 335-343,  August 
1908. 

971.  London.  County  council.  Educational  committee.  Open  air  school, 

Bostall  Wood,  Plumstead.  London,  P.  S.  King,  1908.  27  p. 

972.  — . Report  of  a conference  on  the  teaching  of  English  in  London 

elementary  schools.  London,  County  council,  1909.  70  p. 

973.  London  diocesan  council  for  the  religious  education  of  children  of  the 

wealthier  classes.  Notes  for  parents;  a syllabus.  London,  Rivington,  1908. 
23  p. 

974.  Long,  John  A.  Pupils  of  varying  ability.  Journal  of  education,  67  : 291-292, 

March  12,  1908. 

975.  Loomis,  H.  N.  The  study  of  animals  in  the  school.  Educational  review, 

35  : 139-147,  February  1908. 

976.  Loos,  Joseph,  ed.  Enzyklopadisches  handbuch  der  erziehungskunde.  Wien, 

A.  Pichlers  Witwe  & Sohn,  1906-08.  2 v. 

977.  Lord  Cromer’s  advice  to  boys.  Spectator,  101  : 10-11,  1908. 

978.  Lord,  E.  W.  Child  labor  and  the  public  schools.  Journal  of  education,  68: 

133,  July  23,  1908. 

979.  Lorentz,  Friedrich.  Uber  die  ermiidung  der  sch uler  und  deren  ermittlung- 

Zeitschrift  fur  schulgesundheitspflege,  22  : 331-337,  1909. 

980.  Lorenzen,  Ernst.  Das  kind  und  der  tod.  Zeitschrift  fur  experimentelle 

padagogie,  7 : 11-15,  1908. 

A child’s  ideas  of  death. 

981.  Loschhorn,  Karl.  Erweiterte  bewegungsfreiheit  im  hoheren  schulwesen. 

Zeitschrift  fur  padagogische  psychologie,  pathologie  und  hygiene,  10  : 265-271, 

1908. 

982.  . Ueber  schulstrafen.  Zeitschrift  fur  padagogische  psychologie,  patho- 

logie und  hygiene,  10  : 306-310,  1908. 

983.  Louisville.  Free  public  library.  Christmas  books  for  children,  Louisville, 

1909.  16  p. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


47 


984.  Love,  James  K.  The  study  of  the  deaf  child;  being  a research  ondeaf-mutism. 

Glasgow,  A.  MacDougall,  1907-1909.  3 v. 

985.  Lovejoy,  Owen  R.  The  child  in  industry.  National  education  association. 

Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1909.  p.  726-733. 

Gives  different  industries  in  which  children  are  working;  the  number  of  children  in  such  work; 
the  bad  influence  factory  life  has  upon  them.  'Discusses  ideal  method  of  combining  education 
and  industry. 

986.  . Dangers  of  child  labor.  Survey,  23  : 9-11,  1909. 

987.  . Needs  of  the  anti-child  labor  movement.  In  National  conference  of 

charities  and  correction.  Proceedings,  1908.  p.  363-364. 

Discussion  of  the  facts  one  needs  to  know  regarding  this  subject,  also  work  of  National  child 
labor  committee. 

988.  Low,  Frances  H.  The  orphanage:  its  reform  and  recreation.  Nineteenth  cen- 

tury, 64  : 443-460,  1908. 

989.  Lowinsky,  Victor.  Beitrage  zur  psychologie  und  padagogik  der  kinderliigen 

und  kinderaussagen.  Zeitschrift  fur  padagogische  psychologie,  pathologie  und 
hygiene,  10  : 17-33,  1908. 

990.  Lucas,  A.  L’ education  physique  en  Amerique.  Educateur  modeme,  3 : 66- 

69,  1908. 

991.  . Pedagogie  de  V education  physique.  Educateur  modeme,  3 : 43-5-451, 

1908. 

992.  Lull,  Herbert  G.  Conflicting  tendencies  in  American  elementary  education. 

Education,  28  : 478-487,  April  1908. 

993.  Lux,  Joseph  Aug.  Das  kinderzimmer.  Schulzimmer,  7 : 90-93,  1909. 

994.  Lynch,  John  J.  Playgrounds.  Journal  of  education,  69  : 517-518,  May  1909. 

995.  Lyttleton,  Edward.  Schoolboys  and  school  work.  London,  Longmans,  1909. 

140  p. 

996.  McAndrew,  William,  Industrial  education  from  a public  school  man’s  point 

of  view.  Educational  review,  35  : 109-128,  February  1908. 

997.  McCartney,  L.  Training  for  industrial  life.  Journal  of  education,  68  : 421^423, 

October  1908. 

998.  McChesney,  G.  G.  Is  there  any  educational  value  in  penmanship?  Journal 

of  education,  68  : 305-306,  September  1908. 

999.  Mac  Clintock,  Porter  Lander.  Literature  in  the  elementary  school.  Chi- 

cago, University  press,  1907.  305  p. 

1000.  McCrady,  Louisa  Lane.  The  background  of  the  school.  Outlook,  89  : 747- 

753,  1908. 

1001.  Mac  Dougall,  Ellen  M.  Mothers  in  council;  or,  Talks  in  mothers’  meetings. 

London,  Culley,  1908.  295  p. 

1002.  McDougall,  William.  An  investigation  of  the  color  sense  of  two  infants. 

British  journal  of  psychology,  2 : 338-352,  1908. 

1003.  McDowell,  M.  E.  Illinois  bill  regulating  labor  of  girls.  Survey,  22  : 509-513, 

1909. 

1004.  McFadden,  Elizabeth  A.,  and  Davis,  Lilian  E.  Selected  list  of  plays  for 

amateurs  and  students  of  dramatic  expression  in  schools  and  colleges.  Cin- 
cinnati, E.  A.  McFadden,  1908.  100  p. 

1005.  Macfall,  Haldane.  Beautiful  children.  New  York,  Dodd,  Mead  & co.,  1909. 

316  p. 

1006.  Macgregor,  Mary.  Stories  from  Dante.  London,  T.  Jack,  1909.  116  p. 

1007.  McIntyre,  Margaret  A.  The  cave  boy  of  the  age  of  stone.  London,  Harrap 

& co.,  1908.  147  p. 


48 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


1008.  McKee,  James  H.  Some  studies  of  the  Mongolian  type  of  mental  deficiency. 

Journal  of  pBycho-asthenics,  13  : 43-47,  1909. 

1009.  McKelway,  A.  J.  Child  labor  and  citizenship.  In  National  conference  of 

charities  and  correction.  Proceedings  1908.  p.  351-363. 

Discussion  of  what  those  who  stand  for  citizenship  should  do;  the  cause  of  child  labor  and 
its  result;  and  the  guarantee  of  better  citizenship  in  the  future  if  children  were  kept  in  school 
longer. 

1010.  . Child  labor  and  its  attendant  evils.  Sewanee,  16  : 214-217,  1908. 

1011.  . Child  labor  and  social  progress.  Charities,  20  : 104-107,  1908. 

1012.  . Child  labor  in  the  Carolinas.  Charities,  21  : 743-757,  1909. 

1013.  . Child  labor  in  the  South.  In  National  conference  of  charities  and 

correction,  Proceedings,  1909.  p.  38-42. 

Points  out  the  relationship  of  child  labor  and  illiteracy  in  the  South. 

1014.  . Leadership  of  the  child.  Annals  of  the  American  academy  of  political 

and  social  science,  1908.  v.  32,  supp.  pp.  19-30. 

1015.  McKenny,  Charles.  The  contribution  of  the  kindergarten  to  elementary 

education.  Kindergarten  primary  magazine,  21  : 37-44,  1908. 

1016.  . The  contribution  of  the  kindergarten  to  elementary  education.  Kin- 

dergarten review,  18  : 577-585,  June  1908. 

1017.  Mackenzie,  J.  S.  Moral  education;  the  task  of  the  teacher.  International 

journal  of  ethics,  19  : 399-418,  1909. 

1018.  . The  problem  of  moral  instruction.  International  journal  of  ethics, 

18  : 273-291,  1908. 

1019.  McLeod,  H.  Children  of  British  cities  and  towns.  Methodist  review,  68: 

404-416,  1908. 

1020.  McMain,  Eleanor.  Nurture,  care  and  education  of  children:  what  the  Play- 

ground association  of  America  is  doing.  Kindergarten  review,  19  : 42-47, 
September  1908. 

1021.  McMillan,  Margaret,  and  Sanderson,  A.  C.  London’s  children;  how  to 

feed  them  and  how  not  to  feed  them.  London,  Independent  labor  party 
[1909?]  12  p. 

1022.  Mac  Murchy,  Helen.  The  visiting  nurse  and  the  children  requiring  special 

education.  In  National  education  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and 
addresses,  1908.  p.  936-942. 

Discusses  the  physically  and  mentally  defective  children. 

1023.  McMurry,  Charles  A.  Special  method  in  reading  in  the  grades.  New  York, 

Macmillan  co.,  1908.  351  p. 

1024.  McNeff,  L.  Dow.  Electricity  as  a subject  for  study  in  elementary  schools. 

Elementary  school  teacher,  8 : 271-276,  January  1908. 

1025.  McSkinimon,  Anna.  Meaning  and  method  of  discipline  in  primary  grades. 

Kindergarten  review,  18  : 461-466,  April  1908.* 

1026.  McSkimmon,  Mary.  The  training  of  children  in  civic  ideals.  Journal  of 

education,  68  : 139-141,  146,  July  23,  1908. 

1027.  M ’Sweeney,  E.  P.  School  books:  away  with  them.  Irish  educational 

review,  3 : 82-87,  1909. 

1028.  MacVannel,  John  Angus.  The  materials  of  the  kindergarten.  Teachers 

college  record,  10  : 343-370,  1909. 

1029.  Mack,  Julian  W.  Juvenile  courts  as  a part  of  the  school  system  of  the  country. 

In  National  conference  of  charities  and  correction,  proceedings,  1908.  p. 
369-389. 

Thorough  discussion  of  the  court;  its  evils,  as  practiced,  and  knowledge  child  needs  of  the  law. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


49 


1030.  Macy,  John  Albert.  Child’s  guide  to  mythology.  New  York,  Baker  & Tay- 

lor, 1909.  273  p. 

1031.  Maennel,  Bruno.  Auxiliary  education;  the  training  of  backward  children. 

Tr.  by  Emma  Sylvester.  New  York,  Doubleday,  Page  & Co.,  1909.  267  p. 

1032.  Mainzer,  Gustav.  Wichtigkeit,  anlage  und  behandlung  der  gliederungen  im 

unterricht.  Piidagogische  abhandlungen,  13  : 51-56,  1908. 

1033.  . Zweck,  ziel  und  behandlung  der  heimatkunde  in  der  volksschule. 

Padagogische  abhandlungen,  13  : 41-50,  1908. 

1034.  Major,  Gustav.  Die  heilpadagogische  behandlung  gelahmter  kinder.  Zeit- 

schrift  fur  experimentelle  padagogik,  8 : 147-199,  1909. 

1035.  . Zur  erkennung  jugendlichen  schwachsinns.  Zeitschrift  fur  experi- 

mentelle padagogik,  9 : 1-73,  1909. 

1036.  Major,  Henry.  Moral  instruction  in  accordance  with  the  code  requirements 

in  elementary  schools.  London,  Blackie,  1909.  96  p. 

1037.  The  making  of  a girls’  trade  school.  Teachers  college  record,  10  : 275-341,  1909. 

1038.  Makuen,  G.  Hudson.  Speech  oi  the  feeble-minded.  Training  school,  6 : 67— 

68,  July  1909. 

1039.  Malapert,  P.  La  morale  sexuelle  a l’ecole.  Education,  1 : 90-102,  1909. 

1040.  . Le  sentiment  de  la  justice  chez  les  enfants.  Bulletin  de  la  Societe 

libre  pour  l’etude  psychologique  de  l’enfant,  8 : 100-104,  1908. 

1041.  Mamlock,  G.  Sexualpadagogischer  vortrag,  gehalten  am  schulschluss  28  und 

29  Sept,  vor  den  schiilern  der  II.  stadtischen  pflicht-fortbildungsschule  zu 
Berlin.  Zeitschrift  fur  schulgesundheitspflege,  1908.  p.  772-776. 

1042.  Mangold,  George  B.  Infant  mortality  in  the  American  cities.  Annals  of  the 

American  academy  of  political  and  social  science,  31  : 484-494,  1908. 

1043.  Mann,  Charles  W.  School  recreations  and  amusements.  New  York,  Ameri- 

can book  co.,  1896.  352  p. 

1044.  Manny,  F.  A.,  anrf  Manny,  A.  S.  A German  educator’s  judgment  on  Ameri- 

can kindergartens.  Kindergarten  review,  18  : 304-306,  January  1908. 

1045.  Marc-Guemet,  M.  Une  ecole  de  plein  air  en  Angleterre.  Educateur  mo- 

derne,  4 : 319-327,  1909. 

1046.  Marehal,  Lucy.  See  Nellen,  Lea,  and  Marchal,  Lucy. 

1047.  Marcuse,  J.  Grundzuge  einer  sexuellen  padagogik  in  der  hauslichen  erzie- 

hung.  Miinchen,  Yerlag  der  arztl.  Rundschau,  1908.  45  p. 

1048.  Markham,  Violet,  R.,  comp.  The  factory  and  shop  acts  of  the  British  domin- 

ions. London,  Eyre  & Spottiswoode  [1908]  173  p. 

1049.  Marshall,  H.  E.  Child’s  English  literature.  London,  T.  Jack,  1909.  687  p. 

1050.  Martin,  George  H.  A lesson  from  medical  inspection  of  schools.  Psycho- 

logical clinic,  3 : 9-13,  March  1909. 

A plea  for  the  better  understanding  of  health  conditions  by  broadening  and  making  more 
vital  the  teaching  of  physiology  and  hygiene. 

1051.  Massachusetts  State  normal  school,  Fitchburg.  Class  of  1910.  A 

study  of  memory.  Fitchburg,  Sentinel  printing  co.,  1909.  28  p. 

1052.  Masseck,  F.  L.  See  Forbush,  William  Byron,  and  Masseck,  F.  L. 

1053.  Masselon,  Rene.  La  demence  precoce.  Educateur  moderne,  3 : 211-222, 
257-265,  1908. 

1054.  Mateer,  Florence.  The  vocabulary  of  a four-year-old  boy.  Pedagogical 

seminary,  15  . 63-74,  March  1908. 

Shows  a vocabulary  of  1,020  words. 

96987°— 11 4 


50 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


1055.  Mathews,  J.  L.  Education  of  the  boys  of  the  mountain  districts  of  Georgia. 

Everybody’s  magazine,  19  : 723-732,  1908. 

1056.  Mattauschek,  Emil.  Iiilfsschulzoglinge  und  militardiensteignung.  Zeit- 

schrift  fiir  die  erforschung  und  behandlung  des  jugendlichen  schwachsinns, 
2 : 272-283,  1909. 

1057.  Matthews,  Brander.  Books  and  boys.  Independent,  67  : 1117-1119,  1909. 

1058.  Matthews,  Caroline.  Tendency  to  over-emphasize  the  children  side  of 

the  library.  Library  journal,  33  : 135-138,  1908. 

1059.  May,  B.  Die  madchenerziehung  in  der  geschichte  der  padagogik  von  Plato  bis 

zum  18  jahrhundert.  Strasburg,  Singer,  1908.  103  p. 

1060.  May,  Maude  G.  A new  method  in  infant  education.  Journal  of  education 
(London),  31  : 645-647,  1909. 

1061.  . Provision  made  in  Germany  and  Switzerland  for  the  care  of  children 

under  the  compulsory  school  age.  In  Great  Britain.  Board  of  education. 
Special  reports  on  educational  subjects,  1909.  v.  22,  p.  137-202. 

Excellent  accounts  of  the  Krippen  and  kindergarten  in  Germany  and  Switzerland. 

1062.  Mayet,  -.  Les  colonies  de  vacances  de  la  Ligue  des  enfants  de  France. 

Enfant,  1 : 213-217,  1909. 

Vacation  colonies. 

1063.  Maynard,  A.  Gertrude.  The  kindergarten  and  good  manners.  Kinder- 

garten review,  18  : 324-328,  February  1908. 

1064.  Mead,  George  H.  Industrial  education,  the  workingman,  and  the  school. 

Elementary  school  teacher,  9 : 369-383,  1909. 

1065.  Medical  inspection  of  schools  in  Germany.  See  series  of  reports  in  Gesunde 

jugend,  1908- ’09.  v.  8. 

1066.  Mee,  Arthur,  ed.  Children’s  encyclopaedia.  London,  Carmelite  House, 

1908-10.  8 v. 

Treats  of  a large  variety  of  subjects  in  a very  scrappy  way.  Entertaining,  but  hardly  an 
encyclopaedia. 

1067.  Meiklejohn,  Alexander.  Is  mental  training  a myth?  Educational  review, 

37  : 126-141,  February  1909. 

Discussion  of  the  theory  of  mental  training.  Does  the  exercise  of  the  mind  in  one  particular 
give  control  of  every  concrete  situation  in  life.  Is  the  training  so  specific  that  each  act  gives 
facility  for  another  performance. 

1068.  Mendousse,  P.  L’ame  de  l’adolescent.  Paris,  F.  Alcan,  1909.  315  p. 

1069.  Meringer,  It.  Aus  dem  leben  der  sprache.  Versprechen.  Kindersprache. 

Nachahmungstrieb.  Berlin,  Behr,  1908.  244  p. 

1070.  Mero,  Everett  B.,  ed.  American  playgrounds,  their  construction,  equip- 

ment, maintenance  and  utility.  Boston,  American  gymnasia  co.,  [c1908] 
270  p. 

1071.  . Playgrounds  and  other  child  problems.  Kindergarten  review,  19: 

442-444,  March  1909. 

The  work  of  the  Civic  league  in  reference  to  the  play  ground  movement. 

1072.  Merrill,  Jenny  B.  Development  of  personality  in  children.  Kindergarten 

magazine,  21  : 190-191,  March  1909. 

A brief  summary  of  Earl  Barnes’  lecture  on  the  growth  of  children’s  ideals.  Shows  the  develop- 
ment of  a child’s  personality. 

1073.  . A new  method  in  child  education.  Kindergarten  magazine,  22  : 106- 

108,  December  1909. 

The  writings  of  an  Italian  author,  Rosmini,  on  child  education  in  comparison  with  that  of 
Froebel. 

1074.  . The  relation  of  the  kindergarten  to  the  grades.  Kindergarten  maga- 

zine, 22  : 20-21,  September  1909. 

The  value  of  language,  reading  and  writing  in  the  kindergarten  compared  with  the  grades. 


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51 


1075.  Merrill,  Jenny  B.  Should  industrial  interest  direct  education.  Kindergarten 

magazine,  21  : 227-228,  April  1909. 

Prof.  Barnes’  discussion  of  a child’s  interest  in  the  common  industries  of  life  as  they  appeal 
to  his  instincts  for  future  activity. 

1076.  Merrill,  Lilbum.  Winning  the  boy.  New  York,  F.  H.  Revell,  [c1908]  160  p. 

1077.  Meumann,  Ernst.  Eine  neue  untersuchung  iiber  den  selbstmord  im  jugend- 

alter.  Zeitschrift  fiir  experimentelle  padagogik,  6 : 156-180,  1908. 

1078.  . Intelligenz  und  wille.  Leipzig,  Quelle  & Meyer,  1908.  293  p. 

1079.  . Neuere  ansichten  iiber  das  wesen  der  phantasie,  mit  besonderer 

beriicksichtigung  der  phantasie  des  kindes.  Zeitschrift  fiir  experimentelle 
padagogik,  6 : 109-141,  1908. 

1080.  Meyer,  Adolf.  The  problems  of  mental  reaction-types,  causes,  and  diseases. 

Psychological  bulletin,  5 : 245-261,  August,  1908. 

1081.  . What  do  histories  of  cases  of  insanity  teach  us  concerning  preventive 

mental  hygiene  during  the  years  of  school  life.  Psychological  clinic,  2 : 89- 
101,  June  1908. 

1082.  Meyer,  E.  Vergleich  der  geistigen  entwicklung  von  knaben  und  madchen. 

Zeitschrift  fiir  padagogische  psychologie,  pathologie  und  hygiene,  10  : 272- 
284,  1908. 

1083.  Meyer,  Gertrud,  comp.  Tanzspiele  und  singtanze.  2d  ed.  Leipzig,  B.  G. 

Teubner,  1908.  67  p. 

1084.  Meyers,  Ira  B.  Field  work  and  nature  study;  the  pedagogical  aspect.  Ele- 

mentary school  teacher,  8 : 226-232,  316-326,  381-392,  1908. 

1085.  Michaelis,  . Rapport  sur  une  experience  relative  a l’enseignement 

scientifique  a l’ecole  primaire.  In  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  libre  pour  1 ’etude 
psychologique  de  1 ’enfant,  8 : 121-138,  1908. 

1086.  Michel,  A.  Les  lectures  des  enfants.  Education  familiale,  8 : 57-63,  121-126, 

333-338,  392-397,  450^56,  1907. 

1087.  Michel,  O.H.  Die  wohn- und  schlafverhaltnisse  unserer  schulkinder.  Samm- 

lung  padagogischer  vortrage,  18:  27-33,  1908. 

1088.  Michelet,  Mme.  A.  M.  Story  of  my  childhood.  Translated  from  the  French 

by  Mary  Frazier  Curtis.  Boston,  Little,  Brown  & co.,  1868.  218  p. 

1089.  Miller,  Charles  A.  A.  Progress  and  retardation  of  a Baltimore  class.  Psy- 

chological clinic,  3 : 136-140,  October  1909. 

A study  of  the  records  of  forty-three  pupils  made  in  eight  school  years.  Dr.  Miller  protests 
against  statistics  of  retardation  which  take  no  account  of  existing  conditions. 

1090.  . The  study  of  exceptional  children.  In  National  education  association. 

Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1908.  p.  957-963. 

1091.  Miller,  Louise  Klein.  School  gardens.  Elementary  school  teacher,  8 : 576- 

580,  June  1908. 

1092.  Milligan,  L.  E.  The  industrial  education  of  the  deaf,  blind,  feeble-minded. 

In  National  education  association.  Journal  of  prooceedings  and  addresses, 
1909.  p.  885-889. 

Mentions  the  trades  which  can  be  taught  and  the  results. 

1093.  Mills,  Harriette  Melissa.  The  kindergarten  program.  Kindergarten  pri- 

mary magazine,  21  : 2-10,  1908. 

1094.  Minot,  Charles  Sedgwick.  The  problem  of  age,  growth  and  death.  New 

York,  G.  P.  Putnam’s  sons,  1908.  280  p. 

1095.  The  “model”  schools  of  Ireland.  Irish  educational  review,  2 : 279-283,  1909. 

1096.  Mohr,  . Zeichnungen  von  geisteskranken.  Zeitschrift  fiir  angewandte 

psychologie,  2 : 291-300,  1909. 


52 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


1097.  Moll,  Albert.  Das  sexualleben  des  kindes.  Berlin,  Walther,  >1909.  313  p. 

1098.  . Sexuelle  erziehung.  Zeitschrift  fur  padagogische  psychologie,  patho- 

logie  und  hygiene,  10  : 145-216,  1908. 

One  of  the  most  important  recent  contributions  to  the  question  of  instruction  in  matters 
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1099.  Moll- Weiss,  Augusta.  Les  ecoles  de  plein  air.  Enfant,  18  : 549-554,  1908. 

1100.  . L’influence  de  l’alimentation  sur  le  developpement  psychique  de 

l’enfant.  In  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  libre  pour  l’etude  psychologique  de 
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1101.  Monroe,  Will  Seymour.  Value  of  superstitions.  Journal  of  education, 

68  : 479-480,  November  1908. 

1102.  Montesano,  Giuseppe.  La  valutazione  e l’educazione  dell’  intelligenza 

nelle  scuole  per  tardivi.  Ri  vista  di  psicologia  applicataalla  pedagogia  ed 
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1103.  Montgomery,  L.  Home  life  and  education  of  backward  children.  Survey, 

23  : 77-81,  1909. 

1104.  Montgomery,  Sarah  L.  Discipline  and  training  of  girls  in  industrial  schools. 

In  National  conference  of  charities  and  correction.  Proceedings,  1908. 
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Discusses  cottage  system,  children’s  responsiveness  and  value  of  knowing  the  feelings  of 
each  child  in  the  school. 

1105.  Moore,  Charles  Church.  A treatise  on  facts;  or,  The  weight  and  value  of 

evidence.  New  York,  E.  Thompson  co.,  1908.  2 v. 

See  chapters  on  memory,  and  on  the  testimony  of  children  and  youths. 

1106.  Morgan,  Alexander.  Child-study  in  relation  to  the  training  of  teachers. 

Child  study,  1 : 65-77,  1908. 

1107.  Morley,  Margaret  Warner.  Vom  Leben.  Leipzig,  J.  A.  Barth,  1908. 

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1108.  Morrison,  Alice  F.  Expression  and  its  place  in  the  school.  Training  school, 

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1109.  . The  value  of  entertainment  work.  Training  school,  5 : 17-20,  1908. 

1110.  Morrison,  Henry  C.  Vocational  training  and  industrial  education.  Educa- 

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1111.  Morrow,  John.  Child  labor.  Journal  of  education,  67  : 117-118,  January 

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1112.  Morrow,  Prince  A.  The  problem  of  school  hygiene.  Medical  times,  N.  Y.3 

37  : 161-166,  1909. 

1113.  Morse,  William  Northrop.  The  educational  theater.  Outlook,  89  : 572-577, 

1908. 

1114.  Moses,  Julius.  Die  phantasie  schwachsinniger  kinder.  Zeitschrift  f fir  ex- 

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1115.  . Statistik  liber  die  fiirsorgeerziehung  minderjahriger  und  liber  die 

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1116.  Moses,  Montrose  J.  The  children’s  Christmas  book  shelf.  Independent, 

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1117.  Mother  Goose.  Complete  mother  goose.  New  York,  Stakes,  1909.  227  p. 

1118.  Mouret,  Victor.  Les  ecoles  professionnelles  pour  les  pupilles  anormaux  de 

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1119.  Mourral,  A.  La  criminalite  de  l’enfance  d’apr&s  un  ouvrage  r6cent.  Enfant, 

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BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


53 


1120.  Miihlmann,  M.  Uber  wachstumserkrankungen.  Jahrbuch  fur  kinderheil- 

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1121.  Muller,  Georg.  Skoliosen-schulen.  Berlin,  Urban,  1907.  4 p. 

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1122.  Munch,  W.  Die  experimentalpadagogik  nach  meumann.  Zeitschrift  fur 

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1123.  Munsell,  Albert  H.  A measured  training  of  the  color  sense.  Education, 

29  : 360-380,  1909. 

1124.  Murray,  Elsie.  A qualitative  analysis  of  tickling:  its  relation  to  cutaneous 

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1125.  Murray,  Walter  C.  From  one  to  twenty-one.  Sunday  school  union,  London, 

1909.  106  p. 

1126.  Muskat,  . Orthopadie  und  schule.  Zeitschrift  fur  schulgesundheits- 

pflege,  22  : 236-249,  1909. 

1127.  Muzzey,  David.  The  ideals  of  ethical  culture  for  children.  Pedagogical 

seminary,  16  : 513-518,  December  1909. 

1128.  Mya,  Giuseppe.  Cause  e rimedii  dell’alta  mortality  infantile.  Firenze,  Gal- 

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1129.  Myers,  Charles  S.  Some  observations  on  the  development  of  the  colour 

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1130.  Nacke,  P.  Die  sittliche  gefahrdung  der  grosstadt-jugend  durch  die  geschafts- 

auslagen.  Sexual-probleme,  5 : 443^51,  1909. 

1131.  Nadal,  Dr.  See  Pascal,  Mile.,  and  Nadal,  Dr. 

1132.  Nagel,  O.  On  seeing  in  the  dark:  remarks  on  the  evolution  of  the  eye.  Psy- 

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1133.  Nagley,  Frank  A.  A study  in  the  psychology  of  play.  Playground,  3,  no. 

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1134.  Nash,  Alice  Morrison.  Education  of  deficient  children  in  England.  Train- 

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1135.  National  association  for  the  study  and  education  of  exceptional  chil- 

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1136.  National  child  labor  committee,  Chicago.  Charities,  21  : 760-766,  1909. 

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In  Annals  of  the  American  academy  of  political  and  social  science,  1908. 
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1138.  . Proceedings  of  the  fifth  annual  conference,  New  York,  1909.  255  p. 

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1139.  National  conference  on  infant  mortality.  Report  of  the  proceedings. 

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1140.  National  congress  of  mothers.  International  congress  in  America  for  the 

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1143.  National  league  for  physical  education  and  improvement.  Annual 

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1144. 


54 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


1145.  National  playground  congress.  Outlook,  90  : 97-98,  1908. 

1146.  Neal,  A.  O.  The  Indiana  plan  for  handling  truants,  indigent  and  pauper 

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1147.  Nellen,  Lea,  and  Marchal,  Lucy.  Contribution  a l’etudede  la  mdmoire  chez 

P enfant.  Revue  psychologique,  1 : 222-229,  1908. 

1148.  . Nouvelles  experiences  sur  la  memoire  chez  l’enfant.  Revue  psy- 

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1149.  Das  nervose  kind  und  seine  ernahrung.  Vierteljahrsschrift  fur  korperliche 

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Deals  with  the  problem  of  nutrition  for  the  nervous  child. 

1150.  Neter,  Eugen.  Die  behandlung  der  straffalligen  iugend.  Miinchen,  O. 

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1151.  . Das  einzige  kind  und  seine  erziehung;  ein  ernstes  mahnwort  an 

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1152.  Netschajeff,  A.  Psychologische  beobachtungen  zur  frage  liber  den  fremd- 

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1153.  . Zur  frage  iiber  die  erforschung  des  reich turns  konkreter  vorstellungen 

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1154.  Neu,  Charles  F.  A few  important  points  in  regard  to  nervous  and  mental 

diseases.  Alienist  and  neurologist,  30  : 42-62,  1909. 

1155.  Neufert,  C.  J.  H.,  and  Bendix,  Bernhard.  Die  Charlottenburger  wald- 

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1156.  Newton,  Marion  Bromley.  Graded  games  and  rythmic  exercises  for  pri- 

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1157.  Newton,  Richard  Cole.  Medical  and  sanitary  inspection  of  schools.  Medi- 

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Report  of  a committee,  made  to  the  New  Jersey  state  sanitary  association. 

1158.  Nobecourt,  . Prophylaxie  des  maladies  aigues  a l’ecole.  Hygiene  sco- 

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1159.  Noel-Armfield,  G.  One  hundred  poems  for  children.  Leipzig,  B.  G.  Teub- 

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1160.  Noll,  Heinrich.  Fingertatigkeit  und  fingerrechnen  als  faktor  der  entwick- 

lung  der  intelligenz  und  der  rechenkunst  bei  schwachbegabten.  Zeit- 
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1161.  North,  Lila  U.  Elementary  public  schools  of  Pittsburgh.  Charities,  21: 

1175-1191,  1909. 

1162.  Northrup,  William  Perry.  Good  and  bad  air  and  its  effects  upon  children. 

Pedagogical  seminary,  16  : 442-444,  December  1909. 

States  treatment  for  those  overcome  by  foul  air,  etc. 

1163.  Norton,  E.  L.  Psychological  basis  of  grammar.  Educational  review,  35: 

148-159,  February  1908. 

1164.  Norwood,  Cyril,  and  Hope,  Arthur  H.  The  higher  education  of  boys  in 

England.  London,  John  Murray,  1909.  568  p. 

1165.  Nouvel,  Georges.  Pierre  et  Jacques;  ou  l’^cole  de  la  jeunesse.  8th  ed. 

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1166.  Noyes,  Ernest  C.  Athletics  in  tb«  high  school.  Journal  of  education, 

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1167.  Nystrom,  Anton.  Keine  onanie-advokatur  mehr!  Sexual-probleme,  5 : 161- 

172,  1909. 

1168.  Obermeier,  C.  Die  lektiire  in  der  volksschule.  Padagogische  abhandlungen, 

14  : 81-98,  1909. 

1169.  O’Connor,  Edward.  Elementary  education;  voluntary  or  compulsory.  Irish 

educational  review,  2 : 290-297,  1909. 

1170.  O’Shea,  M.  V.  The  child  and  the  nation.  California  university  chronicle, 

11  : 125-135,  1909. 

1171.  . Progress  in  child  and  educational  psychology.  Psychological  bulle- 

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1172.  Offner,  M.  Das  gedachtnis  und  seine  verbesserung.  Gesundheitswarte 

der  schule,  7 : 256-262,  1909. 

1173.  Ogden,  Robert  Morris.  The  pictorial  representation  of  distance.  Psycho- 

logical bulletin,  5 : 109-113,  April  1908. 

1174.  Ohm,  J.  Umgekehrte  schrift  bei  einem  links-handigen  kinde.  Klinik  fur 

psychische  u.  nervose  krankheiten,  3 : 285-290,  1908. 

1175.  Olcott,  Francis  Jenkins.  Story  telling;  A public  library  method.  Peda- 

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Systematic  story  telling  in  libraries  and  its  uses. 

1176.  Ont,  A.  H.  Uber  den  einfluss  des  alkoholgenusses  der  eltern  und  ahnen  auf 

die  kinder.  Zeitschrift  fur  kinderforschung,  14  : 1-16,  October  1908. 

1177.  Oppenheim,  Rosa.  Kinderforschungund  jugendfiirsorge  auf  der  viii  general- 

versammlung  des  bundes  deutscher  frauenvereine  zu  Breslau.  Zeitschrift 
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1178.  Oppenheimer,  Karl.  Uber  eine  Methode  zur  ziffermassigen  bestimmung  des 

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1909. 

1179.  Orcutt,  Hortens e M.  Training  of  the  immigrant  child.  Social  education 

quarterly,  1 : 56-61,  January  1908. 

1180.  Ordahl,  George.  Rivalry:  Its  genetic  development  and  pedagogy.  Pedagog- 

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Sees  grave  danger  in  laying  too  much  stress  upon  competition  among  children.  Bibliog- 
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1181.  Ortt,  Felix.  La  lettre  a ma  petite  soeur;  tr.  par  E.  D.  D.  T.  Ostende.  [1909] 

96  p. 

1182.  Ott,  M.  Die  bekampfung  des  alkoholismus  in  der  franzosischen  volksschule. 

Padagogische  abhandlungen,  13  : 139-156,  1908. 

1183.  Overton,  Frank.  How  to  teach  series:  Teaching  physiology.  Education, 

28  : 467-474,  April  1908. 

1184.  Pabisch,  Heinrich.  Der  schulgarten  im  dienste  der  korperlichen  erziehung. 

Vierteljahrschrift  fur  korperlichen  erziehung,  3 : 84-93,  1907. 

1185.  Page,  Mary  Boomer.  The  present  point  of  view  of  the  plays  and  games  of 

the  kindergarten.  Elementary  school  teacher,  9 : 341-358,  1909. 

1186.  Paget,  Walburga.  A child’s  recollections.  Nineteenth  century,  63  : 232- 

244,  1908. 

1187.  Palmer,  George  Herbert.  Ethical  and  moral  instruction  in  schools.  Bos- 

ton, Houghton,  Mifflin  co.,  1909.  55  p. 

1188.  Palmer,  Luella.  The  place  and  functions  of  the  kindergarten  as  an  institution. 

Pedagogical  seminary,  16  : 557-562,  December  1909. 

Why  the  kindergarten  differs  from  home  training.  How  it  prepares  for  school.  Value  in 
child’s  life. 


56 


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1189.  Palmer,  Luella.  The  relation  between  the  ideal  and  the  practical  in  the  kin- 

dergarten programme.  Elementary  school  teacher,  9 : 25-31,  September  1908. 
Also  in  Kindergarten  review,  19  : 71-76, 1908. 

1190.  Parkinson,  William  D.  Individuality  and  social  adjustments  as  means  and 

end  in  education.  Education,  29  : 16-24,  104-112,  September  1908. 

1191.  Parlin,  Frank  E.  Shorter  primary  sessions.  Kindergarten  review,  18  : 335- 

336,  February  1908. 

1192.  Parmentier,  Mathilde.  Ellen  Key  et  la  question  de  T education.  Revue 

pedagogique,  55  : 201-216,  1909. 

This  is  not  a mere  review  of  “The  century  of  the  child”  but  a discussion  of  Ellen  Key’s  atti- 
tude toward  education  and  her  principles  as  shown  in  her  complete  works  of  which  the  “ Century 
of  the  child”  is  the  keystone. 

1193.  Parry,  A.  W.  Education  and  the  social  consciousness.  Child  study,  1 : 110- 

115,  January  1909. 

Shows  historical  evolution  of  idea  of  self  consciousness;  indicates  its  nature  and  to  some  extent 
points  out  method  by  which  knowledge  of  social  consciousness  of  children  may  be  attained. 

1194.  Parsons,  Belle  Ragner.  Plays  and  games  for  indoors  and  out;  rhythmic 

activities  correlated  with  the  studies  of  the  school  program.  New  York, 
Barnes,  1909.  215  p. 

1195.  Parsons,  Herbert.  Establishment  of  a national  children’s  bureau.  Annals 

of  the  American  academy  of  political  and  social  science,  34  : 48-53,  1909. 
Also  in  Charities,  21  : 1254-1255,  1909. 

1196.  Passez,  E.  Controle,  pecule  et  enseignement  professional.  Enfant,  18  : 337- 

345,  1908. 

1197.  Patch,  Kate  Whiting.  Talks  with  a little  boy.  Kindergarten  review, 

18  : 291-295,  January  1908. 

1198.  Paton,  J.  L.  Educational  value  of  play.  Educational  times,  62  : 168-171, 

1909. 

1199.  Patterson,  John.  Is  superior  training  to  be  obtained  in  public  or  private 

schools?  Education,  29  : 682-687,  1909. 

1200.  Patterson,  Louise.  The  physical  care  of  children.  Training  school,  5 : 12- 

14,  1908. 

1201.  Pauchet,  Victor.  Alimentation  de  l’ecolier;  role  du  pain  et  du  lait.  Educa- 

teur  moderne,  4 : 408-410,  1909. 

1202.  . Education  de  la  respiration.  Educateur  moderne,  4 : 165-171,  1909. 

1203.  . Education  physique  de  l’enfant.  Revue  psychologique,  1 : 166- 

178,  1908. 

1204.  . Traitement  de  la  paresse.  Educateur  moderne,  4 : 387-388,  1909. 

1205.  Paulsen,  Friedrich.  German  education,  past  and  present.  London,  T.  F 

Unwin,  1908.  310  p. 

1206.  . Moderne  erziehung  und  geschlechtliche  sittlichkeit.  Berlin,  Reuther 

& Reichard,  1908.  95  p. 

1207.  . Old  and  new  fashioned  notions  about  education.  Educational  review 

35  : 475-476-485,  May  1908. 

1208.  Payot,  Jules.  La  morale  a l’ecole.  3rd  ed.  Paris,  Armand  Colin,  1908. 

256  p. 

1209.  Pearse,  Carroll  G.  Public  schools  for  the  exceptional  child.  In  National 

education  association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1909.  p 
873-877. 

1210.  Pellottieri,  Alessandro.  L’istinto  d’appropriazione  e le  idee  sulla  propriety 

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1211.  Perez,  Bernard.  L’art  et  la  poesie  chez  l’enfant.  Paris,  F.  Alcan,  1888. 

309  p. 

1212.  Persigout,  G.  Essais  de  pedologie  gen£rale.  Paris,  Paulin,  1908.  59  p. 

1213.  . Sur  la  p6dologie.  Educateur  moderne,  3 : 266-272,  337-346,  1908. 

1214.  Petermann,  Theodor.  Zur  frage  der  korperlichen  ziichtigung.  Sexual- 

probleme,  5 : 481-491,  1909. 

1215.  Petit,  Edouard,  and  Sarny,  Georges.  Jean  Lavenir.  Education  du  senti- 

ment. Science  et  progres  pratiques.  Vie  sociale,  Mutuality.  Solidarity 
21st  ed.  Paris,  Alcide  Picard  [190-]  383  p. 

1216.  Pexa,  W.  Beitrag  zur  ataxie  im  kindesalter.  Wiener  medizinische  wochen- 

schrift,  vol.  58  : 1779-1783;  1841-1843;  1882-1885;  1908. 

1217.  Pfaundler,  Meinhard,  and  Schlossmann,  A.,  cds.  Diseases  of  children. 

Philadelphia,  Lippincott,  1908.  4 v. 

1218.  Pfeiffer,  Ernst.  See  Flirst,  Moritz,  and  Pfeiffer,  Ernst. 

1219.  Philipp,  P.  W.  Zwei  interessante  falle  von  bosartigen  neubildungen  bei 

kleinen  kindern.  Jahrbuch  fiir  kinderheilkunde,  18,  ser.  3 : 353-365,  1908. 

1220.  Philippe,  J.  L’education  physique  de  l’enfant.  Enfant,  18  : 241,  1908. 

1221.  Physically  defective  school  children.  Saturday  review,  106  : 291-292,  1908. 

1222.  Piexetta,  S.  S.  Aims  of  a boys’  club.  Charities,  21 : 64-66,  1908. 

1223.  Pillsbury,  W.  B.  The  effect  of  training  on  memory.  Educational  review, 

36  : 15-27,  June  1908. 

1224.  Pimmer,  Victor.  Das  diabolospiel.  Vierteljahrschrift  fiir  korperliche  erzie- 

hung,  3 : 176-179,  1907. 

Discusses  a scientific  toy. 

1225.  . “Matador,”  Ein  spielzeug  auf  physikalischer  grundlage.  Ingenieur 

Korbulys  Baukasten  “Alles  bewegt  sich.”  Vierteljahrschrift  fiir  korper- 
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Description  of  an  ingenious  scientific  toy  devised  by  a Viennese  engineer  for  the  amusement 
and  instruction  of  his  own  sons. 

1226.  Pissot,  Paul,  and  Pissot,  Louis.  Hygiene  sociale;  complement  de  1’inspec- 

tion  medicale  scolaire;  ecoles  de  plein  air.  Revue  d’hygiene,  31  : 623-636, 

1909. 

1227.  Pittsburgh  conference  on  dependent  children.  Survey,  22  : 234-237,1909. 

1228.  Plaisted,  Laura  L.  The  early  education  of  children.  Oxford,  Clarendon 

press,  1909.  398  p. 

1229.  Platt,  William.  Love  and  parentage.  London,  Yellon,  1909.  131  p. 

1230.  Platzhoff-Lejeune,  E.  L’Enfance  malheureuse  et  abandonnee.  Enfant, 

18  : 42-45,  62-64,  82-85,  1909. 

1231.  Play  festival,  Chicago,  1909.  Survey,  23  : 195-200,  1909. 

1232.  Playground  association  of  America.  Report  of  a committee  on  a normal 

course  in  play.  New  York,  Playground  association  of  America,  1909.  288  p. 

Also  in  Proceedings  of  3d  annual  congress,  1909.  v.  3,  no.  3. 

1233.  Playgrounds.  See  series  of  articles  in  Hygiene  and  physical  education,  1909. 

1234.  Plays  for  children.  Outlook,  88  : 115-116,  1908. 

1235.  Plecher,  Hans.  Die  suggestion  im  leben  des  kindes.  Zeitschrift  fiir  kinder- 

forschung,  14  : 257-269,  289-307,  1909. 

1236.  Poelchau,  G.  Uber  die  fiirsorge  fiir  vernachlassigte  schulkinder  durch  die 

schulsch wester.  Zeitschrift  fiir  schulgesundheitspflege,  1908.  p.  749-758. 

1237.  . Uber  die  kontrolluntersuchungen  der  schulkinder  nebst  einigen 

bemerkungen  iiber  die  iirztliche  behandlung  und  iiber  das  schularztsystem. 
Zeitschrift  fiir  schulgesundheitspflege,  22  : 786-798,  1909. 


58  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OP  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-0. 

1238.  Poetter,  Dr.  Die  korperliche  erziehung  der  madchen.  Zeitschrift  fiir  schul- 

gesundheitspflege,  1908,  p.  574-583. 

1239.  Ropert,  Hermann  M.  Was  will  unsere  zeit  von  der  deutschen  studenten- 

schaft?  Jena,  Fischer,  1908.  31  p. 

1240.  Porter,  David  R.  Moral  conditions  in  high  schools.  A report  of  investiga- 

tion. Religious  education,  4 : 197-202,  1909. 

1241.  Porter,  Robert  H.  Medical  management  of  degenerate  children.  Medical 

record,  76  : 425-430,  1909. 

1242.  Potter,  Marion  E.,  and  others,  comp.  Children’s  catalog;  a guide  to  the  best 

reading  for  young  people  based  on  twenty-four  selected  library  lists.  Minne- 
sota, H.  W.  Wilson  co.,  1909.  2 v.  in  1. 

1243.  Potter,  Samuel  O.  L.  Speech  and  its  defects,  considered  physiologically, 

pathologically,  historically  and  remedially.  Philadelphia,  Blakiston,  1882. 
117  p. 

1244.  Potts,  W.  A.  The  recognition  and  training  of  congenital  mental  defectives. 

British  medical  journal,  1 : 1097-1099,  1908. 

1245.  Poulsson,  Emiiie.  In  the  child’s  world;  morning  talks  and  stories  for  kinder- 

garten, primary  school  and  homes.  Springfield,  Milton  Bradley  co.,  1908. 
443  p. 

1246.  Pour  faire  1’ education  de  1’ esprit  d’entreprise  chez  les  enfants.  Education 

familiale,  9 : 184-189,  1908. 

1247.  Price,  Marshall  Langton.  Measures  to  promote  the  health  of  school  children. 

American  journal  of  public  hygiene,  19  : 22-26,  1909. 

1248.  Prince,  John  T.  Time  limits  and  school  sessions.  Education,  28  : 475-477, 

April  1908. 

1249.  Pritchard,  Eric.  The  physiology  of  the  child.  Child  study,  2 : 6-13,  April 

1909. 

Explains  how  various  mechanisms  of  growing  child  are  engineered  and  brought  to  perfection. 

1250.  The  problem  of  the  delinquent  girl.  Children’s  charities,  16  : 9-11,  April  1909. 

1251.  Probst,  A.  F.  The  school  print  shop  and  its  possibilities;  a plea  for  the  school 

print  shop  in  the  interests  of  motor  training,  spelling,  paragraphing,  punctua- 
tion, capitalization,  grammar,  English,  reading,  etc.  Elementary  school 
teacher,  8 : 265-270,  1908. 

1252.  Provision  for  special  classes  of  children.  In  U.  S.  Bureau  of  education.  Report 

of  the  Commissioner  for  the  year  1909.  v.  1.  p.  239-241. 

Report  of  conference  on  the  care  of  dependent  children;  compulsory  education  of  blind  and 
deaf  children  in  Indiana;  Utah  commission  for  adult  blind;  and  vacation  schools  for  backward 
children. 

1253.  Prvy  Cesk^-  Sjezd  pro  Peci  o Slabomyslne  a Skolslvi  PomocnA  Prague,  1909. 

252  p. 

Proceedings  of  the  first  Bohemian  congress  for  the  care  of  backward  and  feeble-minded 
children. 

1254.  The  public  school  and  the  home.  Craftsman,  16  : 284-290,  1909. 

1255.  Pugsley,  Fremont  L.  The  nature  and  scope  of  control  over  school  children 

by  school  authorities.  Education,  28  : 265-273,  January  1908. 

1256.  Purdum,  H.  D.,  and  Wells,  R.  E.  Dementia  praecox.  A composite  history 

of  two  hundred  cases.  Journal  of  American  medical  association,  51  : 34-36, 
1908. 

1257.  Putnam,  Alice  H.  Drawing  in  the  kindergarten.  In  National  education 

association.  Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1908.  p.  523-526. 

1258.  . Moral  “controls”  in  the  nursery  and  the  kindergarten.  Elementary 

school  teacher,  9 : 493-503,  1909. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OP  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


59 


1259.  Putnam,  H.  C.  School  hygiene  in  England.  Survey,  22  : 476-478,  1909. 

1260.  Pyle,  Howard.  Garden  behind  the  moon.  New  York,  Scribners,  1908. 

192  p. 

1261.  La  question  de  l’education  sexuelle  des  ieunes  garcons.  Hygiene  ecolaire, 

1909.  no.  25,  p.  33-44. 

1262.  Quilibet,  pseud.  Between  boy  and  man,  being  lectures  to  sixth-form  boys. 

London,  Watts,  1908.  149  p. 

1263.  Rabich,  B.  Massigkeit  und  abstinenz.  Allgemeine  deutsche  lehrerzsitung, 

61  : 533-535,  1909. 

1264.  Rachford,  Benjamin  Knox.  Neurotic  diseases  of  childhood,  including  a 

study  of  auto  and  intestinal  intoxications,  etc.  New  York,  E.  B.  Treat, 
1905.  440  p. 

1265.  Racine,  G.  L’enseignement  de  la  natation  a l’ecole  primaire.  Eucateur 

moderne,  3 : 385-396,  1908. 

1266.  Radoi,  Mile.  L’attitude  de  l’enfant  qui  ecrit.  In  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  libre 

pour  l’etude  psychologique  de  l’enfant,  9 : 126-128,  1909. 

1267.  Rahn,  William.  Das  volkslied  als  erziehungsmittel.  Monatshefte  f Hr 

deutsche  sprache  und  padagogik,  10  : 268-274,  1909. 

1268.  Ramaley,  Francis.  The  educational  significance  of  Minot’s  theory  of  age 

and  growth.  Educational  review,  38  : 282-287,  October  1909. 

1269.  Ranschburg,  Paul.  Zur  physiologischen  und  pathologischen  psychologie  der 

elementaren  rechenarten.  Zeitschrift  fur  experimentelle  padagogik,  7 : 135- 
162,  1908.  9 : 251-261,  1909. 

1270.  Rapeer,  Louis  W.  The  school  playground  as  a national  educational  factor. 

Hygiene  and  physical  education,  1 : 617-623,  1909. 

1271.  Rasser,  E.  O.  Die  gesamtschule ; betrachtungen  fiber  erziehungs-  und  ehere- 

form.  Padagogische  abhandlungen,  13  : 57-66,  1908. 

1272.  Ravenhill,  Alice.  Eugenic  education  for  women  and  girls.  Westminster, 

King,  1908.  24  p. 

1273.  . Lessons  in  practical  hygiene,  for  use  in  schools,  with  a preface  by 

M.  E.  Sadler.  Leeds  and  Glasgow,  E.  J.  Arnold  & son,  1907.  744  p. 

The  subject  of  hygiene  is  so  important  that  this  book  by  two  well-known  English  writers 
is  most  welcome  to  those  interested  in  child  study. 

1274.  . Some  characteristics  of  childhood.  Leeds,  Arnold  & son,  n.  d.  70  p. 

An  admirable  book  for  parents.  Emphasizes  importance  of  sleep. 

1275.  . Some  results  of  an  investigation  into  hours  of  sleep  among  children 

in  the  elementary  schools  of  England.  Child  study,  1 : 116-124,  1909. 

1276.  Raycroft,  Joseph.  E.  Function  and  administration  of  medical  supervision 

in  the  school.  Hygiene  and  physical  education,  1 : 38-42;  257-259,  1909. 

1277.  Reaney,  Mrs.  Isabel.  Mothers  and  motherhood.  Popular  re-issue.  London, 

C.  J.  Thynne  [1908]  112  p. 

1278.  Rebecq,  Marcelle.  Le  dessin  pour  les  petits.  Enfant,  18  : 112-115,  1908. 

1279.  Redway,  Jacques  W.  How  to  teach  series.  Getting  at  the  essentials  in 

geography  teaching.  Education,  29  : 65-75,  October  1908. 

1280.  Reeder,  R.  R.  Punishment  of  children.  Charities,  19  : 1359-1363,  1908. 

1281.  Regnier,  Pierre.  L’enseignement  des  questions  de  physiologie  sexuelle. 

Hygiene  scolaire,  1909.  p.  95-109. 

1282.  Rehm,  O.  Die  ergebnisse  der  untersuchung  von  kindern  manisch-depressiver 

kranken.  Zeitschrift  ffir  die  erforschung  und  behandlung  der  jugendlichen 
schwachsinns,  3 : 1-13,  1909. 


60 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


1283.  Reibmayr,  A.  Die  entwicklungsgeschichte  des  talentes  und  genies.  Miin- 

chen,  Lehmann,  1908.  2 v. 

1284.  Reicher,  Heinrich.  Bibliographie  der  jugendftirsorge.  Wien,  Manz,  1909. 

126  p. 

1285.  Reigart,  J.  F„  Enforcement  of  school  attendance  in  London.  Survey, 

32  : 123-125,  1909. 

1286.  Reinhold,  Ferdinand.  Beitrage  zur  assoziationslehre  auf  grund.  von  massen- 

versuchen.  Zeitschrift  fur  psychologie  und  physiologie  der  sinnesorgane. 
Abt.  1.  54  : 183-214,  1909. 

1287.  Renault,  J.  Bulletin  des  romans  et  livres  de  lecture  capables  d’interesser 

utilement  la  jeunesse.  Education  familiale,  8 : 129-133,  345-350,  516-519, 
1907. 

1288.  . Comment  preparer  les  enfants  au  respect  des  questions  sexuelles? 

Namur,  Godenne,  1908.  28  p. 

1289.  Rettig,  W.  Leo  Burgerstein  und  die  schulbankfrage.  Charlottenburg,  P.  J. 

Muller,  1909.  31  p. 

1290.  Revesz,  Margit.  Die  rechenfahigkeit  der  schwachbefahigten  und  deren 

genauere  wertung.  Zeitschrift  fur  die  erforsc-hung  und  behandlung  des 
jugendlichen  schwachsinns,  2 : 189-205,  1909. 

1291.  Rice,  Mrs.  Isaac  L.  Children’s  hospital  branch  of  the  Society  for  the  sup- 

pression of  unnecessary  noise.  Forum,  39  : 560-567,  1908. 

1292.  Richard,  . L’education  et  1’antialcoolisme.  Educateur  moderne,  4: 

214-227,  1909. 

1293.  Richards,  Mrs.  Laura  E.  H.  The  golden  windows;  a book  of  fables  for  young 

and  old.  10th  ed.  Boston,  Little,  Brown  & co.,  1908.  123  p. 

1294.  Richman,  Julia.  Spelling  in  the  east  side  schools  of  New  York.  Educational 

review,  35  : 160-169,  February  1908. 

1295.  . What  share  of  the  blame  for  the  increase  in  the  number  of  truants  and 

incorrigibles  belongs  to  the  school?  In  National  education  association. 
Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1909.  p.  222-232. 

Also  in  Journal  of  education,  69  : 237-292,  1909. 

States  that  the  heaviest  blame  is  laid  on  home  conditions;  a proof  for  its  authentication;  need 
of  playgrounds  in  school  course. 

1296.  Richmond,  Mrs.  Ennis.  For  our  daughters;  a plea  for  the  co-education  of 

our  boys  and  girls.  Letchworth,  Wheeler,  Odell  & co.,  1908.  20  p. 

1297.  Richter,  Karl.  Die  gesundheitliche  belehrung  der  schuljugend.  Gesund- 

heitswarte  der  schule,  6 : 145-153,  1908. 

1298.  Rietschel, . Yereinsbericht.  Erster  Deutscher  kongress  fur  sauglings- 

fursorge  am  19.  Juni  1909  in  Dresden.  Jahrbuch  fur  kinderheilkunde 
und  physische  erziehung,  20  : 220-225,  1909. 

1299.  Rigby,  L.  M.  See  Russell,  Charles  E.  B.,  and  Rigby,  L.  M. 

1300.  Right  view  of  the  child.  Charities,  20  : 123-125,  1908. 

1301.  Riley,  Alice  C.  D.  Child  song — its  verse.  In  National  education  association. 

Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1908.  p.  854-857. 

1302.  Rizor,  Dr.  Ergebnisse  der  psychiatrisch-neurologischen  untersuchung  der  in 

den  anstalten  befindlichen  iiber  14  jahre  alten  fiirsorge-zoglinge  Westfalens. 
Zeitschrift  fur  de  erforschung  und  behandlung  des  jugendlichen  schwachsinns, 
3 : 119-146,  1909. 

1303.  Roedder,  E.  C.  Das  deutsche  marchen.  Monatshefte  fur  deutsche  sprache 

und  padogogik,  10  ; 10-17,  40-45,  65-75,  1909. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9.  61 

1304.  Rogers,  James  Edward.  The  theory  of  a boys’  club.  Education,  30  : 40- 

44,  1909. 

1305.  Rogers,  James  Frederick.  Physical  and  moral  training.  Pedagogical 

seminary,  16  : 301-304,  September  1909. 

Deals  with  some  fatigue  problems.  Physical  wellfare  held  to  be  of  the  highest  importance. 

1306.  Rohde,  E.  W.  Die  versorgung  der  hinterbliebenen  der  deutschen  volks- 

schullehrer.  Allgemeine  deutsche  lehrerzeitung,  61  : 168-172,  1909. 

1307.  Rollet,  H.  Patronage  de  l’enfance  et  de  l’adolescence.  Enfant,  18  : 5-7, 

27-29,  48-50,  67-69,  86-88,  107-108,  127-129,  149-150,  166-168,  183-184, 
218-219,  1908. 

1308.  Romans  pour  jeunes  filles.  Educateur  moderne,  4 : 281-291,  1909. 

1309.  Rooper,  Thomas  Godolphin.  Drawing  in  the  public  schools.  New  York, 

E.  L.  Kellogg  & co.,  1894.  30  p. 

1310.  Rosen,  F.  Darstellende  kunst  im  kindesalter  der  volker.  Zeitschrift  fur 

angewandte  sychologique,  1 : 93-118,  1908. 

1311.  Rosenkranz,  C.  Ueber  sexuelle  belehrungen  der  jugend.  Halle;  Schroedel, 

1908.  20  p. 

1312.  Ross,  E.  Athelstan.  [The]  influence  of  the  teacher  on  the  child’s  interests. 

Manual  training  magazine,  10  : 313-316,  1909. 

1313.  Rossiter,  W.  S.  Decreasing  proportion  of  children.  In  Annals  of  the 

American  academy  of  political  and  social  science,  34  : 71-80,  1909. 

1314.  Rotges,  E.  Les  classes  d’anormaux  a Bordeaux.  Enfant,  18  : 2-4,  22-27, 

1909. 

1315.  Rouma,  Georges.  Notes  pedagogiques  sur  une  classe  d’enfants  anormaux. 

Educateur  moderne,  3 : 49-65,  97-108,  157-182,  1908. 

Also  reprinted  in  Paris,  1908.  55  p. 

1316.  . Un  cas  de  mythomanie,  contribution  a 1 ’etude  du  mensonge  et  de  la 

fabulation  chez  l’enfant.  Archives  de  phychologie,  7 : 259-282,  1908. 

1317.  Roux,  Georges.  La  creche:  son  organisation,  son  fonctionnement.  Enfant, 

18  : 179-188,  1908. 

1318.  Row,  Robert  Keable.  Educational  meaning  of  manual  arts  and  industries. 

Chicago,  Row,  Peterson  & co.,  1909.  248  p. 

1319.  Rowe,  Blanche  Hanbury.  How  to  begin  teaching  little  children  to  read; 

the  teacher’s  manual  to  Rowe’s  rapid  method.  London,  Dent,  1909.  208  p. 

1320.  . Rowe’s  rapid  method  of  teaching  reading;  first  and  second  primers. 

London,  Dent,  1909.  2 v. 

1321.  Rowe,  Stuart  H.  Habit-formation  and  the  science  of  teaching.  New  York, 

Longmans,  Green  & co.,  1909.  308  p. 

Contents:  Teacher’s  problem;  modes  of  organizing  experience;  forms  of  organized  experi- 
ence; difference  between  habits  and  ideas;  basis  of  habit;  establishing  habits;  selection  of 
habits;  methods  of  evoking  initiative,  securing  practice,  preventing  exceptions,  and  of  break- 
ing habits;  habit  formation  as  applied  to  school  discipline  and  drill;  bibliography  of  habit. 

1322.  Rowland,  Stanley  C.  Home-work  and  young  boys.  Irish  educational 

review,  2 : 152-158,  1908. 

1323.  Ruediger,  William  C.  The  indirect  improvement  of  mental  function  through 

ideals.  Educational  review,  36  : 364-371,  November  1908. 

1324.  . Teaching  pupils  to  study.  Education,  29  : 437^146,  1909. 

1325.  Rugh,  Charles  E.  Books  for  moral  training  in  schools.  Religious  education, 

3 : 137-146,  1908. 

1326.  Riihle,  Otto.  Kinderelend;  proletarische  gegenwartsbilder.  Miinchen,  G. 

Birk  [190-]  92  p. 


62  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 

1327.  Russell,  Alys.  The  St.  Pancras  school  for  mothers.  Nineteenth  century, 

63  : 763-770,  1908. 

1328.  Russell,  Charles  E.  B.,  and  Rigby,  L.  M.  Working  lad’s  clubs.  New  York, 

Macmillan  co.,  1908.  445  p. 

1329.  Russell,  James  E.  The  school  and  industrial  life.  Educational  review, 

38  : 433-450,  December  1909. 

Account  of  demand  by  public  of  vocational  training  in  the  schools  for  many  who  cannot 
afford  to  remain  in  school  beyond  elementary  grades,  and  not  a course  preparing  a few  for  higher 
education. 

1330.  Russell,  John.  Can  the  school  prepare  for  parenthood?  Eugenics  review, 

1 : 77-84,  1909. 

1331.  Sabin,  Henry.  The  question  of  motives.  Journal  of  education,  68  : 78-79, 

July  9,  1908. 

1332.  Sachs,  Julius.  The  intellectual  reactions  of  coeducation.  Educational  review, 

35  : 466-475,  May  1908. 

1333.  Sacrifice  of  the  innocents.  Cosmopolitan,  47  : 423-435,  1909. 

1334.  Sadler,  Michael  Ernest.  The  church  and  the  adolescent.  Educational 

times,  61  : 473-475,  1908. 

1335.  . Moral  instruction  and  training  in  schools;  report  of  an  international 

inquiry  . . . London  [etc.]  Longmans,  Green,  and  co.,  1908.  2 v. 

Bibliography:  v.  1,  p.  481-489;  v.  2,  p.  351-369. 

1336.  Sadler,  S.  H.  Infant  feeding  by  artificial  means;  a scientific  and  practical 

treatise  on  the  dietetics  of  infancy.  London,  Routledge,  1909.  253  p. 

1337.  St.  John,  Edward  P.  A genetic  study  of  veracity.  Pedagogical  seminary, 

15  : 246-270,  June  1908. 

Study  of  the  different  types  of  children’s  lies  and  their  causes. 

1338.  . School  and  church  in  moral  and  religious  education.  Religious  edu- 

cation, 4 : 418-423,  1909. 

1339.  Saint- Ybars,  Sophy  de.  De  un  jour  a dix  ans;  notes  maternelles.  Educa- 

tes moderne,  4 : 30-38,  239-242,  292-294,  352-354,  1909. 

1340.  Sainte-Marie,  U.  La  paresse.  Enfant,  18  : 512-518,  1908. 

1341.  Saleeby,  Caleb  Williams.  Parenthood  and  race  culture;  an  outline  of 

eugenics.  London,  Cassell  & co.,  1909.  331  p. 

1342.  Salsbury,  Ambrosine.  Five-cent  art;  effect  of  so-called  journalism  upon 

moral  sense  of  children.  Kindergarten  review,  19  : 35-37,  September  1908. 

1343.  Samter, . Die  fiirsorge  fur  sauglinge  und  mutter  in  Charlottenburg. 

Soziale  medizin  und  hygiene,  4 : 61-69,  1909. 

1344.  Sanderson,  A.  C.  See  McMillan,  Margaret,  and  Sanderson,  A.  C. 

1345.  Sanville,  F.  L.  Children  and  textiles,  a record  of  experience.  North  Ameri- 

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1381.  Schroder,  Oskar.  Etwas  liber  das  wirken  und  die  bestrebungen  des  stimm- 

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Gives  an  account  of  the  lack  of  religious  training;  a defect  in  educational  system.  Discusses 
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1393.  Schwimmer,  Rosika.  Staatlicher  kinderschutz  in  Ungarn.  Neue  genera- 

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1414.  Seydel,  Otto.  Welche  anforderungen  stellt  der  schularzt  an  die  schulbank? 

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1417.  Sharpless,  Isaac.  The  Quaker  boy  at  school.  Independent,  65  : 543-546, 

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96987°— 11 5 


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1444.  Sneed,  C.  M.,  and  Whipple,  Guy  Montrose.  An  examination  of  the  eyes, 

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1445.  Soares,  Theodore  Gerald.  Religious  training  for  the  high  school  age. 

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In  the  public  schools  of  Brussels  children  having  speech  defects  are  given  special  training  by 
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1452.  Spargo,  John.  The  physical  condition  of  our  school  children.  Independent, 

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1456.  Spillman,  W.  J.  The  country  boy.  Science,  29  n.  s.  : 739-740,  1909. 

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1458.  Stables,  William  Gordon.  Parents’  guide  to  children’s  ailments.  London, 

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1459.  Stadelmann,  Heinrich.  Die  kindliche  nervositat;  ihre  beziehungen  zur 

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1460.  Starbuck,  Edwin  D.  The  child-mind  and  child-religion.  Biblical  world, 

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1462.  Starke-Jones,  H.  R.  Interest  and  the  child.  Child  study,  1 : 38-47,  1908. 

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1469.  Stem,  H.  Die  geistige  leistungsfahigkeit  der  sch  tiler  unter  dem  einflusse  der 

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1470.  Stern,  L.  William.  Die  entwicklung  der  raumwahrnehmung  in  der  ersten 

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1471.  . Tatsachen  und  ursachen  der  seelischen  entwicklung.  Zeitschrift  fiir 

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1472.  . See  also  Stem,  Mrs.  Clara,  and  Stern,  L.  W. 

1473.  Stevenson,  Robert  Louis.  A child’s  garden  of  verses;  illus.  by  Charles 

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1474.  Stewart,  George  B.  The  Sunday  school  as  an  educational  force  in  social 

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1475.  Stimpfl,  Joseph.  See  Tracy,  Frederick,  and  Stimpfl,  Joseph. 

1476.  Stoneroad,  Rebecca.  Gymnastic  stories  and  plays  for  primary  schools. 

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1477.  Storey,  Thomas  A.  The  relation  of  school  hygiene  to  physical  education. 

American  physical  education  review,  14  : 529-536,  1909. 

1478.  Stowe,  A.  Monroe.  The  school  club:  its  relation  to  several  educational 

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1480.  Stowe,  Lyman  Beecher.  The  fetish  of  country  boys.  Appleton’s  magazine, 

12  : 564-572,  1908. 

1481.  . School  republics.  Outlook,  90  : 939-948,  1908. 

1482.  Stransky,  Erwin.  Uber  die  dementia  praecox.  Wiesbaden,  Bergmann, 

1909.  46  p.  (Grenzfragen  des  nerven-  und  seelenlebens,  no.  67) 

1483.  Stratz,  C.  K.  Das  normale  wachstum.  Viertel  jahrsschrift  fiir  korperliche 

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Shows  curve  of  normal  growth  as  estimated  from  measurements  taken  by  Menti,  Camerer, 
Axel  Key,  von  Lange  and  the  author. 

1484.  Strunsky,  S.  Health  in  public  schools.  Nation,  88  : 56-57,  1909. 

1485.  Struthers,  John.  The  reading  of  public  school  children.  Religious  educa- 

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1486.  Stuart,  Alexander  T.  Feminization  of  boys.  Journal  of  education,  67  . 625- 

626,  June  4,  1908. 

1487.  Stuart,  Hackworth.  The  doctor  in  the  schools;  being  notes  on  the  medical 

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1488.  Stumpf,  C.  Akustische  versuche  mit  Pepito  Arriola.  Zeitschrift  fur  ange- 

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Tests  made  by  Prof.  Stumpf  and  others  on  the  musical  capability  of  a gifted  Spanish  boy  six 
years  old. 

1489.  Sturges,  Vesta.  The  California  George  junior  republic  iu  its  beginning. 

Children’s  charities,  16  : 12-14,  June  1909. 


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1490.  Subbaiya,  N.  R.  School  excursions  as  a factor  in  education.  Educational 

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1491.  Suck,  Hans.  Schulbanke  in  hilfsklassen  fur  schwachbefahigte.  Zeitschrift 

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1492.  . Sozialpolitik  und  schulhygiene.  Padagogische  abhandlung,  14  : 1-30, 

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1493.  A suggestion  for  the  boy  scouts.  Spectator,  103  : 678-079,  1909. 

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A study  of  suicide  in  pupils  of  preadolescent  age. 

1495.  Summers,  Maud.  Story-telling  in  playgrounds.  Story  hour,  1 : 24-27, 

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1496.  Super,  C.  W.  Play.  Education,  29  : 637-648,  1909. 

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1499.  Swift,  Edgar  James.  Mind  in  the  making.  A study  in  mental  develop- 

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1500.  Sylva,  Carmen.  Bringing  up  children.  Independent,  65  : 238-242,  1908. 

1501.  Synge,  M.  B.  Provision  made  in  Belgium  and  France  for  children  under 

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Excellent  accounts  of  the  creche  system,  jardins  d’enfants,  in  Belgium  and  France. 

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Child  study  in  Poland. 

1503.  Talbot,  Winthrop  T.  The  physical  basis  of  attention.  In  National  educa- 

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1504.  . The  physical  and  social  needs  of  adolescent  boys.  Pedagogical  semi- 

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Deals  with  outdoor  life  and  its  benefits. 

1505.  Tapper,  Thomas.  Music  and  east  side  children.  Outlook,  88  : 427-432, 

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1506.  Taussig,  Albert  E.  The  prevalence  of  visual  and  aural  defects  among  the 

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Showing  the  percentage  of  visual  and  aural  defects  among  2,000  children;  the  influence  of 
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1507.  Taylor,  E.  J.  Color  sense  training  and  color  using.  London,  Blackie,  1908. 

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1508.  Taylor,  Edwin  L.  The  place  of  manual  training  in  the  elementary  school. 

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1509.  Taylor,  Graham.  Civic  value  of  library  work  with  children.  Public  libra- 

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1510.  Taylor,  Graham  R.  Play  and  the  better  city.  Children’s  charities,  16  : 10- 

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1515.  Tebbetts,  Frank  Pierson.  The  land  of  once  upon  a time.  Open  court, 

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1516.  Temming,  Ernst.  Wie  erzieht  und  bildet  die  hohere  madchenschule  unsere 

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1519.  Terman,  L.  M.  Child  study;  its  reason  and  promise.  California  university 

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1524.  Thiersch,  Justus.  Wandtafeln  zur  demonstration  der  folgen  zu  starker 

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1525.  Thiesing, . Uneheliche  und  vormundschaft.  Sexual-probleme,  5 : 120- 

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1526.  Thomas,  A.  L’hygiene  a l’ecole  suburbaine.  Hygiene  scolaire,  1909.  p. 

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1527.  Thomas,  C.  J.  The  aphasias  of  childhood  and  educational  hygiene.  Child- 

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Deals  with  various  speech  centers,  and  aphasias  peculiar  to  each.  It  also  gives  several  meth- 
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1529.  Thomas,  J.  J.  Hysteria  in  children.  Journal  of  nervous  and  mental  disease, 

35  : 209-242,  1908. 

1530.  Thomas,  P.  Felix.  L’ education  dans  la  famille,  les  peches  des  parents. 

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1531.  Thorndike,  Edward  L.  The  elimination  of  pupils  from  school.  Washington, 

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1532.  Thurston,  Henry  W.  What  should  a probation  officer  do  for  the  child? 

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1533.  . Memory  for  paired  associates.  Psychological  review,  15  : 122-138, 

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1534.  Tibbey,  T.  G.  The  child  and  its  social  life:  some  suggestions  for  reading. 

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1535.  Tichy,  Gustave.  Etudes  de  pedo-psychologie  en  Boheme.  Educateur  mo* 

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1536.  Tilley,  M.  P.  School-girls  in  Shakespeare’s  time.  Nation,  89  : 327,  1909. 


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1537.  Tillier,  Jean.  La  gymnastique  des  enfants  au  Japon.  Educateur  moderne, 

3 : 26-34,  1908. 

1538.  Titchener,  Edward  Bradford.  The  tridimensional  theory  of  feeling.  Ameri- 

can journal  of  psychology,  19  : 213-231,  April  1908. 

1539.  Tornell,  G.  Medical  supervision  of  the  secondary  schools  in  Sweden.  Hygiene 

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1540.  Tracy,  Frederick.  Psychologie  der  kindheit.  2d  ed.  rev.  Leipzig,  Wunder- 

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1542.  Tracy,  S.  E.  The  occupation  treatment  for  sick  children.  Pedagogical  semi- 

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“ The  best  play  is  work,  and  the  best  work  is  play,  and  both  are  being  considered  as  a means 
of  cure.” 

1543.  Traudt,  Valentin.  See  Henck,  W.,  and  Traudt,  V. 

1544.  Trautmann,  H.  Uber  verschleppung  ansteckender  krankheiten  durch  druck- 

werke  und  ihre  verhiitung  durch  b ucherdesinfektion . Zeitschrift  fur  schul- 
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1545.  Travis,  Seward  S.  High  school  fraternities.  Education,  29  : 517-527,  1909. 

1546.  Travis,  Thomas.  The  young  malefactor;  a study  in  juvenile  delinquency,  its 

causes  and  treatment.  New  York,  T.*Y.  Crowell  [1908]  243  p. 

1547.  Tremaine,  W.  F.  Dental  irregularities  associated  with  mental  infirmities. 

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1548  Trewby,  Arthur.  Healthy  boyhood.  2d  ed.  London,  G.  Bell,  1909.  63  p. 

1549.  Triiper,  . Zur  wertung  der  kinderpsychologie  und  der  padagogik  in  der 

strafrechtsreform.  Zeitschrift  fur  kinderforschung,  13  : 143-150,  173-175, 
227-240,  1908. 

1550.  , Johann.  Zur  frage  der  schulerselbstmorde.  Zeitschrift  fur  kinder- 

forschung, 14  : 75-86,  December  1908. 

1551.  Tuberculosis  in  early  childhood.  Medical  record,  75  : 894-895,  1909. 

1552.  Tufts,  James  Hayden.  The  school  and  modern  life.  The  problem  of  moral 

education  in  the  public  schools  as  affected  by  the  changed  conditions  in 
industry  and  home  life.  Religious  education,  4 : 343-348,  1909. 

1553.  Tugendreich,  Gustav.  Die  sauglingsfiirsorgestellen  der  stadt  Berlin  im 

verwaltungsjahr  1907-08.  Soziale  medizin  und  hygiene,  4 : 526-535,  1909. 

1554.  Tyler,  John  M.  Growth  and  development.  Why  study  growth?  Hygiene 

and  physical  education,  1 : 333-335,  1909. 

1555.  . Physical  training  for  girls  of  high  school  age — the  biological  point  of 

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July  16,  1908. 

1557.  Tyrrell,  M.  A.  Fear  in  the  home  and  the  household.  Nineteenth  century, 

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1558.  TJbeyd-Oullah.  L’islamisme  et  la  pedagogie  musulmane.  Revue  de  l’hyp- 

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1559.  Uetzel,  William  A.  The  school  orchestra.  Journal  of  education,  69  : 153, 

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1560.  TJhlenkrliger, . Stoffe  fur  den  anschauungsunterricht.  Monatshefte  fur 

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1561.  TJIbrich,  Hermann.  Augenarztliche  untersuchungen  an  schwachsinnigen . 

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1562.  Ulm,  A.  H.  Pleas  of  the  child  laborer.  North  American  review,  189  : 890- 

899,  1909. 

1563.  Underwood,  Homer  K.  A teacher  of  literature  for  the  elementary  school. 

Education,  30  : 174-183,  1909. 

1564.  V an  Broekhoven,  J.  The  necessity  of  ear  training  and  music  in  the  education 

of  the  child.  Kindergarten  magazine,  21  : 309-315,  June  1909. 

An  article  bringing  out  the  possibility  of  musical  training  in  the  kindergarten,  and  also  showing 
the  value  of  ear  training  in  this  course. 

1565.  . The  educational  value  of  music  plays  in  the  kindergarten.  Kinder- 

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Pealing  upon  the  practical  side  of  the  usefulness  of  music  in  relation  to  children’s  plays  and 
games. 

1566.  Van  den  Plas,  Louise.  Comment  faire  l’education  religieuse  des  enfants? 

Education  familiale,  10  : 311-319,  367-373,  1909. 

Written  from  the  Catholic  point  of  view. 

1567.  . L’edncation  du  sangfroid  et  de  la  patience.  Education  familiale 

9 : 305-310,  372-377,  433-437,  1908. 

1568.  . L’education  menagere.  Education  familiale,  10  : 439-442,  495-498, 

1909. 

1569.  Van  der  Noot,  Louise.  Experiences  sur  les  rapports  entre  la  memoire  et  la 

connaissance  chez  les  enfants.  Revue  psychologique,  2 : 472-479,  1909. 

1570.  Vanderwalker,  Nina  C.  The  kindergarten  in  American  education.  New 

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A fair  statement  of  the  new  and  the  old  points  of  view. 

1571.  Van  Dijck,  J.  Wie  lerne  ich  zeichnen?  Zeichenvorbilder  fur  schule  und 

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1572.  Van  Dyke,  Paul.  Are  we  spoiling  our  boys  who  have  the  best  chances  in 

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1573.  Vaney,  V.  L’age  de  la  lecture.  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  libre  pour  l’etude 

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1574.  . La  vision  de  nos  ecoliers.  In  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  libre  pour  l’etude 

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1575.  . Le  developpement  physique  des  arrieres  d’ecole.  In  Bulletin  de  la 

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1577.  . Nouvelles  recherches  sur  1’ age  de  la  lecture.  In  Bulletin  de  la  Societe 

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1578.  Van  Kleeck,  M.  Child  labor  in  New  York  City  tenements.  Charities, 

19  : 1405-1420,  1908. 

1579.  Van  Sickle,  James  H.  Provision  for  exceptional  children  in  the  public  schools. 

Psychological  clinic,  2 : 102-111,  June  1908. 

1580.  Van  Vorst,  Mrs.  John.  Cry  of  the  children;  a study  of  child-labor.  New 

York,  Moffat,  Yard  & co.,  1908.  246  p. 

1581.  Varendonck,  M.  J.  Les  ideals  d’enfants.  Archives  de  psychologie,  7 : 365- 

382,  1908. 

1582.  Veith,  Adolf.  Uber  orthodiagraphische  herzuntersuchungen  bei  kindern  im 

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1583.  Venereal  diseases  in  infancy.  Medical  record,  75  : 1019,  1909. 

1584.  Verhandlungen  der  IX.  Jahresversammlung  des  allgemeinen  deutschen  vereins 

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1585.  Verworn,  M.  Zur  psychologie  der  primitiven  kunst.  Jena,  Fischer,  1908. 

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1586.  V idal-N aque t, . La  loi  du  11  avril  1908;  son  application.  Enfant,  18: 

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Juvenile  court. 

1587.  Vincent,  Ralph.  Lectures  on  babies.  London,  Bailliere,  Tindall  & Cox, 

1908.  113  p. 

1588.  Vives,  Juan  Luis.  Tudor  school-boy  life;  the  dialogues  of  Vives,  tr.  by 

Foster  Watson.  London,  Dent,  1908.  247  p. 

1589.  Vogt,  H.  Bericht  iiber  den  ersten  deutschen  jugendgerichtstag,  Berlin- 

Charlottenburg  16.-18.  Marz  1909.  Zeitschrift  fur  die  erforschung  und 
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1590.  . Zur  diagnostik  der  tuberosen  sklerose.  Zeitschrift  fur  die  erforschung 

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1591.  Volland, . Epilepsie  bei  geschwistern.  Zeitschrift  fur  die  erforschung 

und  behandlung  des  jugendlichen  schwachsinns,  2 : 299-326,  1908. 

1592.  Vos,  Herman  B.  L.  Bijdrage  tot  de  psychologie  van  het  getuigenis  van 

schoolkinderen.  Leiden,  J.  Morks,  1909.  170  p. 

1593.  Vo  taw,  Clyde  Weber.  Method  of  school  and  church  in  moral  and  religious 

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1594.  . Suggestions  concerning  a curriculum  for  the  moral  and  religious  edu- 

cation of  boys  and  young  men  under  the  direction  of  the  Young  men’s  Chris- 
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1595.  Wachenheim,  F.  L.  Notes  on  tuberculosis  in  school  children.  Pedagogical 

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States  conditions  and  climates  best  for  these  patients. 

1596.  Wade,  Frank  E.  Prosecution  of  parents  for  the  delinquencies  of  their  chil- 

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Enumerates  the  laws  of  the  different  States  concerning  parental  responsibility  for  the  offenses 
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1597.  Wade,  William.  The  blind-deaf;  supplement.  Indianapolis,  E.  J.  Hecker, 

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1598.  Wagner,  Alvin  E.  Retardation  and  elimination  in  the  schools  of  Mauch 

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A study  of  the  causes  of  retardation  and  of  leaving  school  before  receiving  the  training  and 
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1599.  Wagner,  Charles.  Home  influence.  Kindergarten  review,  18  : 491,  April 
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1600.  Walker,  Chas.  F.  The  work  of  the  juvenile  protective  association.  Pedagog- 

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1601.  Walker,  Margaret  Coulson.  A plea  for  toys  of  the  child’s  own  making. 

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74 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


1604.  Walls,  Frank  H.  Mouth  breathing,  some  of  its  causes  and  some  of  its  effects. 

Training  school,  6 : 90-92,  1909. 

1605.  Walsh,  G.  E.  What  cities  are  doing  for  children.  Craftsman,  14  : 528-533, 

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1606.  Walter,  Franz.  Die  sexuelle  aufklarung  der  jugend.  2d  ed.  Donauworth, 

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1607.  Warner,  Francis.  Constitutional  development  and  social  progress  of  boys 

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1610.  Washburn,  Margaret  Floy.  The  animal  mind.  Psychological  bulletin, 

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1614.  Weber,  H.  C.  The  three  P’s.  Journal  of  education,  67  : 14-15,  January  2, 

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1618.  Weigl,  F.  Der  Mtinchener  Ferienkurs  fur  heilpadagogik  und  schulhygiene. 

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1622.  Weiss,  G.  La  gymnastique  Suedoise.  Enfant,  18  : 289-298,  1908. 

1623.  Weissenberg,  S.  Das  wachstum  des  kopfes  und  des  gesichtes.  Jahrbuch 

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1624.  Welander,  Eduard.  Uber  den  einfluss  der  venerischen  krankheiten  auf  die 

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1625.  Weller,  Beatrice.  Motive  and  method  in  primary  art  work.  Kindergarten 

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BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


75 


1628.  Wells,  Frederic  Lyman.  Studies  in  retardation  as  given  in  the  fatigue  phe- 

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1629.  Welton,  James,  and  Blanchard,  F.  G.  Principles  and  methods  of  moral 

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1631.  Weyel,  Heinrich.  Aus  der  werkstatt  der  simultanschule.  Deutsche  schule, 

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1632.  Weygandt,  W.  Der  entwurf  einer  strafprozessordnung,  sowie  der  entwurf 

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1634.  Wheelock,  Lucy.  Social  training  in  infancy  and  early  childhood.  Social 

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1635.  Whipple,  Guy  Montrose.  Guide  to  high-school  observation.  Syracuse, 

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1639.  Whitaker,  Nellie  Comins.  The  health  of  school  girls.  School  review, 

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1641.  White,  J.  H.  The  child  in  the  group.  In  National  education  association. 

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1642.  White,  William  Allen.  Court  of  Boyville.  New  York,  McClure  & co.,  1908. 

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1643.  White  House  conference  on  dependent  children.  Charities,  21  : 766-768, 

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1644.  Wilde,  Norman.  The  psychology  of  religion  and  education.  Educational 

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1645.  Wilhelm,  Georg.  Der  deutsche  student.  Bonn,  Georgi,  1908.  35  p. 

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1647.  . liber  morgen  und  abendgetranke  der  schulkinder.  Zeitschrift  fur 

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1648.  Willard,  Eugene  Bertram.  The  study  of  the  child.  Education,  30  : 216- 
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1649. 


76 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 

1650.  Williams,  Elizabeth  B.  See  Gilman,  Mary  Louise,  and  Williams,  E.  B. 

1651.  Williams,  S.  Horace.  The  educative  value  of  manual  training.  Manual 

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1652.  Williams,  Tom  A.  Psychoprophylaxis  in  childhood.  Journal  of  abnormal 

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Contains  a bibliography  of  38  titles. 

1653.  Wilmot,  Anson  W.  The  value  of  dental  treatment  in  relation  to  general 

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1654.  Wilson,  Albert.  Education,  personality  and  crime.  London,  Greening  & 

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1655.  Wilson,  Andrew.  Every  mother’s  baby  book;  a popularly  written  guide  to 

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1656.  Wilson,  J.  M.  Public  school  education.  Contemporary  review,  95  : 684-693, 

1909. 

1657.  Wilson,  Louis  N.  Bibliography  of  child  study  for  the  year  1907.  Pedagogi- 

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Gives  448  titles  for  the  year.  Arranged  alphabetically  with  a subject  index.  Has  appeared 
yearly  since  1898. 

1658.  . Children’s  rooms  in  household  architecture  and  house  playgrounds. 

Pedagogical  seminary,  16  : 494-497,  December  1909. 

Houses  should  be  planned  for  the  welfare  of  children  as  to  light  and  space. 

1659.  Wilson,  Marguerite.  Dancing;  a complete  instructor  and  guide  to  all  the 

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1660.  Wimms,  J.  K.  The  relative  effects  of  fatigue  and  practice  produced  by  differ- 

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1661.  Winch,  W.  H.  Colour  preferences  of  school  children.  British  journal  of  psy- 

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1662.  The  curriculum  of  American  high  schools.  Journal  of  education 

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1663.  . The  function  of  images.  Journal  of  philosophy,  psychology  and 

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1664.  . The  transfer  of  improvement  in  memory  in  school  children.  British 

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1666.  Winship,  Albert  E.  The  abuse  of  play.  Journal  of  education,  70  : 179, 

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1667.  Winslow,  C.-E.  A.  The  prevention  of  infant  mortality.  American  journal 

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1668.  Winzer,  H.  Die  pfiicht-fortbildungsschule  fur  madchen.  Zeitschrift  fiir 

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Continuation  schools  for  girls  (industrial  education). 

1669.  Wise,  Margaret  E.  See  Cannell,  E.  Maud,  and  Wise,  M.  E. 

1670.  Wissler,  Clark.  See  Channing,  Walter,  and  Wissler,  Clark. 

1671.  Witmer,  Lightner.  Are  we  educating  the  rising  generation?  Educational 

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BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9.  77 

1673.  Witmer,  Lightner.  Orthogenics  in  the  public  schools.  Psychological  clinic, 

3 : 29-33,  April  1909. 

A plea  for  the  organization  of  an  ungraded  class  for  the  treatment  of  backward  children,  in 
every  school  with  one  thousand  enrollment.  Such  a class  will  cost  three  to  five  times,  per 
capita,  as  much  as  a regular  graded  class. 

1674.  — . Study  and  treatment  of  retardation.  Psychological  bulletin,  6 : 121- 

126,  April  1909. 

1675.  . The  treatment  and  cure  of  a case  of  mental  and  moral  deficiency. 

Psychological  clinic,  2 : 153-179,  1908. 

1676.  Witter,  Charles  E.  Educational  needs  of  the  Sunday  school.  Educational 

review,  35  : 86-92,  January  1908. 

1677.  Wolf,  Kurt.  Albrecht.  Infektionskrankheiten  und  schule.  Gesunde  jugend, 

8 : 1-10,  1908. 

Also  in  Gesungheitswarte  der  schule,  6 : 169-179,  1908. 

1678.  . Infektionskrankheiten  und  schule  . Zeitschrift  fur  padagogische, 

psychologic,  pathologie  und  hygiene,  10  : 258-264,  1908. 

1679.  Wolfe,  L.  E.  Reading  in  the  elementary  schools.  Educational  review, 

36  : 262-272,  October  1908. 

1680.  Women’s  national  health  association  of  Ireland.  Ireland’s  crusade 

against  tuberculosis;  ed.  by  the  Countess  of  Aberdeen.  Dublin,  Maunsel 
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1681.  Woodhouse,  Mrs.  On  the  future  of  girls’  education.  Journal  of  education 

(London)  31  : 509-511,  1909. 

1682.  Woods,  F.  A.  City  vs.  country  boys,  Science,  29  n.  s.:  577-579,  1909. 

1683.  Wooley,  Helen  Thompson.  Some  experiments  on  the  color  perceptions  of  an 

infant  and  their  interpretations.  Psychological  review,  16  : 363-376,  Novem- 
ber 1909. 

This  article  contains  a series  of  experiments  carried  on  by  the  authoress  in  order  to  perceive 
the  colors  preferred  by  an  infant  six  months  old. 

1684.  Wossidlo,  Richard.  Kinderwartung  und  kinderzucht.  Wismar,  Hinstorff, 

1906.  463  p.  (Mecklenburgische  volksiiber-lieferungen.  v.  3) 

1685.  Wyche,  Richard  Thomas.  Stories  and  how  to  use  them.  Story  hour,  1 : 7-14, 

7-10,  November  and  December  1908. 

1686.  Wyss,  C.  von.  Nature  study  in  the  city  school.  Child  life,  10  n.  s.:  93-96, 

135-139,  181-184,  209-211,  270-272,  1908. 

1687.  Yoakum,  Clarence  S.  An  experimental  study  of  fatigue.  Psychological 

monographs,  August  1909.  v.  11,  no.  3.  131  p. 

Contains  an.excellent  bibliography  of  108  titles. 

1688.  Young,  Ella  Flagg.  The  school  and  the  practice  of  ethics.  Journal  of  edu- 

cation, 68  : 110-111,  July  16,  1908. 

1689.  Zahor,  Jindrich  Vyrocni  zprava.  Prague,  1907.  44  p. 

Report  on  an  investigation  of  certain  physical  conditions  of  the  school  children  of  Prague, 
including  stature,  weight,  eye  defects,  and  spinal  curvature. 

1690.  Zappert,  Julius.  Schularzt  und  nervenkrankheiten.  Zeitschrift  fur  kinder- 

forschung,  13  : 368-372,  1908. 

1691.  Zenner,  Philip.  Defectives.  Journal  of  education,  1909.  69  : 6-7,  33-34, 

January  1909. 

Moral  and  mental  defects  of  imbeciles  and  idiots;  what  is  to  be  done  for  them.  Discusses 
problems  of  truancy,  and  the  backward  child  in  school  room. 

1692.  Zepler,  Marg.  N.  Ein  kulturzentrum  und  die  ausbildung  der  lehrkrafte  fur 

turn-  und  tanzspiele.  Zeitschrift  fur  experimentelle  piidagogik,  6 : 143-156, 
1908. 


78 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  CHILD  STUDY,  1908-9. 


1693.  Ziegler,  K.  Ueber  die  unterscheidungsiibungen  in  den  sogenannten  vor- 

klassen  der  schwachsinnigenschulen.  Zeitschrift  fur  die  erforschung  und 
behandlung  des  jugendlichen  schwachsinns,  28  : 177-183,  1908. 

1694.  Ziegler,  Theobald.  Geschichte  der  padagogik.  Miinchen,  Beck,  1909. 

416  p. 

1695.  Ziehen,  Theodor.  Erbliche  anlage  zu  geistesstor  ungen  bei  kinder.  Zeit- 

Bchrift  fur  padagogische  psychologie,  10  : 1-16,  July  1908. 

Statement  of  the  role  played  by  heredity  in  mental  defect. 

1696.  . Die  Erkennung  des  schwachsinns  im  kindesalter.  Berlin,  S.  Karger, 

1909.  32  p. 

. Die  prinzipien  und  methoden  der  intelligenz  priifung.  Berlin, 

S.  Karger,  1908,  61  p. 


1697. 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


The  numbers  refer  to  item,  not  to  page. 


Abandoned  children,  165,  400, 1230, 1236. 
Abnormals,  119,  121,  198,  281,  474,  769,  1118,  1314, 
1315, 1366, 1371, 1620. 

Abstinence,  886. 

Abstract  thought,  470. 

Adolescence,  103,  241, 287, 316, 317, 325, 329,  445,  447, 
623, 938, 944, 1068, 1262, 1307, 1334, 1357, 1358. 
Advance  classes,  879. 

Aesthetics,  507, 1373, 1378. 

Affection,  945. 

Africa,  72,  167. 

Agricultural  education,  785. 

Agriculture,  456,  540. 

Air,  287,  1162. 

Alcohol,  386,  886, 1176. 

Alcoholism,  140, 141, 275,  708, 1182, 1292. 

Algebra,  1449. 

Alvares,  320. 

Amateurism,  722. 

Ambidexterity,  521, 830. 

America,  370,  372. 

American  children,  144. 

American  Indians,  263. 

Amusements,  838, 1043. 

Anemia,  1359, 1361. 

Animals,  975. 

Anatomical  age,  355. 

Anthropometry,  119,230, 286, 1623, 1689. 
Anthropomorphism,  1349. 

Apparatus,  200. 

Apraxia,  946. 

Architecture,  1658. 

Arithmetic,  343,  1160, 1614. 

Arithmetical  abilities,  1290. 

Arriola,  Pepito,  1488. 

Art,  77,  185,  242,  349,  377,  552,  816,  1211,  1310,  1342, 
1347, 1521, 1585, 1625. 

Association,  1286, 1533. 

Ataxia,  1216. 

Athens,  794. 

Athletics,  628,  1166. 

Attention,  209,  277,  1503. 

Australia,  1409. 

Austria,  1366, 1455. 

Authority,  9. 

Autobiographical,  547,  836. 

Auxiliary  schools,  229,  232,  675,  1056. 

Babees’  book,  541. 

Baby  book,  364, 1655. 

Backward  children,  42  , 58,  59,80,  287,  418,427,475, 
485  , 597  , 662  , 672  , 749,  1031,  1103,  1209,  1253,  1407, 
1437,  1575,  1579,  1691. 

Backward  races,  308. 


Bacteria,  36. 

Beautiful,  552, 

Behavior,  940, 1063. 

Belgium,  592,  812,  1455,  1501. 

Berlin,  638, 1359,  1553. 

Bible,  256, 890. 

Bibliography,  97, 258, 282, 303, 565, 769,  770,  891, 976, 
1325,  1657,  1687. 

Biographical,  782,  842. 

Blind,  10,  609,  754,  782,  783,  836,  862,  901,  1092. 
Blood-pressure,  888. 

Boarding  school,  419,  643. 

Bodily  temperature,  571. 

Bohemia,  751,  889, 1535. 

Books  for  children.  See  Literature. 

Bordeaux,  1314. 

Boston,  53,  208,  327,  650. 

Boy-life,  1588. 

Boy  scouts,  171,  1493. 

Boys,  11,  184,  201,  287,  391,  395,  516.,  616,  624,  646,  664, 
732,  758,  781,  854,  931,  977,  995,  1055,  1057,  1076, 
1164,  1197,  1261,  1322,  1423,  1456,  1480,  1486,  1548, 
1572,  1594,  1612,  1682. 

Boys’  clubs,  408,  515,  661,  1222,  1304,  1328. 

Brain  development,  420. 

Brain-fag,  6. 

Breathing,  1604. 

Bright  children,  845. 

Brussels,  1447. 

Burgerstein,  Leo,  1289. 

Business,  76,  1130. 

Canteens,  913. 

Catholic,  218,  408. 

Character,  284,  333,  424,  467,  503. 

Charlottenburg,  1155. 

Charter,  510. 

Charts,  1524. 

Chaucer,  278. 

Cheerfulness,  1353. 

Child,  396,  431,  464,  795,  1014,  1170,  1300. 

Child  culture,  204,  206,  287,  1127. 

Child  labor,  2,  12,  21,  62,  186,  195,  288,  289,  290,  291, 
321,  559,  581,  582,  622,  642,  648,  673,  733,  751,  978, 
986,  1003,  1009,  1010,  1011, ' 1012,  1013,  1110,  1136, 
1137,  1138,  1405, 1562,  1578,  1580. 

Child  life,  21,  22,  196,  384,  404,  519,  800,  969. 

Child  portraits,  429. 

Child  psychology,  92. 

Child  study,  114,  120,  207,  216,  244,  265,  286,  287,  319, 
410,  434,  498,  537,  586,  633,  744,  773,  791,  832,  856,  868, 
953, 1088,  1106, 1125, 1140, 1141, 1151, 1212, 1177, 1213, 
1502,  1519,  1535,  1642,  1648. 


79 


80 


SUBJECT  INDEX, 


Child  testimony,  56, 181, 1105, 1592. 

Child  types,  61,  314,  490. 

Child  welfare,  287,  665,  765,  1284,  1393,  1553,  1605, 
1633. 

Childhood,  25,  103,  362,  472,  547,  956,  957,  1274,  1500, 
1541. 

Children,  287,  954,  1019,  1409,  1684;  as  actors,  939; 
care,  287,  414,  504,  654,  670,  778,  843,  849,  922,  1020, 
1275, 1307, 1326,  1403, 1655;  diseases,  849, 1217, 1264, 
1458;  in  literature  and  art,  1005;  training,  99,  205, 
351,  561,  659,  726. 

Children  act,  595. 

Children’s  bureau,  1195. 

Children’s  library,  706,  1058. 

Children’s  museum,  545. 

Children’s  rights,  1357. 

Children’s  rooms,  993,  1658. 

Children’s  songs,  1367,  1301,  1616. 

China,  368,  667,  827,  905. 

Chronological  age,  355. 

Church,  634,  1334. 

Cigarettes,  588. 

Cincinnati,  418. 

Citizenship,  666,  780,  1009. 

Civics,  168,  1026. 

Civilization,  538. 

Class-spirit,  704. 

Class-work,  89. 

Clothing,  468.  • 

Clubs,  287,  725. 

Coeducation,  57,  90, 127,  307,  924,  1296,  1332,  1454. 
Coffee,  94. 

Collection  instinct,  678. 

Color,  1661,  1683;  blindness,  68;  sense,  1002,  1123, 
1129,  1507. 

Committee,  287,  385  , 530,  1136. 

Competition,  395. 

Compulsory  education,  321,  642,  847,  910, 1115. 
Consanguinity,  39. 

Conscience,  627,  737. 

Consciousness,  160. 

Contents  of  children’s  minds,  152,  658, 1460. 

Control,  1255,  1258. 

Corporal  punishment,  639,  1214,  1280. 

Creches,  287,  405,  416,  1317,  1501. 

Crime,  5,  253,  300,  445,  495,  897, 1119,  1589, 1632, 1654. 
Criminal,  84. 

Cripples,  460,  573,  1034. 

Curriculum,  1662. 

Dance,  7,  443,  578,  742,  859.  948,  1083,  1659,  1692. 
Dante,  1006. 

Deaf,  460,  882,  906,  1092. 

Deaf-blind,  1597. 

Deaf-mutes,  782,  783,  848,  905,  984. 

Death,  980,  1094. 

Defectives,  14,  40,  159, 172,  255, 335, 337, 389,  409,  474, 
801,  947,  1034,  1090,  1209,  1691;  education,  198,  444, 
460,  597,  1031,  1134,  1135,  1579. 

Degeneration,  717,  1241,  1546, 1649. 

Delinquents,  662,  664,  758, 1250. 

Dementia  praecox,  676,  822,  1053,  1256,  1482. 
Denmark,  573. 

Dental  clinics,  784. 

Dependents,  187,  287,  324,  663,  1227, 1643. 

Design,  729. 

Determinism,  147. 


Development,  20,  868,  1457,  1672. 

Dickens,  Charles,  282. 

Dictation,  44. 

Diphtheria,  1415. 

Discipline,  37,  854,  1025,  1104,  1520,  1629. 
Disinfection,  93. 

Dismissal,  952. 

Distance,  1173. 

District  school,  411. 

Dolls,  287,  1463,  1464. 

Domestic  science,  287, 477. 

Drama,  273,  287,  589,  644,  718,  951, 1004, 1113, 1234. 
Dramatic  instinct,  352,  369,  721, 1419. 

Drawing,  296,  606,  77”,  823,  863,  934, 1096, 1257,  1278, 
1309,  1310,  1468,  15?:. 

Dreams,  221,  608. 

Dresden,  1298. 

Ear,  24,  29,  1380,  1444,  lc  '6,  1564. 

Economy,  464. 

Education,  12,  100,  207,  210,  252,  356,  382,  462,  463, 
556,  614, 634,  657,  745,  852,  926, 1073, 1142, 1193, 1644, 
1654,  1656,  1671,  1681;  children,  1228,  1245,  1318; 
elementary,  191,  448,  992,  1169,  1192;  history, 
1205,  1207,  1694. 

Educational  process,  509. 

Efficiency,  105,  343,  974,  1443. 

Elective  system,  403. 

Electricity,  1024. 

Emotions,  199,  247,  329,  549,  645. 

Employment,  774. 

Encyclopaedias,  1066. 

Energy,  967. 

England,  22,  81,  370,  533,  872,  927,  971,  1045,  1134, 
1164,  1259,  1375. 

English  language,  study  and  teaching,  363,  425,  718, 
972. 

English  literature,  248. 

Entertainment,  1109. 

Environment,  428, 1517. 

Epilepsy,  157,1591. 

Ergograph,  524. 

Erotism,  608. 

Eskimo,  362. 

Essays,  946. 

Ethics,  406,  447,  1688. 

Ethnology,  538. 

Eugenics,  145,  287,  350,  383,  1272,  1341. 

Evening  schools,  774. 

Evidence,  1105. 

Evolution,  464,  625. 

Examinations,  14C2. 

Experimental  pedagogy,  297,  924,  1122,  1368. 
Expression,  1108. 

Eye,  29,  30,  526,  1380,  1444,  1506;  tests,  1398. 
Eyesight,  542,  1574. 

Fables,  258,  1293. 

Factory  children,  581. 

Factory  law  and  legislation,  1048. 

Fairy  tales,  167, 417, 1515. 

Family,  489, 764, 1530, 1568. 

Father,  520. 

Fatherhood,  1608. 

Fatigue,  94,  95,  215,  524,  979,  1389,  1453,  1469,  1626, 
1627, 1628, 1660, 1687. 

Favorite  studies,  965. 

Fear,  1557. 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


81 


Feeble-minded,  142,  161,  227,  233,  243,  287,  402,  566, 
679,  761,  787  , 802,  803,  807,  808,  809  , 810,  882,  889, 
1035,  1038,  1092,  1114,  1253,  1290,  1363,  1369,  1491, 
1561,1619, 1632, 1693. 

Feelings,  67, 247, 543, 716, 798, 799, 859, 1538. 

Festivals,  292, 496, 576, 838, 1231, 1399. 

Folkdances,  496, 613. 

Folklore,  264, 384, 950. 

Folksongs,  536, 1684. 

Food,  551, 904, 912, 914, 1100, 1178, 1201, 1448. 

Foreign  languages,  1152, 1451. 

Foreign  pupil,  548. 

Foreign  words,  69. 

France,  177, 490, 592, 673, 675, 913^1182, 1354, 1501. 
French  language.  Reading  books,  1165, 1215. 

French  law,  476. 

Friendship,  616. 

Froebel,  304,789,921.  0? 

Games,  73,  153,  262,  283,  345,  368,  471,  529,  590,  667, 
742,  752,  792,  883,  1156,  1185,  1194,  1429. 

Genius,  855, 1283. 

Geography,  435, 609, 1279, 1514. 

Geometry,  276. 

Georgia,  1055. 

Germany,  533,  592,  814,  891,  1061,  1065,  1205,  1239, 
1360,  1362,  1375,  1684;  schools,  478. 

Gifts,  334. 

Girls,  13,  23,  46,  155,  287.  357,  391,  414,  458,  469,  480, 
626,  606,  738,  1003,  1037,  1059, 1104, 1250, 1357, 1358, 
1516,  1536,  1555,  1639,  1640,  1681;  schools,  111,  342, 
465,  777,  926,  1392,  1668. 

Government,  339,  499. 

Grade  distribution,  54. 

Grade  schools,  130,  599. 

Grammar,  551,  1163. 

Great  Britain,  23,  73,  186, 1019. 

Groszmann  school,  1135. 

Group,  527, 1641. 

Group  teaching,  461. 

Growth,  279,  343,  458,  532,  624,  826, 1094,  1120,  1483, 
1554, 1556, 1623. 

Gymnastics,  74, 1156, 1465, 1476, 1537, 1622, 1692. 
Habit,  86C,  1321. 

Hair,  526,534. 

Handicraft,  108, 128,  727. 

Handwork,  753. 

Handwriting,  426,  585, 1576. 

Hhppiness,  703. 

Hardening,  397. 

Hay  fever,  1384. 

Head  circumference,  230. 

Health,  190,  287,  360,  415,  575,  603,  627,  651,  851,  858, 
1247, 1484, 1639. 

Hearing,  197, 865. 

Heart,  1582. 

Height,  532. 

Heredity,  129, 1370, 1695. 

Heurtin,  Marie,  782,  783. 

High  school,  76, 233, 600, 635,  728, 781, 815, 1166, 1240, 
1545,  1635, 1662. 

History, 251, 537, 796,  868,  869, 878  901, 1588. 

Home,  14,  60,  86,  139, 141,  210,  257,  287,  380,  438,  462. 

643, 745, 1033,1047, 1!03, 1254, 1521, 1557, 1599, 1621. 
Home  life,  1103;  work,  1322. 

Honesty,  168. 

Honor,  627. 

96987°— 11 6 


Humor,  877. 

Hungary,  165,  1371, 1393. 

Hygiene, 24, 75, 93, 139,  204,212,  213,217,  260,287,315. 
327,  399, 473,  503,  504,  636,  674,  720,  735, 824,  829,  870, 
884,  941, 1158, 1237, 1273, 1297, 1369, 1407, 1410, 1523, 
1526,  1544,  1584,  1603,  1618;  school,  53,  81, 105,  135, 
136,  208,  211,  267,  650,  668,  669,  757,  766,  1112,  1247, 
1259,  1477. 

Hypnotism,  833. 

Hysteria,  1529. 

Ideal,  1580. 

Idiocy,  124,  712,  1407,  1450,  1696. 

Idleness,  49, 118, 146,  564, 1204, 1340. 

Igorot,  1429. 

Illegitimate  children,  261,  502, 1525. 

Illinois,  1003. 

Illiteracy,  642, 1013. 

Images,  259,  274,  1663. 

Imagination,  944,  1079, 1114, 1428, 1521. 

Imbeciles,  947, 1450. 

Imitation,  352,  459,  1069, 1613. 

Immigrant  child,  15, 1179. 

Incorrigibies,  428. 

Indiana,  97, 1146. 

Indians,  189. 

Individual  child,  786. 

Individuality,  459, 1190. 

Industrial  education,  185, 188,  330,  560,  647,  736,  860, 
996,  997,  1064,  1092,  1104,  1110,  1329;  schools,  1431, 
1432. 

Industrial  evolution,  252. 

Industry,  837,  985, 1075. 

Infancy,  506,  776. 

Infants,  83,  109,  203,  272,  463,  1060,  1298,  1343,  1587; 
feeding,  36,  466,  1336;  homes,  423;  mortality,  35, 
327,  378,  755,  911,  1042,  1128,  1139,  1404,  1667. 
Infectious  diseases,  1544, 1677, 1678. 

Initiative,  441, 1246. 

Innervation,  359. 

“Innocents,”  788. 

Insanity,  82,  436,  494, 1081. 

Intellectual,  31,  318. 

Intelligence,  220,  230,  567,  817, 1078, 1697. 

Interest,  209,  439,  1462. 

Interrogation,  344. 

Iowa,  1431, 1432. 

Ireland,  666, 1095, 1680. 

Irregulars,  393. 

Italy,  714. 

Japan,  368,  469, 1537. 

Jena,  842. 

Journalism,  1342. 

Junior  republic,  4,  85, 1489. 

Justice,  1040. 

Juvenile  courts,  18, 97, 293,  533,820,  821,825,  853,  871, 
872, 1029. 

Juvenile  criminals,  38, 164. 

Juvenile  delinquents,  224,  225,  226,  958,  1150,  1546, 
1596,  1649. 

Juvenile  Protective  Association,  287, 1600. 

Key,  Ellen,  1192. 

Kindergarten,  79, 138,  211,  222,  259,  287,  381,  421,428,. 
450,  488,  501,  507  , 514,  711,  816,835,  921,  922,1015, 
1016,  1028,  1044,  1061,  1063,  1074,  1093,  1188,  1189,. 
1245,  1397, 1518,  1570. 

Korea,  368. 


82 


SUBJECT  INDEX, 


Laboratories,  1394. 

Lancashire,  800. 

Language,  34,  69, 101, 125,  331,  332,  470,  528,  557,  700, 
713,  1054,  1069,  1466,  1636. 

Law,  598,  622,  968. 

Learning  process,  150, 162. 

Left-handedness,  263,  585, 1174. 

Legal,  1586,  1633. 

Legends,  1303. 

Legislation,  290,  511. 

Libraries,  1509. 

Life,  1107. 

Life  equipment,  453. 

Literary  expression,  130. 

Literature,  41,  61, 87,  174,  246,  490,  631,  740,  840,  891, 
892,  900,  983, 1049,  1057,  1066,  1116,  1242,  1260, 1293, 
1421, 1485;  study  and  teaching,  999,  1563. 

London,  309,  408,  466,  1021. 

Lying,  446,  841,  989,  1316,  1467. 

Make-believe,  154. 

Mannheim  system,  407. 

Manual  arts,  106. 

Manual  training,  45,  433,  918, 1318, 1345, 1508,  1651. 
Marathon,  287,  358. 

Marchen,  950,  970. 

Marriage,  1271. 

Mathematics,  26. 

May  pole,  948. 

Meanings,  470. 

Medical  inspection  of  schools,  24,  60,  239,  365,  482, 
615,  652  , 653  , 669,  743,  927,  1050,  1065,  1157,  1276, 
1348,  1487,  1539. 

Medicine,  611. 

Memory,  82,  442, 610,  899, 1051, 1147, 1148, 1172,  1186, 
1223,  1467, 1533,  1569,  1664. 

Mental  and  physical,  338,  612, 1022. 

Mental  defectives,  32, 102, 158,  228,  236,  237,  253,  281, 
335,  356,  444,  460,  531,  804,  1022,  1350,  1370,  1433, 
1450. 

Mental  deficiency,  565,  806, 1008, 1383, 1420, 1675. 
Mental  depression,  1282. 

Mental  development,  65,  98,  123,  182  , 234,  328,  332, 
367,  422,  528, 960, 1082, 1100, 1102, 1422, 1427, 1471. 
Mental  diseases,  874, 1154. 

Mental  education,  388,  607,  789. 

Mental  evolution,  166,  353,  527,  605,  1323. 14  >9. 
Mental  hygiene,  517, 1081. 

Mental  reaction,  1080. 

Mental  training,  243,  1067. 

Mental  types,  596. 

Method,  19,  40,  365,  389,  407,  435,  465,  498,  1442,  1560. 
Meumann,  1122. 

Milk,  36,  327,  392,  762. 

Modelling,  863. 

Mohammedanism,  1558. 

Monkeys,  1613. 

Moral  deficiency,  1420, 1675. 

Moral  development,  730. 

Moral  education,  169, 177, 193,  306,  318,  394,  562,  569, 
584,  636,  767,  789,  930,  1017,  1018,  1036,  1187,  1208, 
1277, 1305, 1325, 1338, 1455, 1552, 1593, 1594. 

Moral  training,  78, 194, 1335,  1455, 1629. 

Morals,  63,  72,  110,  169,  287,  322,  447,  487,  614,  618, 
638,  736,  956, 1039,  1130,  1240,  1354. 

Mortality,  51, 1386. 

Mothers,  178,  320,  479,  773,  959,  1001,  1140,  1141, 1277, 
1343, 1608, 1611. 


Mothers’  clubs,  637. 

Mothers’  schools,  919, 1327. 

Motives,  1331. 

Motor  activities,  558. 

Movements,  981,  987. 

Moving  pictures,  151. 

Mulhausen  Waldschule,  Munich,  1365. 

Muscular  movement,  874. 

Music,  115,  491,  544,  633,  761,  906,  1301,  1505,  1564, 
1565. 

Mythology,  303,  1030. 

Mythomania,  1316. 

Muller-  und  Kose-lieder,  304. 

Nagging,  112, 113. 

Nation,  1170. 

Natural  sciences,  709. 

Nature  study,  116,  249,  500,  785, 1084, 1686. 

Nervous  diseases,  1154, 1440. 

Nervous  system,  1264. 

Nervousness,  134,  231,  413,  505,  508,  569,  1149,  1459, 
1690. 

Neurological,  420,  550. 

New  York,  360,  580,  1294,  1578. 

Newspaper,  201,295. 

Noise,  1291. 

Normal,  430. 

Norway,  573. 

Nose,  30,  180,  212,  824. 

Novels,  1308. 

Number,  192,  259,  455. 

Number  concept,  566. 

Nursery  rhymes,  1117, 1159. 

Nutrition,  20,  392,  551,  904,  1100,  1149,  1178,  1201, 
1448, 1647. 

Objectivity,  148. 

Object-teaching,  19, 1560. 

Odors,  656. 

Old  age,  422, 1094. 

Onanism,  1167 

Open-air  schools,  91,  163,  223,  240,  301,  309,  370,  512, 
591,  759,  763,  831,  893,  971,  1045,  1099,  1155,  1226, 
1355,  1376,  1446. 

Ornament,  7. 

Orphanage,  988. 

Orthopedics,  1126. 

Overwork,  1391. 

Pageant,  294. 

Palate,  271. 

Paralysis,  876. 

Paranoia,  134. 

Parasites,  674. 

Parents,  3,  285  , 561,  640,  894,  1176,  1330,  1341,  1458, 
1530,  1596,  1619. 

Pathology,  712. 

Patience,  1569. 

Patriotism,  323. 

Pedagogical  laboratory,  302. 

Pedagogy,  287,  750,  768,  1059,  857, 923, 949,  1321, 1694. 
Penmanship,  998. 

Pennsylvania,  622. 

Perception,  1124. 

Personality,  232, 1072, 1312, 1654. 

Pets,  832. 

Philippine  children,  144. 

Philosophy,  813. 

Phonetics,  1497. 

Phthisis,  512. 


SUBJECT  TNDEX 


83 


Physical,  70,  336,  337,  374,  1640. 

Physical  character,  458. 

Physical  defects,  47,  52,  268,  361,  1221. 

Physical  development,  279. 

Physical  education,  23,  155,  183,  398,  454,  628,  715, 
779,  789,  990,  991,  1143,  1144,  1184,  1203,  1220,  1305, 
1378,  1379,  1477. 

Physical  exercise,  454, 1476. 

Physical  training,  23,  213,  358, 1200, 1555. 

Physician,  629,  735,  1690. 

Physiological  age,  355. 

Physiology,  1183,  1249. 

Physique,  1346,  1452,  1575. 

Pittsburgh,  846,  1161. 

Plants,  205. 

Play,  60,  170,  262,  266,  273,  280,  287,  345,  356,  373,  374, 
496,  529,  723,  724,  790,  795,  859,  861,  883,  932,  955, 
1133,  1185,  1198,  1232,  1360,  1362,  1374,  1399,  1400, 
1495,  1510,  1511,  1512,  1513,  1542,  1616,  1617,  1666. 
Playgrounds,  107,  262,  283,  287,  372,  373.  375,  376,  649, 
791,  793,  794,  846,  936,  937,  958,  994,  1020,  1070,  1071, 
1145,  1233,  1270,  1495. 

Play  guilds,  1438. 

Poetry,  555,  1211,  1428,  1473. 

Poland,  1502. 

Poor,  287. 

Poor  pupil,  219. 

Popular  songs,  86. 

Porto  Rico,  376. 

Prague,  1689. 

Prenatal,  43,  525. 

Preparatory  school,  711. 

Pre-school  education,  654. 

Primary  schools,  346,  424,  552. 

Primitive  peoples,  197,  308,  538,  578,  1585,  1615. 
Prison,  5. 

Private  schools,  1199. 

Probation,  97,  1532. 

Proletariat,  539. 

Property-sense,  1210. 

Prophylaxis,  1657. 

Prussia,  100,  111,  310,  311,  777,  844,  884. 
Psychogenesis,  964. 

Psychological  clinics,  287. 

Psychology,  64,  264,  297,  306,  319,  325,  332,  353,  522, 
550,  596,  625,  633,  702,  783,  917,  966,  1153,  1387,  1388, 
1408,  1469,  1470,  1540,  1610,  1630;  educational,  747, 
1171;  genetic,  864. 

Puberty,  317,  354,  367,  897. 

Public  school,  15,  659,  860,  1142,  1199,  1254,  1656. 
Punishment,  844,  902,  982,  1549. 

Quaker,  1417. 

Race  degeneracy,  839;  suicide,  1313. 

Races,  72,  308. 

Rachitis,  126. 

Reading,  11,  117,  172,  258,  278,  287,  303,  702,  725,  756, 
814,  891,  903,  1023,  1086,  1116,  1168,  1287,  1319,  1320, 
1387,  1421,  1485,  1528,  1573,  1577,  1614,  1679. 
Recollections,  1186. 

Records,  336. 

Recreation,  13,  1043;  homes,  238. 

Reflexes,  895. 

Religion,  63,  390,  546,  563,  579,  705,  819,  1460,  1644; 
education,  306,  312,  390,  660,  973,  1277,  1338,  1382, 
1418,  1445,  1498,  1566,  1593,  1594. 

Renaissance,  425. 

Repeaters,  50. 


Respiration,  1202. 

Responsibility,  438. 

Retardation,  59,  340,  483,  484,  497,  601, 912, 1089, 1465, 
1598,  1628,  1674. 

Rhythm,  570. 

Ribot,  799. 

Rivalry,  1180. 

Rooms,  1087. 

Russia,  417,  898. 

Saint  Louis,  135, 136. 

Saint  Pancras,  1327. 

Scheiner,  95. 

Schiller,  828. 

School,  20,  96,  175,  257,  1095,  1135,  1688. 

School  attendance,  48,  481,  529,  592,  593,  797,  1285, 
1435,  1531, 1598. 

School  background,  1000. 

School  books,  1027. 

School  children,  179,  287,  415,  466,  651,  1021. 

School  city,  875. 

School  club,  1478, 1479. 

School  curriculum,  915. 

School  desks,  858, 1289, 1414, 1491. 

School  excursions,  553,  594,  1490. 

School  gardens,  701, -731,  785,  928,  1091,  1184,  1479, 
1609. 

School  hours,  214, 1191, 1248. 

Schoolhouses,  269. 

School  library,  1. 

School  management,  449. 

School  occupations,  71, 1251. 

School  orchestra,  1559. 

School  physician,  941,  1237,  1414,  1461,  1487,  1523. 
School  progress,  47,  52,  341,  600. 

School  reform,  929. 

Schoolroom,  943. 

School  republic,  1481. 

School  system,  267,  480,  580,  582,  1375,  1411. 

School  theater,  133. 

School  travels,  887. 

School  work,  173,  995. 

Schools,  elementary,  276,  600, 1161. 

Science,  346, 1085,  1392. 

Sclerosis,  1590. 

Scoliosis,  870, 1121, 1689. 

Secondary  education,  1401, 1441. 

Self-consciousness,  527, 1193. 

Self-education,  440. 

Self-government,  298. 

Sense  organs,  1390. 

Senses,  313. 

Sex,  142,  143,  328,  447,  465  , 479,  513,  535,  554  . 583, 
604,  616,  618,  677,  770,  945,  959,  1039,  1041,  1047, 
1097,  1107,  1281,  1311,  1389,  1413,  1425,  1426,  1516, 
1606,  1608,  1646;  hygiene,  630,  671,  1412;  instruc- 
tion, 33,  317,  468,  671, 1098, 1107,  1181,  1206, 1229, 
1261, 1288, 1602. 

Shock,  549,  550. 

Sicily,  1405. 

Size,  341. 

Sleep,  8,  523, 1087, 1274, 1275, 1621. 

Slums,  357. 

Smell,  656,  719. 

Social  education,  27, 176, 1395. 

Societies,  287,  322,  361,  371,  725,  1545,  1615. 
Sociological,  88,  122,  287,  326,  333,  347,  350,  405,  503, 
518,  554,  558,  602,  641,  834,  921,  955,  1190,  1377, 1397, 
1492,  1534,  1607,  1615,  1634. 


84 


SUBJECT  INDEX, 


Solidarity,  347. 

Songs,  86,  153,  536,  578,  742,  1083,  1617. 

South,  957,  1013. 

South  Carolina,  847. 

Space  perception,  1470. 

Spain,  818,  871. 

Special  classes,  1673. 

Special  schools,  418,  476,  485,  1252. 

Special  training,  817,  1437,  1447. 

Speech,  907,  933,  1243,  1388,  1466;  defects,  427,  620, 
714,  907,  1447,  1527. 

Spelling,  1294, 1406. 

Stammering,  933, 1243. 

Starvation,  98. 

State,  83,  760. 

Statistics,  254,  1115. 

Stomach,  880. 

Stone  age,  1007. 

Stories,  245,  258,  278,  584,  881,  1006,  1434,  1476,  1685. 
Story-telling,  131,  287,  741,  881,  1175,  1495. 
Strassburg,  784. 

Street,  16,  284,  590. 

Student  life,  1239, 1645. 

Study,  451,  452,  1324. 

Stuttering,  933. 

Subjects  of  instruction,  1032. 

Suggestibility,  134. 

Suggestion,  833,  962,  963,  1235. 

Suicide,  202,  617,  623,  898,  1077,  1494,  1550. 

Sunday  school,  287,  299,  312,  890, 1125, 1474, 1676. 
Superstition,  1101. 

Survival,  51. 

Sweden,  382,  573,  1537, 1622. 

Swimming,  1265. 

Switzerland,  342,  592,  772,  1061. 

Taste,  719. 

Teachers,  473,  562,  583,  811,  894,  920,  942,  949,  1106, 
1306,  1312,  1563. 


Teeth,  1547,  1653. 

Temperance,  1263. 

Temperature,  734. 

Testimony,  522,  961. 

Theater,  270,  287,  317,  771,  1113,  1436. 

Therapeutics,  359,  495. 

Thought,  125,  1356. 

Tic,  412. 

Tickling,  1124. 

Time,  625. 

Toys,  775,  935,  1224,  1225,  1365,  1601. 

Throat,  30,  824, 1444. 

Trade  schools,  433,  739,  1037. 

Truancy,  235,  621,  662,  1146,  1295. 

Truth,  1337. 

Tuberculosis,  287,  710,  1551, 1595,  1680. 

United  States,  218. 

Upright  posture,  287,  574. 

Vacation  colonies,  1062. 

Vacation  schools,  572,  594. 

Vacations,  17,  163. 

Vagabondage,  1385. 

Variations,  850, 1441. 

Venereal  diseases,  1583, 1624. 

Virginia,  436. 

Vision,  119,  200,  492,  493,  1132,  1398,  1561,  1574,  1665 
Visual  aphasia,  577. 

Vocabulary,  1054,  1636,  1637. 

Vocation,  250,  811, 1416. 

Voice,  925. 

Wagner,  1434. 

Will,  1078. 

Women,  31. 

Work,  170,  896,  931. 

Writing,  756,  885,  909,  916,  998,  1614. 

Youth,  16,  287,  358,  518,  520,  619,  703,  829,  900,  902 
1177,  1287, 1297, 1311,  1412,  1589,  1609. 

Zurich,  878. 


UNITED  STATES  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 

BULLETIN,  1911,  NO.  12 WHOLE  NUMBER  459 


TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  OF  ELEMENTARY 
AND  SECONDARY  MATHEMATICS 


INTERNATIONAL  COMMISSION  ON  THE  TEACHING 
OF  MATHEMATICS 

THE  AMERICAN  REPORT 

COMMITTEE  No.  V. 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1911 


INTERNATIONAL  COMMISSION 
ON  THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS 

GENERAL  OFFICERS. 


President,  F.  KLEIN,  Geh.  Reg. -Rat,  the  University  of  Gottingen. 

Vice  President,  Sir  GEORGE  GREENHILL,  F.  R.  S.,  London. 

General  Secretary,  H.  FEHR,  the  University  of  Geneva. 

AMERICAN  COMMISSIONERS. 

DAVID  EUGENE  SMITH,  Chairman,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New 

York,  N.  Y. 

W.  F.  OSGOOD,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

J.  W.  A.  YOUNG,  the  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  III. 

THE  AMERICAN  REPORT. 

Committee  No.  V.  The  Training  of  Teachers  of  Elementary  and  Secondary  Mathe- 
matics in  the  United  States. 

E.  H.  TAYLOR,  State  Normal  School,  Charleston,  111.,  Chairman. 

CLIFFORD  B.  UPTON,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  LTniversity,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

H.  CLAY  HARVEY,  State  Normal  School,  Kirksville,  Mo. 

M.  E.  BOGARTE,  Normal  University,  Valparaiso,  Ind. 

J.  C.  BROWN,  Horace  Mann  School,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Subcommittee  1.  The  Training  of  Teachers  of  Mathematics  in  Professional  Schools 
of  Collegiate  Grade,  separate  from  or  connected  with  Colleges  or  Universities.1 

Prof.  CLIFFORD  B.  UPTON,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.  Y\, 
Chairman. 

Prof.  R.  D.  BOHANNAN,  Ohio  State  University,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Prof.  A.  L.  CANDY,  University  of  Nebraska,  Lincoln,  Nebr. 

Prof.  C.  D.  RICE,  University  of  Texas,  Austin,  Tex. 

Prof.  L.  G.  WELD,  State  University  of  Iowa,  Iowa  City,  Iowa. 

Subcommittee  2.  State  Normal  Schools. 

H.  CLAY  HARVEY,  State  Normal  School,  Kirksville,  Mo.,  Chairman. 

S.  F.  PARSONS,  State  Normal  School,  De  Kalb,  111. 

Dr.  J.  D.  FAUGHT,  State  Normal  School,  Marquette,  Mich. 

J.  C.  STONE,  State  Normal  School,  Montclair,  N.  J. 

W.  A.  CORNISH,  State  Normal  School,  Cortland,  N.  Y. 

G.  C.  SHUTTS,  State  Normal  School,  Whitewater,  Wis. 

W.  C.  VERNON,  Austin,  Tex. 

Subcommittee  3.  Private  Normal  Schools. 

M.  E.  BOGARTE,  Valparaiso,  Ind. 

FRED  L.  PAULY,  Lebanon,  Ohio. 

THOMAS  W.  KEENAN,  Shenandoah,  Iowa. 

ALBERT  J.  HARPMAN,  Austin,  Minn. 

Subcommittee  4.  Teachers  for  Normal  Schools. 

J.  C.  BROWN,  Horace  Mann  High  School,  New  Y'ork,  N.  Y\,  Chairman. 

Dr.  JOSEPH  V.  COLLINS,  State  Normal  School,  Stevens  Point,  Wis. 

GEORGE  W.  HULL,  State  Normal  School,  Millersburg,  Pa. 

J.  H.  SCARBOROUGH,  State  Normal  School,  Warrensburg,  Mo. 

SANDS  WRIGHT,  Teachers’  College,  Cedar  Falls,  Iowa. 


1 As  originally  arranged,  the  chairman  of  the  committee  undertaking  this  investiga- 
tion was  Prof.  George  W.  Myers,  of  the  University  of  Chicago.  On  account  of  his 
absence  in  Europe  for  the  year,  his  place  was  taken  by  Prof.  Clifford  B.  Upton,  of 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.  Y.  A part  of  the  report  as  pre- 
pared by  him  and  the  rest  of  the  committee  appeared  in  its  first  form  in  the  Educational 
Review,  April,  1911. 

2 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Subcommittee  1.  The  training  of  teachers  of  mathematics  in  professional 
schools  of  collegiate  grade,  separate  from  or  connected  with  colleges 

or  universities 5 

The  aim  of  schools  and  colleges  of  education 8 

The  present  undergraduate  professional  preparation  for  teaching  in 

secondary  schools 8 

The  present  undergraduate  professional  preparation  for  teaching  in 

elementary  schools 10 

Graduate  courses  in  the  teaching  and  history  of  mathematics 11 

Present  tendencies 12 

Concluding  remarks 18 

Subcommittee  2.  State  normal  schools 14 

The  relation  of  normal  schools  to  other  schools 14 

The  aim  of  the  instruction  in  mathematics 15 

Methods  of  instruction  and  branches  of  study 16 

Examinations 18 

Modern  tendencies  in  the  teaching  of  mathematics 19 

Subcommittee  3.  Private  normal  schools 21 

Subcommittee  4.  Teachers  for  normal  schools 22 


3 


TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS 
OF  ELEMENTARY  AND  SECONDARY 
MATHEMATICS 


SUBCOMMITTEE  l.* 1  THE  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  OF 
MATHEMATICS  IN  PROFESSIONAL  SCHOOLS  OF  COL- 
LEGIATE GRADE,  SEPARATE  FROM  OR  CONNECTED 
WITH  COLLEGES  OR  UNIVERSITIES. 

Twenty  years  ago  no  professional  training  of  university  grade 
existed  in  this  country  to  prepare  teachers  of  mathematics  for  sec- 
ondary schools.  At  that  time  the  young  teacher’s  sole  preparation 
for  his  work  was  the  taking  of  as  many  academic  courses  in  mathe- 
matics as  possible,  plus,  in  some  instances,  a course  on  the  history 
of  education  or  some  lectures  on  general  pedagogy.  On  graduation 
he  had  had  no  observation  of  skillful  teaching  in  secondary  mathe- 
matics, no  practice  work,  no  survey  of  secondary  mathematics  from 
a higher  and  pedagogic  standpoint,  and  no  knowledge  of  the  best 
literature  dealing  with  the  teaching  of  algebra  and  geometry  in  this 
country  or  abroad.  He  gained  all  his  experience  in  the  classroom, 
and,  if  progressive,  he  also  acquired  a certain  pedagogic  equipment 
from  private  reading  and  from  teachers’  associations;  if  not,  his 
point  of  view  on  questions  of  teaching  remained  narrow,  as  is  always 
the  case  when  one  fails  to  come  into  contact  with  what  others  are 
doing  in  his  field  of  work.  A very  large  number  of  candidates  for 
teaching  begin  their  work  to-day  with  this  modicum  of  preparation. 

About  15  years  ago  we  find  conditions  throughout  the  country  be- 
ginning to  change  in  this  respect.  At  least  five  different  educational 
institutions 2 had  by  this  time  established  courses  on  the  teaching  of 
algebra  and  geometry,  which,  together  with  a course  on  general 
pedagogy,  formed  a certain  professional  training  for  high-school 
teaching  in  mathematics.  Up  to  1900  only  four  other  colleges3  are 

* ' PV 

1 No  report  of  the  committee  as  a whole  has  been  prepared,  the  ground  being  covered 
sufficiently  well  by  the  reports  of  the  subcommittees  that  are  presented  herewith. 

2 University  of  Michigan  (1893),  Michigan  State  Normal  College  (1893),  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University  (1894),  Syracuse  University  (1895),  and  University  of 
Chicago  (1895).  The  dates  indicate  the  year  in  which  the  course  was  first  given. 

3 University  of  Pennsylvania  (1897),  University  of  Indiana  (1898),  Albany  Normal 
College  (1898),  and  University  of  Illinois  (1900). 


5 


6 


TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  OF  MATHEMATICS. 


known  to  this  committee  to  have  added  courses  on  the  pedagogy  of 
secondary  mathematics  to  their  programs. 

The  past  10  years  have  shown  far  greater  interest  in  pedagogical 
matters  and  a much  more  rapid  growth  in  courses  of  this  kind.  At 
present  about  25  other  colleges,1  in  addition  to  those  above  mentioned, 
have  developed  such  courses  as  “ The  history  and  pedagogy  of  second- 
ary mathematics,”  “ The  teaching  of  mathematics  in  secondary 
schools,”  and  “ Teachers’  course  in  algebra  and  geometry.” 

For  the  other  high-school  studies,  such  as  Latin,  English,  German, 
physics,  and  chemistry,  there  has  been  a corresponding  development 
of  professional  courses  on  the  teaching  of  these  subjects. 

This  general  interest  in  the  professional  preparation  of  teachers  for 
secondary  education,  which  is  thus  being  shown  in  many  of  our 
American  colleges  and  universities,  has  led  to  a feeling  on  the  part  of 
a number  of  these  institutions  that  teaching  must  be  recognized  as  & 
profession,  and  that  training  for  it  must  be  as  formal  and  definite  as 
for  law,  medicine,  or  engineering.  This  has  resulted  in  the  establish- 
ment at  a number  of  our  universities  of  schools  of  education,  each 
with  a formal  organization  and  a separate  faculty,  these  being  con- 
sidered as  professional  schools  and  as  such  ranking,  in  general,  wfith 
the  schools  of  law,  medicine,  and  engineering.  In  these  schools 
attention  has  been  given  particularly  to  preparation  for  secondary 
teaching,  as  the  various  State  normal  schools  have,  in  general,  solved 
the  problem  of  preparing  teachers  for  the  elementary  schools. 

Of  the  various  schools  of  education  now  existing  in  the  United 
States  the  oldest  are  Teachers  College  of  Columbia  University  and 
the  School  of  Pedagogy  of  New  York  University.  Teachers  Col- 
lege was  founded  in  1888  as  a privately  endowed  institution  under 
the  presidency  of  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  and  was  then  known  as 
the  New  York  College  for  the  Training  of  Teachers.  It  was  a school 
of  university  grade  and  enjoyed  reciprocal  relations  with  Columbia 
University.  In  1898  it  became  one  of  the  professional  schools  of 
Columbia  University,  ranking  with  the  schools  of  lavr,  medicine,  and 
engineering.  Teachers  College  was  the  first  professional  college  of 
education  of  university  grade  separate  from  a university,  though 
now  a part  of  Columbia  Universitjr. 

The  School  of  Pedagogy  of  New  York  University,  established  in 
1890,  takes  rank  wfith  the  other  professional  schools  of  that  institu- 
tion, and  may  be  said  to  be  the  first  professional  school  of  university 
grade  directly  connected  with  a university. 

1 Eleven  of  the  more  prominent  are:  New  York  University  (1902),  University  of 
Texas  (1903),  University  of  Missouri  (1903),  University  of  Minnesota  (1905),  Uni- 
versity of  Cincinnati  (1906),  University  of  Nebraska  (1907),  Cornell  University  (1907), 
University  of  Wisconsin  (1907),  University  of  Iowa  (1908),  Drake  University  (1908), 
and  Ohio  State  University  (1909J. 


TRAINING  IN  SCHOOLS  OF  COLLEGIATE  GRADE. 


7 


In  1901  a school  of  education  with  a distinct  faculty  and  ranking 
as  a professional  school  was  opened  at  the  University  of  Chicago, 
and  has  since  become  one  of  the  prominent  institutions  of  this  kind. 
Within  the  last  five  years  at  least  11  other  universities  1 have  organ- 
ized similar  schools  or  colleges  where  the  professional  training  of 
teachers  is  carried  on.  In  all  but  two  cases  2 these  schools  rank  with 
the  other  professional  schools  of  the  university. 

In  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  institutions  connected  with 
universities  there  are  at  least  three  normal  colleges,3  separate  from 
any  university  or  college,  where  work  in  the  training  of  teachers  is 
of  collegiate  grade  and  leads  to  a recognized  bachelor’s  degree. 
These  three  institutions  otter  both  academic  and  professional  courses 
in  preparation  for  secondary  teaching. 

The  work  in  all  of  the  above  schools  or  colleges  of  education  differs 
from  that  offered  by  a university  chair  or  department  of  education 
in  that  professional  courses  of  study  are  offered  in  far  more  generous 
measure.  In  these  schools  one  finds  courses  in  general  and  educa- 
tional psychology,  the  history  and  philosophy  of  education,  school 
administration,  foreign  school  systems,  secondary  education,  etc.,  in 
addition  to  courses  on  the  teaching  of  each  of  the  secondary  sub- 
jects, often  accompanied  by  systematic  observation  and  practice 
teaching  of  the  subject  under  expert  supervision  in  some  high  school. 
The  academic  preparation  of  the  prospective  teacher  is  usually  car- 
ried on  for  two  years  in  the  regular  college  department  of  the  uni- 
versity before  the  pupil  enters  the  school  of  education,  and  is  con- 
tinued in  the  college  department  along  with  the  professional  courses 
in  the  school  of  education.  In  general,  academic  work  is  not  done 
in  the  school  of  education,  the  courses  there  offered  being  strictly 
of  a professional  nature.  The  principal  exception  to  this  is  found 
in  those  professional  schools  which  are  not  connected  with  a uni- 
versity. In  all  of  these  schools  the  professional  courses  are  credited 
toward  the  bachelor’s  degree,  and  in  a few  of  these  institutions 
graduate  courses  leading  to  the  master’s  and  doctor’s  degrees  in 
education  are  also  offered. 

1 University  of  Cincinnati,  College  for  Teachers  (1905)  ; University  of  Texas,  Depart- 
ment of  Education  (1906)  ; Syracuse  University,  Teachers’  College  (1906)  ; University 
of  Missouri,  School  of  Education  (1906)  ; University  of  Minnesota,  College  of  Education 
(1906)  ; University  of  Indiana,  School  of  Education  (1907)  ; Ohio  State  University, 
College  of  Education  (1907)  ; University  of  Iowa,  School  of  Education  (1907)  ; Drake 
University,  College  of  Education  (1907)  ; University  of  Illinois,  School  of  Education 
(1908)  ; University  of  Nebraska,  Teachers’  College  (1909). 

(The  dates  indicate  the  year  of  establishment  of  the  school  of  education.  By  a com- 
parison of  the  above  with  the  footnotes  on  pages  5 and  6 it  will  be  seen  that  in  some 
universities  courses  on  the  teaching  of  secondary  mathematics  existed  before  the  organi- 
zation of  a formal  school  of  education,  while  in  others  such  courses  came  after  the 
establishment  of  the  professional  school.) 

2 Universities  of  Illinois  and  Iowa. 

3 State  Normal  College,  Ypsilanti,  Mich. ; State  Normal  College,  Albany,  N.  Y.,  and 
Normal  College  of  the  City  of  New  York. 


8 


TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  OF  MATHEMATICS. 


It  is  the  purpose  of  this  report  to  deal  only  with  the  training  of 
teachers  of  mathematics  as  carried  on  in  the  above-mentioned  schools 
or  college  of  education. 

THE  AIM  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES  OF  EDUCATION. 

So  far  as  mathematics  is  concerned,  it  is  the  aim  of  all  of  these 
colleges  of  education  to  prepare  teachers  and  supervisors  of  mathe- 
matics for  public  and  private  high  schools.  Some  of  these  institu- 
tions also  have  facilities  for  equipping  teachers  of  mathematics  for 
departmental  work  in  elementary  schools  and  instructors  in  methods 
in  mathematics  for  normal  schools.  At  a few  schools  of  education 
opportunity  is  offered  to  principals  and  teachers  to  fit  themselves 
for  the  study  of  special  problems  in  the  teaching  of  mathematics, 
such  as  constructing  courses  of  study  for  elementary  and  high  schools, 
and  especially  courses  in  mathematics  which  fill  the  particular  needs 
of  manual  training,  commercial,  industrial,  trade,  and  other  special- 
ized forms  of  schools.  The  courses  found  in  several  of  these  pro- 
fessional schools  are  very  helpful  to  those  preparing  to  teach 
academic  courses  in  mathematics  in  colleges  and  universities,  while 
extensive  and  complete  preparation  is  possible  for  those  who  wish 
to  become  professors  of  the  pedagogy  of  mathematics.  Facilities 
are  also  offered  to  prepare  for  research  and  teaching  in  the  history 
of  mathematics. 

THE  PRESENT  UNDERGRADUATE  PROFESSIONAL  PREPARATION  FOR 
TEACHING  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

In  each  of  the  17  schools  of  education  considered  in  this  report  the 
minimum  training  of  a professional  nature  for  secondary  work  is  a 
definitely  organized  course  on  the  teaching  of  secondary  mathemat- 
ics. This  course  varies  in  length  from  17  to  90  hours  of  class  work, 
the  average  for  all  of  the  institutions  being  48  hours.  The  method 
of  handling  the  course  is,  in  general,  by  lectures,  recitations  on 
assigned  readings,  discussions,  written  reports,  and  quizzes.  The 
subject-matter  of  this  course  varies  somewhat  in  each  institution, 
though  certain  topics  are  common  to  practically  all  of  the  courses. 
That  some  notion  may  be  formed  of  what  is  being  done  in  such  work 
the  following  composite  syllabus,  prepared  from  the  syllabi  sent  in 
by  the  leading  institutions,  has  been  arranged,  and  may,  therefore, 
be  regarded  as  a sort  of  maximum  course.  The  course  treats  of  such 
topics  as  the  reasons  for  teaching  algebra  and  geometry,  the  his- 
torical development  of  these  subjects  and  of  the  methods  of  pre- 
senting them,  the  world’s  best  literature  concerning  the  teaching  of 
mathematics,  the  mathematical  curriculum  in  American  and  foreign 
secondary  schools,  the  adaptation  of  a curriculum  to  the  needs  of 


TRAINING  IN  SCHOOLS  OF  COLLEGIATE  GRADE. 


9 


various  types  of  schools,  a study  of  typical  American  and  foreign 
texts  for  secondary  schools,  and  the  various  movements  to  reform  the 
teaching  of  secondary  mathematics  at  home  and  abroad.  Some  at- 
tention is  often  given  to  the  methods  of  conducting  a recitation  in 
mathematics  with  discussions  of  the  heuristic  method,  the  laboratory 
method,  the  no-text  method,  etc.  The  course  also  contains  a'  review 
of  typical  parts  of  algebra,  and  geometry  offering  scientific  or  peda- 
gogic difficulties,  such  as  the  number  system  of  algebra,  equivalent 
equations,  factoring,  theory  of  exponents,  simultaneous  quadratic 
equations,  graphic  solutions,  the  foundations  of  geometry,  the 
sequence  of  propositions,  the  treatment  of  parallels,  loci,  limits,  in- 
commensurable cases,  methods  of  attacking  exercises  in  geometry, 
and  the  nature  of  the  problems  and  exercises  of  algebra  and  geom- 
etry. The  reading  of  current  periodical  literature  on  the  teaching 
of  mathematics  and  the  discussion  of  such  topics  as  teaching  algebra 
and  geometry  together,  the  fusion  of  plane  and  solid  geometry,  etc., 
are  often  included. 

Such  books  as  Smith’s  The  Teaching  of  Elementary  Mathematics 
and  The  Teaching  of  Geometry,  and  Young’s  The  Teaching  of  Math- 
ematics are  frequently  used  as  outlines  or  texts  for  such  a course. 
Fine’s  College  Algebra  and  Number  System  of  Algebra,  Chrystal’s 
Algebra,  and  the  histories  of  mathematics  by  Ball,  Fink,  Cajori,  Gow, 
and  Allman  are  frequently  reported  as  reference  books. 

The  prerequisites  in  mathematics  for  the  above  course  are  one  year 
of  college  mathematics  in  about  half  of  the  cases  and  through  the  cal- 
culus in  others.  Even  where  the  former  requirement  exists,  it 
usually  happens  that  most  of  the  students  have  had  the  calculus  and 
such  courses  as  the  theory  of  equations  and  projective  geometry  as 
a minimum  preparation  before  entering  the  pedagogical  course. 
This  pedagogical  course  is  normally  taken  in  the  senior  year. 

In  connection  with  the  above  course  on  the  teaching  of  secondary 
mathematics  12  different  colleges  of  education  offer  systematic  work 
in  observation  and  practice  teaching  in  secondary  classes,  which 
receives  academic  credit.  This  work  is  carried  on  in  most  cases  in  a 
special  high  school  connected  with  or  under  the  direction  of  the 
school  of  education.  In  a few  cases  arrangements  are  made  for  such 
practical  work  in  public  city  high  schools.  The  amount  of  observa- 
tion and  practice  teaching  required  varies  from  30  to  60  hours  of 
work. 

In  some  of  these  colleges  other  professional  courses  in  preparation 
for  the  teaching  of  mathematics  are  given  in  addition  to  the  teachers’ 
course  above  mentioned.  A distinct  and  separate  course  on  the  history 
of  mathematics  is  offered  in  seven  of  these  institutions,  while  in 
several  others  such  historical  work  is  a definite  part  of  the  course  on 
the  teaching  of  mathematics.  This  historical  course  aims  particu- 
100855°— 11 2 


10 


TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  OF  MATHEMATICS. 


larly  to  show  the  evolution  of  the  science  of  mathematics  and  to  trace 
the  causes  which  have  led  to  its  development  or  stagnation  in  various 
epochs.  Work  in  surveying,  designed  especially  for  prospective 
teachers,  is  also  offered  at  several  schools.  At  Teachers  College  of 
Columbia,  University  and  at  the  School  of  Education  of  Chicago 
University  several  additional  interesting  professional  courses  are 
found,  such  as  “ Encyclopedia  of  elementary  mathematics  for  teach- 
ers,” “Applied  mathematics  for  teachers  in  secondary  schools,”  “ Psy- 
chology of  number,”  “ Teaching  of  secondary  mathematics  in  Eu- 
rope,” and  “ Critical  review  of  secondary  mathematics.” 

In  a,  few  schools  special  certificates  or  diplomas,  certifying  special 
preparation  and  fitness  for  teaching  secondary  mathematics,  are  given 
in  addition  to  the  regular  degree  to  students  who  fulfill  certain 
requirements.  In  some  instances  these  diplomas  are  granted  by  the 
State  board  of  education  to  students  who  have  had  at  the  school  of 
education  a certain  preparation  for  the  teaching  of  mathematics. 
In  these  cases  the  diploma  is  a State  license  to  teach  for  life  or  for  a 
given  number  of  years.  In  other  instances  the  diploma  is  conferred 
only  by  the  college  of  education  independent  of  any  board  of  educa- 
tion. The  requirements  for  these  diplomas  are  usually  as  follows: 
Courses  on  educational  psychology,  the  history  of  education,  and  the 
teaching  of  secondary  mathematics,  with  observation  and  practice 
teaching,  together  with  academic  work  in  college  mathematics  of  from 
15  to  24  points  (a  point  equaling  one  hour  of  work  for  one  semester). 

THE  PRESENT  UNDERGRADUATE  PROFESSIONAL  PREPARATION  FOR 
TEACHING  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

Only  a few  1 of  the  schools  of  education  offer  preparation  for  teach- 
ing mathematics  in  elementary  schools.  One  reason  for  this  is  that 
the  State  normal  schools  offer,  as  a rule,  sufficient  preparation  for  this 
field  of  work.  When,  however,  one  wishes  to  prepare  for  supervi- 
sion or  departmental  work  in  mathematics  in  the  grades,  and  hopes 
to  obtain  the  better  positions,  it  is  necessary  to  have  further  scholar- 
ship in  mathematics  and  education,  and  a college  degree,  a type  of 
training  which  can  be  found  only  in  the  colleges  for  teachers  since 
they  begin,  in  general,  where  the  normal  schools  leave  off.  Students 
who  have  done  two  years  of  work  beyond  the  high  school,  in  a normal 
school,  are  usually  able  to  complete  a course  and  obtain  a degree  in 
one  of  the  schools  of  education  by  two  additional  years  of  study. 
A part  of  the  preparation  for  work  in  the  elementary  schools  is  a 
course  on  the  teaching  of  arithmetic  corresponding  to  the  one  de- 
scribed above  on  the  teaching  of  algebra  and  geometry.  The  syllabus 

1 Teachers  College  of  Columbia  University,  School  of  Education  of  the  University  of 
Chicago,  College  for  Teachers  of  the  University  of  Cincinnati,  Albany  Normal  College,  and 
the  Michigan  State  Normal  College. 


TRAINING  IN  SCHOOLS  OF  COLLEGIATE  GRADE. 


11 


is  of  the  same  general  type  as  that  for  secondary  mathematics,  except 
that  arithmetic  and  such  parts  of  algebra  and  concrete  geometry  as 
are  taught  in  the  elementary  school  make  up  the  subject  matter  for 
discussion.  Students  taking  such  a course  have  often  had  a year’s 
work  in  college  mathematics,  while  the  most  serious  students  have 
usually  had  more.  In  Teachers  College  at  Columbia  University 
students  also  take  a thorough  course  on  higher  arithmetic,  in  which 
special  attention  is  given  to  modern  business  practices.  In  the  School 
of  Education  of  the  University  of  Chicago  a course  on  the  psychology 
of  number  is  usually  taken.  In  addition,  students  generally  elect 
very  freely  related  courses  in  the  departments  of  psychology  and  ele- 
mentary education.  Opportunity  for  practice  teaching  and  observa- 
tion in  elementary  mathematics  is  offered  in  connection  writh  this 
work.  It  should  be  added  that  students  who  are  studying  seriously 
the  problems  of  teaching  mathematics  in  elementary  schools  usually 
take  also  the  full  preparation  for  teaching  in  secondary  schools,  in 
order  that  they  may  better  appreciate  the  nature  of  the  secondary 
school  work  to  which  the  elemental  school  courses  are  leading. 

GRADUATE  COURSES  IN  THE  TEACHING  AND  HISTORY  OF  MATHE- 
MATICS. 

Graduate  courses  in  the  teaching  and  history  of  mathematics, 
leading  to  the  master’s  and  doctor’s  degrees,  are  found  only  at 
Teachers  College  of  Columbia  University  and  at  the  School  of 
Education  of  the  University  of  Chicago.  In  these  two  institutions 
research  courses  are  conducted  on  the  seminar  plan,  in  which  the  stu- 
dents work  on  individual  topics  relating  to  the  history  and  pedagogy 
of  mathematics.  The  prerequisite  for  these  courses  is  a bachelor’s 
degree,  which  should  include  a course  on  the  teaching  of  algebra  and 
geometry  in  addition  to  a generous  amount  of  college  mathematics. 
Students  who  have  not  had  courses  on  the  history  and  pedagogy^of 
secondary  mathematics  usually  take  these  courses  parallel  with  the 
graduate  work.  A large  number  of  the  students  pursuing  these 
courses  are  those  who  have  already  had  considerable  experience  in 
teaching.  The  work  is  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  various  classes  of 
students.  It  is  taken  by  those  who  wish  further  preparation  for  sec- 
ondary teaching  as  wrell  as  by  those  who  aim  to  become  heads  of 
departments  of  mathematics  in  high  schools.  One  also  finds  a num- 
ber who  are  fitting  themselves  to  teach  methods  in  mathematics  in 
normal  and  training  schools. 

There  are  also  a few  students  who  are  preparing  to  teach  mathe- 
matics in  colleges  and  universities.  This  seems  to  be  a good  omen, 
for  it  indicates  that  students  are  beginning  to  realize  that  there  are 
important  pedagogical  problems  to  be  solved,  especially  in  connec- 
tion with  the  teaching  of  the  first  year  of  college  mathematics,  where, 


12  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  OF  MATHEMATICS. 

in  general,  more  poor  instruction  is  found  than  in  any  other  place  in 
our  educational  system,  a situation  which  is  easily  explained,  since  as  a 
rule  the  teachers  in  the  first  year  of  the  college  course  are  young  men, 
fresh  from  the  study  of  higher  mathematics,  who  have  never  had 
experience  in  teaching  and  who  have  never  so  much  as  discussed  the 
most  elementary  topic  in  relation  to  such  work.  The  fact  that  the 
men  who  are  preparing  in  the  schools  of  education  for  this  college 
work  usually  follow  at  the  same  time  the  courses  offered  on  the  teach- 
ing of  secondary  mathematics  shows  that  they  realize  that  the  prob- 
lems of  teaching  in  the  first  years  of  college  are  almost  identical  with 
those  in  the  last  two  years  of  the  high  school.  France  and  Germany 
long  ago  fully  appreciated  this  when  they  included  in  the  courses  of 
study  for  their  secondary  schools  the  mathematics  which  we  usually 
teach  in  the  first  two  college  years.  The  further  fact  that  these  young 
men  also  pursue  as  many  advanced  courses  as  possible  in  pure  and 
applied  mathematics  indicates  that  they  feel  strongly  the  necessity 
of  combining  mathematical  scholarship  with  this  pedagogic  training. 
In  these  schools  of  education  there  is  no  dogmatic  instruction  in  ref- 
erence to  college  teaching;  such  work  would  be  fatal.  In  the  semi- 
nars these  students  usually  work  out  some  problem  connected  with 
freshman  or  sophomore  college  work  and,  at  the  same  time,  get  fully 
into  touch  with  all  of  the  movements  and  problems  in  secondary  teach- 
ing which  bear  so  directly  upon  their  field  of  work.  They  thus  obtain 
a broad  basis  for  the  pedagogy  of  freshman  college  mathematics; 
they  get  perspective  if  nothing  else. 

In  these  graduate  courses  men  are  also  prepared  for  college  teach- 
ing and  research  in  the  history  of  mathematics.  The  facilities  for 
this  work  are  exceptional  at  Teachers  College  of  Columbia  Univer- 
sity, where  very  complete  libraries  1 of  old  mathematical  books  and 
manuscripts  are  available  for  the  use  of  graduate  students.  In  the 
seminars  one  also  finds  a number  of  principals  and  supervisors  who 
are  interested  in  the  new  types  of  industrial,  trade,  and  commercial 
schools,  which  are  so  rapidly  springing  up  in  this  country,  and  who 
are  working  on  special  studies  relative  to  the  courses  of  study  in 
mathematics  adapted  to  the  needs  of  these  schools. 

PRESENT  TENDENCIES. 

A number  of  the  schools  of  education  report  plans  for  enlarging 
the  work  for  the  professional  training  of  teachers  of  mathematics. 
In  several  of  these  colleges  where  short  courses  on  the  teaching  of 
secondary  mathematics  are  now  offered  it  is  proposed  to  make  within 
a year  or  so  a considerable  increase  in  the  length  of  the  course.  In  a 
few  institutions  where  no  practice  teaching  or  observation  is  now 


1The  large  private  libraries  of  Prof.  David  Eugene  Smith  and  George  A.  Plimpton,  Esq. 


TRAINING  IN  SCHOOLS  OF  COLLEGIATE  GRADE. 


13 


given,  it  is  hoped  to  mature  arrangements  for  such  work  in  the  near 
future.  In  a number  of  other  schools  serious  efforts  are  being  made 
to  increase  the  efficiency  of  this  work,  especially  on  the  side  of  prac- 
tice teaching.1  Several  professors  have  also  announced  their  inten- 
tion of  offering  courses  on  the  history  of  mathematics;  others  are 
planning  graiduate  courses  in  the  teaching  of  mathematics.  At  sev- 
eral of  our  colleges  of  education  there  seems  to  be  a strong  feeling 
that  secondary  teachers  should  have  a synoptic  course  in  mathematics 
somewhat  along  the  lines  of  Klein’s  “ Elementarmathematik  vom 
hoheren  Standpunkte  aus.”  There  is  no  question  as  to  the  advisability 
of  such  a course ; the  main  reason  why  such  work  has  not  been  more 
generally  given  in  America  is  probably  the  lack  of  a suitable  text- 
book. As  a number  of  American  professors  are  now  jointly  prepar- 
ing a work  of  this  kind,  courses  of  this  nature  will  soon  be  found,  no 
doubt,  in  a number  of  our  teachers’  colleges. 

CONCLUDING  REMARKS. 

The  ideal  preparation  for  teaching  in  secondary  schools  and  the 
first  two  years  of  college  should  be  something  more  complete  than 
that  now  generally  found.  On  the  side  of  scholarship  it  should 
approach  the  completeness  of  the  preparation  in  France  and  Ger- 
many, where  one  must  have  a State  license,  obtained  only  by  passing 
a most  rigid  State  examination,  before  he  can  hope  to  do  anything 
worth  while  in  secondary  teaching.  On  the  other  hand,  it  would 
probably  be  detrimental  to  the  life  and  elasticity  of  our  system  if 
a similar  license  should  be  demanded  in  this  country.  Yet  with  us, 
where  the  public  is  now  beginning  to  recognize  that  teaching  is  a 
profession,  a feeling  which  will  certainly  increase  as  the  years  go  by, 
the  time  will  undoubtedly  come  when  secondary  teaching  will  be 
sufficiently  attractive  financially  to  enable  us  to  demand  from  the 
prospective  teacher  some  such  preparation  as  the  following:  On  the 
side  of  pure  mathematics  we  may  expect  the  calculus,  differential 
equations,  solid  analytic  geometry,  projective  geometry,  theory  of 
equations,  theory  of  functions,  theory  of  curves  and  surfaces,  theory 
of  numbers,  and  some  group  theory.  On  the  applied  side  we  should 
demand  a strong  course  in  mechanics,  theoretical  and  practical  as- 
tronomy, descriptive  geometry,  and  some  mathematical  physics  with 
a thorough  course  in  experimental  physics.  To  this  should  be  added 
special  courses  on  surveying  and  general  applications  of  mathematics 
that  the  student  may  see  to  what  all  of  the  above  work  is  leading. 
As  pedagogical  training  there  should  be  included  a strong  course  on 

1 An  interesting  article  on  “ Practice  work  in  university  departments  of  education,” 
by  F.  E.  Farrington,  has  recently  appeared  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  University  of  Texas, 
No.  134,  Nov.  1,  1909.  It  may  also  be  found  in  the  Publications  of  the  National  Society 
of  College  Teachers  of  Education  for  1909. 


14 


TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  OF  MATHEMATICS. 


the  teaching  of  secondary  mathematics  with  observation  and  prac- 
tice teaching  under  expert  supervision,  a course  on  the  history  of 
mathematics,  at  least  one  graduate  course  on  the  history  and  teaching 
of  mathematics,  and  a course  of  an  encyclopedic  nature  dealing  critic- 
ally Avith  the  field  of  elementary  mathematics  from  the  higher  stand- 
point. A foundation  in  psychology  and  the  history  of  education  is 
also  necessary.  Such  a preparation  may  at  first  seem  excessive,  but 
it  is  the  ideal,  and,  with  the  exception  of  about  half  of  the  pedagogic 
training  outlined,  it  is  no  more  severe  than  the  requirements  in 
France  to-day  for  the  secondary  teaching  license  known  as  the 
“ agregation.”  We  can  demand  this  if  the  public  will  give  teaching 
the  recognition  it  deserves. 


SUBCOMMITTEE  2.  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

The  State  normal  schools  exist  for  the  purpose  of  training  teachers 
for  the  public  schools.  They  are  generally  supported  by  appropria- 
tions by  the  State  legislatures.  A small  number  of  these  schools  are 
supported  by  a specified  State  tax,  supplemented  by  appropriations 
by  the  State  legislatures,  and  in  a few  cases  they  receive  some  income 
from  the  sale  or  rental  of  public-land  grants.  A few  State  normal 
schools  have  small  permanent  endowments.  Tuition  is  free,  except 
for  slight  incidental  fees,  to  persons  declaring  an  intention  to  teach 
in  the  State  in  which  the  school  is  located.  With  the  exception  of  a 
few  schools  in  the  South  the  State  normal  schools  are  coeducational. 

This  report  is  prepared  from  data  obtained  from  the  catalogues  of 
State  normal  schools,  and  from  the  answers  to  questionnaires.  A 
questionnaire  was  sent  to  each  of  185  State  normal  schools  and  to  8 
city  training  schools.  Answers  were  received  from  65  State  normal 
schools  and  from  8 city  training  schools.  The  number  of  city  train- 
ing schools  from  which  data  were  received  being  small,  these  schools 
have  been  classed  with  the  State  normal  schools. 

THE  RELATION  OF  NORMAL  SCHOOLS  TO  OTHER  SCHOOLS. 

The  requirements  for  entrance  to  normal  schools  vary  in  different 
parts  of  the  country.  Of  64  schools  reporting  on  this  topic,  23  per 
cent  require  high-school  graduation.  The  majority  of  these  schools 
are  in  New  England  and  New  York,  and  offer  a two-year  course  of 
study,  which  is  composed  largely  of  professional  work.  The  remain- 
ing schools  require  for  admission  only  the  completion  of  the  work 
of  the  eighth  grade.  Such  schools  usually  offer  two  courses  of  study, 
a four-year  course  for  the  students  who  have  completed  only  the 
work  of  the  eighth  grade  and  a two-year  course  for  high-school 
graduates.  A few  schools,  chiefly  in  the  Middle  West,  offer  two 


ERRATUM* 


The  sentence  beginning  on  the  seventh  line  from  the  bottom  of  page  15  should 
read  as  follows:  Of  the  schools  reporting,  89  per  cent  give  courses  in  methods  of 
teaching  arithmetic  and  9 per  cent  give  courses  in  methods  of  teaching  algebra  and 
geometry. 


1 


TRAINING  IN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 


15 


years  of  work  in  addition  to  the  above  courses,  for  the  completion  of 
which  a bachelor’s  degree  is  granted. 

The  work  of  the  normal  schools  now  receives  better  recognition 
from  the  colleges  than  formerly.  Of  the  schools  reporting  to  this 
committee  56  per  cent  receive  full  credit  in  the  colleges  for  work 
done  in  mathematics,  and  20  per  cent  receive  partial  credit.  Fre- 
quently the  colleges  allow  junior-class  standing  to  those  graduates  of 
the  normal  schools  who  have  done  two  years  of  work  beyond  the 
■high  school.  It  is  estimated  that  about  13  per  cent  of  the  graduates 
of  the  normal  schools  later  pursue  advanced  work  in  college.  The 
larger  estimates  come  from  the  West,  where  the  normal  schools  are 
used  as  preparatory  schools  by  a considerable  number  of  students 
from  the  rural  districts,  because  the  high  schools  are  not  so  well 
developed  as  those  in  the  East.  Since  a considerable  number  of  their 
graduates  later  go  to  college,  the  normal  schools  of  this  section  have 
come  to  offer  considerable  elective  work.  It  thus  becomes  possible 
for  the  student  to  do  in  the  normal  schools  the  mathematics  usually 
done  in  the  first  two  years  in  college. 

Practically  all  normal-school  graduates  teach  at  some  time  in  the 
public  schools.  It  is  estimated  that  73  per  cent  of  the  graduates  teach 
five  years  or  more.  The  large  majority  of  them  teacli  in  the  grades. 
Sixty-four  per  cent  of  the  schools  report  that  some  of  their  gradu- 
ates teach  in  the  high  schools  in  the  smaller  cities  and  towns. 

THE  AIM  OF  THE  INSTRUCTION  IN  MATHEMATICS. 

Each  school  was  asked  to  give  the  aim  of  the  instruction  in  mathe- 
matics. Of  the  schools  reporting  on  this  question,  51  per  cent  claim 
to  pay  equal  attention  to  mathematics  as  a science  (the  so-called  cul- 
ture value)  and  to  mathematics  as  an  art  (the  so-called  utilitarian 
value).  About  28  per  cent  claim  to  emphasize  more  the  culture 
aspect  (except  in  arithmetic) , and  21  per  cent  put  greater  stress  upon 
the  utilities. 

Since  a large  majority  of  the  students  are  preparing  to  teach  in 
the  elementary  schools,  arithmetic  is  the  most  important  subject  in 
the  mathematical  curriculum  of  the  normal  school.  The  mathe- 
matical instruction  has  as  its  chief  aim  the  preparation  of  efficient 
teachers  of  arithmetic.  One  means  used  to  accomplish  this  end  is  to 
give  formal  instruction  in  methods  of  teaching  this  subject.  Of  the 
schools  reporting,  89  per  cent  also  give  courses  in  methods  of  teach- 
ing algebra  and  geometry.  The  general  opinion  is  that  such  courses 
are  distinctly  valuable  when  preceded  by  a thorough  grounding  in 
the  subject  matter.  In  66  per  cent  of  the  schools  offering  these 
courses  they  are  given  wholly,  and  in  8 per  cent  in  part,  by  the  same 
teachers  that  give  the  academic  courses  in  mathematics. 


16 


TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  OF  MATHEMATICS. 


It  is  the  opinion  in  23  per  cent  of  the  schools  that  there  should  be 
no  difference,  except  in  courses  in  methods,  in  the  instruction  in 
mathematics  offered  to  students  preparing  to  teach  and  to  other 
students.  The  remaining  schools  take  the  point  of  view  that  in 
courses  for  prospective  teachers  more  attention  should  be  paid  to  the 
aims  in  teaching  mathematics,  to  methods  of  explanation  and  orderly 
presentation,  and  to  the  historical  development  and  economic  impor- 
tance of  the  subject. 

METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION  AND  BRANCHES  OF  STUDY. 

The  courses  of  study  in  64  schools  were  obtained  either  from 
answers  to  questionnaires  or  from  the  catalogues  of  the  schools.  The 
following  table  shows  the  different  courses  given,  the  number  of 
schools  offering  each  course,  and  the  average  number  of  hours  given 
to  each  course: 


Subject. 

Number  of 
schools. 

Average 
number  of 
hours. 

Arithmetic . 

All. 

100 

Elementary  algebra „ . 

All. 

171 

Plane  geometry 

All. 

143 

Advanced  algebra 

9 

108 

Solid  geometry . 

18 

j 32 

72 

Methods  of  teaching 

63 

Mathematics 

Plane  trigonometry 

40 

77 

Spherical  trigonometry 

4 

80 

Analytics 

25 

96 

Calculus 

23 

87 

Theory  of  equations 

3 

52 

Differential  equations 

Surveying 

1 

11 

48 

57 

Analytical  mechanics 

1 

48 

History  of  mathematics 

8 

70 

TIigh-school  graduates  taking  a two-year  course  in  a normal  school 
are  required  to  review  arithmetic,  and,  in  some  schools,  algebra  and 
geometry.  Students  who  enter  the  normal  school  from  the  eighth 
grade  are  required  to  take  courses  in  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geom- 
etry. If  more  advanced  courses  in  mathematics  are  offered  they  are 
as  a rule  elective.  The  number  of  students  electing  mathematics  is 
small  in  most  schools,  as  the  only  students  interested  in  the  higher 
courses  are  those  who  desire  to  secure  advanced  standing  in  college 


TRAINING  IN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 


17 


or  to  teach  the  subject  in  a high  school.  No  elective  work  is  offered 
in  32  per  cent  of  the  schools  reporting  on  this  question. 

Recitations  by  the  students,  supplemented  by  an  occasional  lecture, 
is  the  practically  universal  method  of  conducting  classes.  In  nearly 
all  cases  a text  is  used  as  the  basis  of  a course,  the  text  being  supple- 
mented at  the  pleasure  of  the  instructor. 

One  of  the  most  important  parts  of  the  professional  training  of  a 
student  in  a normal  school  is  the  practice  teaching  under  supervision. 
In  the  schools  reporting,  80  is  the  average  number  of  class  periods  of 
practice  teaching  in  mathematics  which  it  is  possible  for  a student  to 
take  who  is  making  a specialty  of  this  subject.  In  76  per  cent  of  the 
schools  all  students  are  required  to  do  some  practice  teaching  in 
mathematics,  and  the  average  number  of  class  periods  required  is  54. 
This  teaching  is  always  under  the  direct  supervision  of  a critic 
teacher.  In  51  per  cent  of  the  schools  reporting,  the  head  of  the  de- 
partment of  mathematics  is  said  to  exercise  some  supervision  over 
the  practice  teaching,  but  in  some  of  these  schools  the  supervision 
is  very  slight.  Such  supervision  seems  to  the  committee  to  be  very 
desirable  in  order  to  unify  the  work  in  mathematics  throughout  the 
school,  to  make  the  work  of  the  training  school  more  efficient,  and  to 
keep  the  teachers  of  mathematics  in  the  normal  school  in  touch  with 
elementary  school  work. 

Correlation  was  also  made  a subject  of  inquiry.  Of  the  schools 
reporting,  12  per  cent  say  that  no  attempt  is  made  to  correlate  the 
different  mathematical  subjects.  Thirty-eight  per  cent  are  attempt- 
ing to  make  some  systematic  correlation.  The  remainder  attempt 
some  correlation,  but  nothing  systematic.  Twelve  per  cent  of  the 
schools  reporting  on  the  question  think  it  advisable  to  eliminate  en- 
tirely the  traditional  boundaries  between  arithmetic,  algebra,  and 
geometry ; 19  per  cent  think  these  boundaries  should  be  eliminated  to 
a large  extent ; 7 per  cent  not  at  all.  Other  schools  suggest  methods 
by  which  related  topics  in  the  different  subjects  may  be  correlated. 

Sixty-nine  per  cent  of  the  schools  report  some  attempts  at  cor- 
relating mathematics  with  other  subjects,  usually  with  the  sciences, 
but  close  correlation  is  made,  probably,  in  but  few  schools.  The 
replies  to  the  questionnaire  indicate  that  it  is  the  general  opinion 
that  in  arithmetic  the  larger  part  of  the  problems  in  the  lower  grades 
and  some  of  the  problems  in  the  upper  grades  should  be  taken  from 
the  other  subjects  that  the  pupils  are  pursuing  and  from  the  pupil’s 
environment. 

Much  more  is  now  being  done  than  ever  before  in  the  normal 
schools  in  the  way  of  using  algebra  and  geometry,  as  well  as  arith- 
metic, to  solve  problems  taken  from  the  other  school  subjects  and 
from  the  experience  of  the  pupils.  Some  of  these  problems  are  taken 


18 


TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  OF  MATHEMATICS. 


from  texts,  which  now  furnish  more  problems  of  this  kind  than 
formerly,  some  are  obtained  from  published  lists  and  from  period- 
icals, and  many  more  are  made  by  the  teachers  themselves.  Some  of 
the  teachers  in  normal  schools  have  been  active  in  arousing  interest 
in  genuine  applied  problems.  The  great  difficulty,  as  has  been  often 
expressed  in  the  replies  received  by  the  committee,  is  to  find  applied 
problems  that  are  of  real  interest  to  a large  number  of  students. 

The  question  was  asked,  What  causes  operate  to  produce  failures 
in  mathematics  in  normal  schools  that  do  not  operate  in  other  sub- 
jects? About  one-fourth  of  the  answers  say  none.  Other  answers 
say  that  too  much  time  is  devoted  to  other  subjects;  that  we  have 
poor  methods  of  instruction  and  poor  elementary  training;  that  too 
much  is  attempted;  that  the  subject,  as  it  has  been  taught,  lacks 
interest. 

The  libraries  of  the  normal  schools  are  generally  well  supplied 
with  works  on  elementary  mathematics,  and  on  the  history  and 
teaching  of  the  subject.  The  departments  are  also  supplied  with 
apparatus  necessary  for  illustrative  work  in  teaching  weights  and 
measures,  and  geometric  models  for  use  in  teaching  mensuration  and 
solid  geometry. 

EXAMINATIONS. 

Thirty-seven  per  cent  of  the  schools  reporting  say  that  examina- 
tions are  held  at  the  option  of  the  instructor.  In  such  cases  the 
examinations  are  given  at  intervals  of  from  2 to  6 weeks  at  the 
completion  of  important  topics.  The  rule  in  the  remaining  schools 
is  to  hold  examinations  at  the  end  of  each  term  or  semester.  In  one 
school  no  examinations  are  given.  The  examinations  are  written  in 
83  per  cent  of  the  schools;  in- the  remainder,  both  written  and  oral. 
In  41  per  cent  of  the  schools  the  examination  periods  are  from  40 
to  50  minutes;  in  46  per  cent  from  1 to  2 hours;  in  13  per  cent  from 
3 to  4 hours. 

The  principal  objects  of  the  examinations  are  to  test  the  knowledge 
of  the  students,  to  furnish  a test  of  the  teaching,  to  give  unity  to  the 
subject,  and  to  secure  a review.  In  5 per  cent  of  the  schools  the  grad- 
ing of  pupils  depends  entirely  upon  the  examinations,  and  in  2 per 
cent  not  at  all.  In  20  per  cent  the  examinations  count  for  one-half 
in  determining  grades ; in  44  per  cent  for  one-third ; and  in  29  per  cent 
for  less  than  one-third.  In  44  per  cent  of  the  schools  there  is  a tend- 
ency to  give  less  consideration  to  written  examinations  given  at  stated 
intervals,  and  in  45  per  cent  there  is  a tendency  toward  abolishing 
them. 

In  three  States  the  governing  board  of  the  normal  schools  or  the 
State  department  of  education  conducts  annual  examinations,  which 
in  some  cases  determine  promotion  and  graduation. 


TRAINING  IN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 


19 


MODERN  TENDENCIES  IN  THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS. 

The  committee  asked  for  opinions  concerning  some  recent  move- 
ments to  improve  the  teaching  of  elementary  mathematics.  While 
it  is  probable  that  not  all  of  these  recommendations  are  carried  out 
in  the  schools  from  which  they  come,  they  are  valuable,  at  least,  as 
indicating  present  tendencies. 

One  question  asked  for  recommendations  for  improving  the  initial 
instruction  in  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry;  and  a number  of 
recommendations  were  received.  About  18  per  cent  of  the  schools 
recommend  that  the  study  of  arithmetic  be  begun  later.  There  should 
be  more  objective  work,  especially  in  the  lower  grades,  and  the  work 
should  be  less  mechanical.  There  should  be  drill  on  the  fundamental 
operations  until  the  pupils  have  a much  higher  degree  of  speed  and 
accuracy  than  at  present. 

In  teaching  algebra,  the  recommendation  comes  from  almost  all 
schools  that  this  subject  be  more  closely  connected  with  arithmetic, 
so  that  the  transition  from  arithmetic  to  algebra  may  be  simpler 
and  more  natural.  To  accomplish  this  it  is  suggested  that  the  literal 
notation  be  introduced  not  later  than  the  seventh  grade  and  used 
freely  in  the  eighth  grade.  Furthermore,  to  make  algebra  more 
interesting  and  useful,  let  it  be  used  in  solving  real  problems. 

In  respect  to  geometry,  the  answers  show  a general  tendency  to 
make  the  subject  less  formal  in  the  beginning.  By  the  use  of  simple 
illustrations  attempts  are  made  to  base  the  elementary  concepts  more 
completely  upon  the  experiences  of  the  pupils.  Numerical  and  other 
applied  problems  are  used  to  give  the  subject  more  meaning. 

Fifty-one  schools  sent  replies  to  the  question  “ What  traditional 
topics  should  be  omitted  from  the  course  of  study  in  arithmetic, 
algebra,  and  geometry  ? ” In  the  case  of  arithmetic,  the  general 
recommendations  are  to  omit  all  obsolete  and  purely  technical  topics 
and  unduly  complicated  problems.  The  number  of  topics  which  one 
or  more  schools  recommend  for  omission  is  large.  Thirteen  schools 
recommend  the  omission  of  cube  root,  except  by  factoring;  15,  the 
omission  of  true  discount ; 9,  highest  common  factor  by  the  Euclidean 
method;  6,  partnership  and  compound  proportion;  5,  partial  pay- 
ments and  progressions;  4,  compound  and  annual  interest,  much  of 
percentage,  and  complicated  problems  in  fractions;  3,  bank  discount 
and  longitude  and  time.  Other  topics  are  listed  for  omission  by  one 
or  more  schools.  Although  a very  small  per  cent  of  the  schools 
would  omit  all  of  the  topics  just  named,  the  list  possesses  some 
interest  in  that  it  shows  how  many  of  the  traditional  topics  are 
being  removed  from  the  course.  There  are  further  suggestions  that 
indicate  a somewhat  general  tendency  to  abridge  the  above  topics 
when  they  are  not  omitted. 


20 


TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  OF  MATHEMATICS. 


It  is  generally  recommended  that  the  work  in  algebra  be  less 
formal ; that  we  omit  or  postpone  until  late  in  the  course  complicated 
multiplications  and  divisions  of  polynomials,  complicated  problems 
in  factoring,  fractions,  and  radicals,  and  highest  common  factor  by 
division.  The  notion  of  function  and  of  variation  should  be  intro- 
duced early.  A large  number  of  applied  problems  should  be  given 
throughout  the  course. 

A number  of  schools  recommend  that  limits,  variables,  and  incom- 
mensurables  be  omitted  from  elementary  geometry.  Other  schools 
think  these  topics  should  be  retained,  but  that  in  discussing  them  only 
illustrations  should  be  used,  and  that  no  proofs  should  be  attempted. 
In  some  schools  it  is  thought  that  with  students  of  the  grade  of 
maturity  of  those  in  normal  schools,  it  is  profitable  to  discuss  the 
formal  proofs  of  some  of  the  elementary  theorems  in  the  above  topics. 
There  is  general  agreement  that  the  proofs  of  some  of  the  more 
difficult  theorems  in  plane  geometry  may  be  omitted. 

Twenty-six  per  cent  of  the  schools  report  that  some  laboratory 
work  is  done  in  mensuration;  15  per  cent  do  field  work  in  trigo- 
nometry or  surveying;  33  per  cent  more  make  some  application  of 
the  mathematics  either  in  laboratory  work  or  in  applied  problems. 
The  results  from  laboratory  work  are  generally  thought  to  be  good, 
but  not  in  all  cases. 

About  14  per  cent  of  all  schools  reporting  to  this  committee  have 
made  some  experiments  in  teaching  mathematics.  These  were  in  the 
main  experiments  to  determine  better  methods  of  teaching  arithme- 
tic. One  of  these,  for  example,  was  an  experiment  to  determine  the 
efficiency  of  daily  drills  in  the  fundamental  operations  and  to  deter- 
mine the  effects  of  such  drills  upon  the  reasoning  power.  It  is 
encouraging  to  know  that  a number  of  teachers  of  mathematics  in 
normal  schools  are  undertaking  to  obtain  in  a scientific  way  data 
concerning  improvements  in  teaching  mathematics. 

The  schools  were  asked  to  state  what  dangers  they  see,  if  any,  in 
recent  movements  to  make  secondary  mathematics  more  intuitive, 
useful,  and  attractive.  The  answers  show  a wide  range  of  opinion,  as 
might  be  expected.  Forty-four  per  cent  of  the  answers  say  that  no 
danger  is  seen.  Others  say  that  the  movements  in  question  have 
caused  inefficient  teaching;  that  drill  is  neglected;  that  the  discipli- 
nary value  of  the  subject  is  lost;  and  that  there  results  superficial 
and  unrelated  knowledge. 


TRAINING  IN  NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 


21 


SUBCOMMITTEE  3.  PRIVATE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

The  great  majority  of  the  private  normal  schools  conduct  their 
own  preparatory  departments,  and  hence  have  no  specific  entrance 
requirements.  They  generally  receive  students  of  all  grades  and  fit 
them  for  entrance  to  such  courses  as  they  offer.  Applicants  for 
advanced  standing  are  usually  allowed  credit  on  high-school  diplo- 
mas or  on  recommendation  from  former  instructors,  though  students 
coming  from  high  schools  are  very  often  found  deficient  in  the  most 
elementary  parts  of  mathematics.  It  is  recommended  that  in  the 
lower  schools  persistent  drills  be  given  in  the  fundamental  operations 
of  arithmetic,  so  that  students  may  perform  these  operations  not  only 
with  facility,  but  with  absolute  certainty  as  to  the  correctness  of 
their  results  and  may  be  able  to  prove  the  accuracy  of  their  answers. 

There  seems  to  be  no  uniformity  whatever  in  the  credits  given  by 
the  higher  institutions  of  learning  for  mathematics  covered  in  private 
normal  schools.  Each  one  of  these  schools  stands  on  its  own  merits 
and  has  its  own  reputation.  The  State  universities  usually  give  full 
credit  for  all  the  work  done  in  mathematics  in  the  private  normal 
schools  of  their  own  State.  The  comparison  of  the  widely  differing 
reports  would  seem  to  indicate  that  about  30  per  cent  of  the  graduates 
of  the  private  normal  schools  enter  universities  and  technical  schools 
for  the  purpose  of  doing  more  advanced  work,  Avhile  about  50  per 
cent  of  the  graduates  teach  for  five  years  or  more,  usually  in  the 
public  schools. 

Contrary  to  the  usually  accepted  opinion,  it  is  probably  true  that 
it  is  not  the  chief  object  of  the  private  normal  schools  to  prepare 
students  for  teaching.  The  majority  of  students  later  go  into 
business,  and  a considerable  number  into  technical  work.  Conse- 
quently the  utilitarian  side  of  the  study  of  mathematics  is  probably 
the  phase  that  is  chiefly  emphasized.  Special  courses  for  students 
bearing  upon  the  history  and  teaching  of  jnathematics  are  rarely,  if 
ever,  offered. 

Classes  are  always  sustained  in  arithmetic,  the  time  required  of 
the  student  depending  on  Ins  proficiency  upon  entering  the  school. 
From  40  to  60  weeks  are  usually  given  to  algebra,  and  yery  satis- 
factory courses  are  generally  offered.  These  often  include  college 
algebra.  Usually  about  36  weeks  are  given  to  plane  geometry. 
Many  of  the  schools  which  offer  four-year  courses  require  about  six 
months’  work  in  analytic  geometry  and  perhaps  the  same  time  in  the 
study  of  the  calculus,  though,  not  infrequently,  the  course  offered 
in  the  latter  subject  extends  throughout  an  entire  j^ear.  Very  little 
of  the  instruction  is  given  in  the  form  of  lectures  to  the  class,  reci- 
tations on  the  part  of  the  pupils  being  the  well-nigh  universal  rule. 


22 


TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS  OF  MATHEMATICS. 


The  recitation  periods  are  very  generally  one  hour  in  length,  five 
recitations  per  week.  The  school  year  contains  from  48  to  50  weeks, 
without  intermission.  There  appears  to  be  a growing  tendency  to 
give  frequent  tests  or  examinations.  These  are  usually  written  and 
required  at  various  intervals.  Some  schools  give  tests  as  often  as 
once  a fortnight,  others  once  a month,  and  still  others  not  oftener 
than  once  in  6 or  10  weeks.  Final  grades  do  not  usually  depend 
wholly  upon  result  of  these  tests.  Perhaps  a weight  of  about  50  per 
cent  is  given  to  them  and  about  50  per  cent  to  the  record  made  in 
class. 


SUBCOMMITTEE  4.  TEACHERS  FOR  NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

There  are  about  twice  as  many  men  as  women  teaching  mathe- 
matics in  the  normal  schools  of  the  United  States.  In  the  eastern 
part  of  the  country,  however,  the  women  far  outnumber  the  men. 

The  training  of  the  teachers  varies  widely.  About  60  per  cent  of 
the  teachers  have  had  high-school  training,  55  per  cent  have  had 
normal-school  training,  80  per  cent  have  had  college  training,  and 
36  per  cent  have  done  graduate  work  at  the  universities.  The  aver- 
age training  for  the  men  is  considerably  higher  than  that,  of  the 
women.  There  is  a marked  tendency  toward  a requirement  of  gradu- 
ate work  as  a prerequisite  for  teaching  mathematics  in  normal 
schools.  There  is  also  a wide  variation  in  the  degrees  held  by  the 
teachers;  about  one-third  of  them  have  no  degree,  42  per  cent  have 
the  bachelor’s  degree,  18  per  cent  the  master’s  degree,  and  6 per  cent 
the  doctor’s  degree.  The  men  who  hold  the  higher  degrees  far 
outnumber  the  women. 

The  term  of  service  in  the  present  teaching  position  averages  about 
seven  and  one-half  years  and  is  practically  the  same  for  men  as  for 
women.  Twenty-three  per  cent  of  all  the  teachers  have  served  in 
their  present  positions  fo£  10  or  more  years,  and  50  per  cent  have 
served  5 years  or  more. 

The  teachers  in  the  normal  schools  have  not  contributed  many 
books  or  articles  to  the  literature  of  their  field.  This  may  be  due,  in 
part,  to  the  fact  that  most  of  the.  teachers  meet  a large  number  of 
classes  each  week  and  consequently  have  neither  the  time  nor  the 
energy  necessary  for  authorship.  There  is  a tendency  to  lighten 
the  work  of  the  teacher  in  the  normal  schools,  and  this  may  result  in 
a more  productive  scholarship  from  this  source.  Practically  all  of 
the  contributions  made  up  to  the  present  time  have  been  by  the  men. 

None  of  the  schools  make  a practice  of  employing  their  under- 
graduates as  instructors,  and  only  a few  of  the  schools  so  employ 
their  graduates  without  further  training. 


TEACHERS  FOR  NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 


23 


Most  of  the  teachers  of  mathematics  would  prescribe  work  through 
the  calculus  as  the  minimum  academic  preparation  for  teachers  of 
mathematics  in  normal  schools.  About  15  per  cent  of  the  teachers 
would  include  more  advanced  courses  as  the  minimum  preparation. 

A large  per  cent  of  the  teachers  express  the  opinion  that  in  addi- 
tion to  the  academic  training  the  prospective  teacher  of  mathe- 
matics should  also  be  required  to  take  a professional  course,  includ- 
ing psychology,  history  of  education,  school  management,  and  spe- 
cial methods  in  the  courses  that  he  is  to  teach. 

About  30  per  cent  of  the  teachers  express  the  belief  that  an  ex- 
perience of  from  one  to  five  years  in  elementary  and  secondary 
schools  should  be  a prerequisite  for  normal-school  teaching. 

Most  of  the  normal  schools  of  the  United  States  were  established 
primarily  to  prepare  teachers  for  the  work  of  the  elemental  schools, 
and  the  various  subjects  of  the  curriculum  were  determined  largely 
by  this  ideal.  Graduate  work  was  not  a : prerequisite  for  the  normal- 
school  teacher,  for  his  margin  of  knowledge  was  usually  sufficient  if 
he  had  completed  the  undergraduate  work  at  a reputable  college.  In 
recent  years,  however,  the  normal  schools  are  sending  an  increasingly 
Jarge  number  of  their  graduates  into  positions  in  the  secondary 
schools.  Some  schools  in  the  Central  West  send  almost  half  of  their 
graduates  into  such  positions. 

This  extension  of  the  functions  of  the  normal  school  has  necessi- 
tated an  extension  of  the  curriculum  into  the  more  advanced  subjects. 
A few  years  ago  no  mathematics  was  offered  in  the  normal  schools 
beyond  solid  geometry  and  trigonometry.  To-day  analytics  and 
calculus  are  offered  in  several  of  the  best  schools,  and  there  is  a 
marked  tendency  to  offer  these  advanced  subjects  in  most  of  the 
schools.  These  subjects  are  now  offered  in  order  that  the  prospective 
teacher  of  mathematics  may  have  a broader  view  of  the  subject  and  a 
proper  perspective  for  teaching  mathematics  in  the  secondary  schools. 

The  extension  of  the  curriculum  into  the  more  advanced  subjects 
means  that  the  teachers  of  mathematics  in  the  normal  schools  must 
be  selected  from  those  who  have  done  graduate  work  in  mathematics. 
Forty-five  per  cent  of  the  men  and  18  per  cent  of  the  women  now 
teaching  mathematics  in  the  normal  schools  have  completed  at  least 
one  year  of  graduate  work  in  the  subject,  and  there  is  a marked 
tendency  in  this  country  to  require  at  least  a year  of  graduate  work 
from  all  prospective  teachers.  A year  of  graduate  work  will  be 
required,  not  because  of  the  degree  that  may  thereby  be  secured,  but 
because  of  the  amount  of  work  that  it  represents,  and  because  of  the 
better  basis  that  it  gives  for  a rational  presentation  of  the  subject 
to  those  who  are  to  become  teachers. 

o 


UNITED  STATES  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 

BULLETIN.  1911.  NO.  13 WHOLE  NUMBER  460 


MATHEMATICS 

IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

INTERNATIONAL  COMMISSION  ON  THE  TEACHING 
OF  MATHEMATICS 

THE  AMERICAN  REPORT 

COMMITTEES  I AND  II 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1911 


INTERNATIONAL  COMMISSION  ON  THE  TEACHING  OF 

MATHEMATICS. 


General  Officers. 

President,  F.  Klein,  Reg.-Rat.,  the  University  of  Gottingen. 

Vice  President,  Sir  George  Greenhill,  F.  R.  S.,  London. 

General  Secretary,  H.  Fehr,  the  University  of  Geneva. 

American  Commissioners. 

David  Eugene  Smith,  chairman,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

W.  F.  Osgood,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

J.  W.  A.  Young,  the  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 

THE  AMERICAN  REPORT 

Committee  No.  I.  General  Elementary  Schools. 

Superintendent,  C.  N.  Kendall,  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  chairman. 

Professor  W.  W.  Hart,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis.,  vice  chairman. 

Hon.  David  Snedden,  commissioner  of  education  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts,  Boston, 
Mass. 

Professor  Patty  Hill,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Miss  Theda  Gildemeister,  State  Normal  School,  Winona,  Minn. 

Professor  F.  G.  Bonser,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.  Y. 
Professor  Ira  S.  Condit,  Iowa  State  Teachers  College,  Cedar  Falls,  Iowa. 

SUBCOMMITTEE  1.  SCHEMATIC  SURVEY  OF  AMERICAN  EDUCATIONAL  INSTITU- 
TIONS. THEIR  SEQUENCE  AND  INTERRELATIONS. 

Hon.  David  Snedden,  commissioner  of  education  of  the  State  of  Massachusetts,  Boston, 
Mass.,  chairman. 

Professor  J.  H.  Tanner,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Professor  E.  Holland,  University  of  Indiana,  Bloomington,  Ind. 

Superintendent  F.  E.  Spaulding,  Newton,  Mass. 

Professor  E.  C.  Elliott,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis. 

SUBCOMMITTEE  2.  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  KINDERGARTEN. 

Professor  Patty  Hill,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.  Y.,  chairman. 
Miss  Alice  Temple,  Kindergarten  Department,  School  of  Education,  the  University  of 
Chicago,  Chicago,  111. 

Miss  Elizabeth  Harrison,  Kindergarten  College,  Chicago,  111. 

SUBCOMMITTEE  3.  MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1-6. 

Miss  Theda  Gildemeister,  State  Normal  School,  Winona,  Minn.,  chairman. 

Miss  Harriet  Peat,  State  Normal  School,  Salem,  Mass. 

Miss  Julia  Martin,  Howard  University,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Professor  Henry  Suzzallo,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Dr.  C.  W.  Stone,  State  Normal  School,  Farmville,  Va. 

SUBCOMMITTEE  4.  PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  GRADES  1-6. 

Professor  F.  G.  Bonser,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.  Y., 
chairman. 

Miss  Lao  G.  Simons,  Normal  College,  New  York  City. 

Professor  William  J.  McAuliffe,  Cathedral  College,  462  Madison  Avenue,  New  York  City. 

3 


4 


LIST  OF  COMMITTEES. 


SUBCOMMITTEE  5.  MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  7 AND  8. 

Professor  W.  W.  Ilart,  University  of  Wisconsin,  Madison,  Wis.,  chairman. 

Professor  William  L.  Benitz,  Notre  Dame,  Ind. 

Dr.  Henry  V.  Gummere,  Drexel  Institute,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

SUBCOMMITTEE  6.  PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  GRADES  7 AND  8. 

Professor  Ira  S.  Condit,  Iowa  State  Teachers  College,  Cedar  Falls,  Iowa,  chairman. 

J.  0.  Mahoney,  Dallas,  Tex. 

Professor  W.  C.  Bagley,  University  of  Illinois,  Urbana,  111. 

George  Melcher,  State  Normal  School,  Springfield,  Mo. 

Dr.  C.  O.  Dewey,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

Committee  No.  II.  Special  Kinds  of  Elementary  Schools. 

Professor  George  D.  Strayer,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.  Y., 
chairman. 

II.  S.  Youker,  State  Normal  School,  Oshkosh,  Wis. 

Henry  Gardner,  assistant  superintendent  of  apprentices,  New  York  Central  Lines,  New 
York,  N.  Y. 

Principal  W.  A.  Baldwin,  State  Normal  School,  Hyannis,  Mass. 

SUBCOMMITTEE  1.  INDUSTRIAL  CLASSES  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 

H.  S.  Youker,  State  Normal  School,  Oshkosh,  Wis.,  chairman. 

Miss  Jane  Mathews,  Allegheny,  Pa. 

Principal  T.  O.  Hubbard,  Fond  du  Lac,  Wis. 

SUBCOMMITTEE  2.  CORPORATION  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS. 

Henry  Gardner,  assistant  superintendent  of  apprentices,  New  lTork  Central  Lines,  New 
Ytork,  N.  Y.,  chairman. 

Maj.  A.  W.  Lowe,  Lynn,  Mass. 

William  D.  Earnest,  Wanamaker  Commercial  Institute,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

W.  B.  Russell,  director  of  Franklin  Union,  Boston,  Mass. 

SUBCOMMITTEE  3.  PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  OF  MATHEMATICS  FOR  TRADE 
AND  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS. 

Principal  W.  A.  Baldwin,  State  Normal  School,  Hyannis,  Mass.,  chairman. 

Miss  Sarah  J.  Walter,  Hampton  Institute,  Hampton,  Ya. 

Superintendent  Johnson,  School  for  Feeble  Minded,  Vineland,  N.  J. 

John  T.  Prince,  Massachusetts  Board  of  Education,  Newton,  Mass. 

Principal  Charles  F.  Warner,  Technical  High  School,  Springfield,  Mass. 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Subcommittee  1.  Schematic  survey  of  American  educational  institutions — 

their  sequence  and  interrelations 7 

General  divisions 7 

Agencies  of  public  education 7 

Types  of  public  schools 9 

Nonpublic  agencies  of  education 12 

Types  of  nonpublic  schools 13 

Committee  No.  I.  General  elementary  schools. 15 

I.  The  aim  and  organization  of  the  elementary  schools : 15 

II.  The  curriculum  in  mathematics  in  the  elementary  schools 16 

III.  Examinations  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  school 33 

IV.  Method  of  instruction  in  arithmetic 36 

V.  Training  and  qualifications  of  teachers 42 

Yl.  Typical  courses  of  study 44 

Introduction 44 

A State  course  of  study 45 

A city  course  of  study 55 

Subcommittee  2.  Mathematics  in  the  kindergarten 65 

Subcommittee  3.  Mathematics  in  grades  1 to  6 68 

I.  Introduction 68 

II.  The  organization  of  schools  and  the  general  relation  of  each  kind 

of  school  to  the  others 78 

III.  The  mathematical  curriculum  in  each  type  of  school 85 

IV.  The  question  of  examinations  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 

school 89 

V.  The  methods  employed  in  teaching  elementary  mathematics 93 

Subcommittee  4.  Preparation  of  teachers  for  grades  1 to  6 120 

Introduction 120 

Subject-matter  courses 122 

Professional  courses 122 

Summary  of  data 124 

Constructive  suggestions 125 

Subcommittee  5.  Mathematics  in  grades  7 and  8 of  the  public  and  paro- 
chial schools 127 

Scope  of  this  report 127 

Sources  of  information 127 

Definitions  of  terms 127 

Special  interest  in  these  grades 128 

Influence  of  psychological  studies 128 

Influence  of  completion  of  elementary  course 129 

Influence  of  preparation  for  high  school 129 

Influence  of  European  curricula 130 

Rural  and  private  schools 131 


5 


6 


CONTENTS. 


Committee  No.  I.  General  elementary  schools — Continued. 

Subcommittee  5.  Mathematics  in  grades  7 and  8 of  the  public  and  paro- 
chial schools — Continued.  Page. 

Organization  of  the  grades 131 

The  mathematics  curriculum 131 

Courses  containing  algebra 134 

Purpose  of  algebra  in  the  grades 134 

Geometry  in  the  grades 136 

Examinations 136 

Methods  of  instruction 138 

Class  instruction 138 

Recitation  and  study  time 139 

Division  of  the  class  time 139 

Rapidity  and  accuracy 140 

Concrete  methods 140 

Departmental  teaching 141 

Induction  and  deduction 141 

The  parochial  schools 142 

Subcommittee  6.  Preparation  of  teachers  for  grades  7 and  8 144 

I.  Present  state  of  organization 144 

II.  The  training  of  seventh  and  eighth  grade  teachers  of  mathematics.  148 

1.  City  training  schools 148 

2.  University  and  college  departments  of  education 148 

3.  State  normal  schools 149 

4.  Private  normal  schools 149 

5.  The  forward  movement  in  New  York 149 

6.  General  opinions  concerning  the  rational  preparation  of 

teachers  for  grades  7 and  8 150 

Conclusion 152 

Committee  No.  II.  Special  kinds  of  elementary  schools 153 

General  report 153 

Intermediate  industrial,  preparatory  trade,  or  vocational  schools 154 

Trade  schools 155 

Technical  schools : Day  courses 156 

Apprenticeship  schools 156 

Evening  schools 157 

Part-time  schools 159 

Trade  schools  for  the  colored  races 159 

Correspondence  schools 160 

Subcommittee  1.  Industrial  classes  in  the  public  schools 160 

Subcommittee  2.  Corporation  industrial  schools 170 

Subcommittee  3.  Preparation  of  teachers  of  mathematics  for  trade  and 

industrial  schools 178 

Index 183 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


SUBCOMMITTEE  1.  SCHEMATIC  SURVEY  OF  AMERICAN 

EDUCATIONAL  INSTITUTIONS— THEIR  SEQUENCE  AND 
INTERRELATIONS. 

The  following  report  of  Subcommittee  I was  prepared  to  meet  the 
special  needs  of  foreign  readers.  Although  it  does  not  relate  solely 
to  elementary  schools,  it  forms  an  appropriate  introduction  to  the 
general  report  of  Committee  No.  I,  since  some  schematic  survey  of 
our  educational  institutions  is  necessary  in  beginning  the  study  of 
our  system.  For  this  reason  it  precedes  the  general  report  of  this 
committee. 

GENERAL  DIVISIONS. 

The  American  system  of  education  divides  into  two  main  divisions : 

A.  Public  education : Government  controlled  and  Government  supported. 

B.  Nonpublic  education:  Controlled  by  religious  bodies,  private  corporations, 
or  persons  with  philanthropic  or  fiduciary  intent.  May  be  subdivided  into : (a) 
Religious  education,  controlled  and  supported  by  religious  denominations  and 
sects;  (&)  private  and  semiprivate  institutions,  including  those  managed  for 
profit;  and  (c)  supplementary  and  extra  institutionalized  agencies,  such  as  the 
Carnegie  foundation  for  the  promotion  of  teaching,  the  Russell  Sage  foundation, 
and  the  National  Education  Association. 

AGENCIES  OF  PUBLIC  EDUCATION. 

I.  The  National  Government.  This  administers  but  a small  portion  of  public 
education,  (a)  The  Bureau  of  Education  is  a national  office,  under  the  De- 
partment of  the  Interior.  It  is  designed  mainly  to  assemble,  digest,  and  dis- 
seminate educational  information.  It  is  also  charged  with  certain  responsi- 
bilities for  native  education  (in  Alaska).  (&)  The  Indians  of  the  United 
States  are  mostly  wards  of  the  Nation.  As  such  they  are  educated  by  the 
National  Government,  either  through  subsidies  granted  to  church  bodies  or 
through  schools  maintained  by  the  Department  of  the  Interior.  These  schools 
partake  of  an  industrial  character,  (c)  The  National  Government  also  organ- 
izes or  provides  for  the  organization  of  the  school  systems  for  its  dependencies, 
such  as  Porto  Rico  and  the  Philippines.  Similarly  it  provides  for  the  school 
system  of  the  Capital  City — Washington.  ( d ) Two  principal  schools — West 
Point  and  Annapolis — and  a number  of  minor  schools  are  maintained  for  the 

7 


8 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


training  of  officers  and  men  for  the  Army  and  Navy,  (c)  The  National  Govern- 
ment makes  appropriations  to  each  of  the  States  for  the  furtherance  of  higher 
education  in  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts.  It  has  also  in  the  past  provided 
extensive  land  grants  for  the  support  of  the  public-school  systems  of  the  States 
and  universities.  In  conjunction  with  the  States,  or  sometimes  philanthropic 
agencies,  it  carries  on  investigation  and  experimental  work  in  agriculture  for 
educational  purposes. 

II.  The  State  governments.  The  primary  agency  for  the  exercise  of  educa- 
tional functions  is  the  State.  The  National  Government  exercises  no  control 
and  so  far  little  power  of  suggestion  over  State  governments. 

(a)  State  constitutions.  These,  as  fundamental  laws,  usually  contain  pro- 

visions requiring  the  organization  of  systems  of  public  education,  and 
often  defining  special  features. 

(b)  State  legislatures.  These,  meeting  usually  annually  or  biennially,  pass 

laws  fixing,  often  in  great  detail,  forms  of  educational  administra- 
tion, providing  for  support  and  the  like. 

(c)  State  board  and  State  superintendent.  Nearly  all  States  have  provi- 

sions for  a State  machinery  of  educational  administration,  the  scope 
and  authority  of  which  vary  greatly.  In  general,  this  adminis- 
tration is  confined  to  elementary  and  secondary  education.  In  many 
cases  the  State  superintendent  is  elected  by  general  suffrage,  and 
his  functions  are  mainly  supervisory  and  advisory.  In  other  cases 
he  is  an  educational  expert,  appointed  by  a State  board,  and  with 
considerable  authority  for  imposing  standards  and  administering 
types  of  education.  State  boards  also  vary  widely  in  functions. 
Some  have  authority  to  select  a variety  of  educational  experts,  to 
direct  the  expenditure  of  funds,  and  to  control  certain  types  of  edu- 
cation. Others  have  functions  limited  to  custody  of  State  school 
funds  and  the  certification  of  teachers. 

(d)  State  educational  institutions.  The  State  forms  the  area  for  the  ad- 

ministration of  a variety  of  educational  institutions.  1.  Universi- 
ties and  colleges.  Most  Western  and  Southern  States  support  and 
control  universities;  and  all  have  an  agricultural  college,  partly 
supported  by  national  grants.  Frequently  these  are  directed  by 
special  boards  appointed  by  the  State  executive.  2.  Normal  schools 
are  found  in  all  but  two  States,  governed  either  by  a State  board  or 
by  local  boards  appointed  for  this  purpose  by  the  executive  or  by 
a combination  of  both  authorities.  3.  Schools  for  delinquents,  de- 
fectives, and  dependents.  Almost  everywhere  most  of  these  are 
State  institutions;  but  sometimes  the  State  supports  and  leaves 
control  to  a religious  or  philanthropic  body.  4.  Special  schools,  espe- 
cially for  agricultural,  forestry,  or  technical  training,  maintained  as 
State  institutions,  are  found  in  a few  States.  5.  In  some  States 
a library  commission  is  maintained  as  part  of  the  State  educational 
machinery. 

(e)  Teachers’  institutes.  State  libraries  for  teachers  and  extension  work 

are  in  some  cases  organized  and  supported  by  State  authorities, 
but  more  commonly  by  smaller  areas  than  the  State. 

(f)  In  a few  States,  State  authorities  certificate  teachers,  inspect  schools 

(especially  secondary  schools),  select  textbooks,  approve  plans  for 
buildings,  examine  pupils  (especially  for  admission  to  secondary 
school  or  college),  and  provide  or  suggest  courses  of  study.  Such 
functions  are  found  in  relatively  few  States,  but  there  is  a growing 
tendency  in  this  direction. 


SCHEMATIC  SURVEY  OE  AMERICAN  INSTITUTIONS. 


9 


III.  Local  areas  of  administration  of  education.  These  vary  in  size  and  politi- 
cal importance  in  the  various  States.  Five  types  are  commonly  found : 

(a)  The  county,  the  largest  subdivision  of  the  State,  under  the  law  exer- 

cises little  or  no  educational  function  in  New  England,  much  in 
most  Southern  States,  and  a varying  amount  in  North  Central  and 
Western  States.  Is  of  considerable  importance  as  an  authority  for 
inspection  (commonly  miscalled  supervision),  auditing  of  educational 
accounts,  certification,  after  training  of  teachers,  and  of  taxation. 
Less  frequently  it  is  the  administrative  unit  for  secondary  agri- 
cultural education;  occasionally  for  general  secondary  education. 

(b)  The  town  or  township.  Usually  embraces  several  schools  and  is  fre- 

quently the  area  of  local  administration  and  taxation  in  all  that 
pertains  directly  to  secondary  and  elementary  schools. 

(c)  The  district.  Originally  the  area  from  which  one  school  drew  its 

pupils.  In  early  stages  of  the  evolution  of  educational  administra- 
tion it  had  important  functions,  apart  from  the  direct  management 
of  schools.  These  functions  are  gradually  being  transferred  to 
larger  areas.  They  are  the  consolidation  of  districts,  and  the  trans- 
portation of  pupils.  In  many  States  large  central  schools  are  being 
formed. 

(d)  The  city.  Municipal  areas  give  rise  to  districts  with  special  char- 

acteristics. The  city  frequently  combines  the  administrative  func- 
tions exercised  by  county,  town,  and  district,  and  in  some  cases  the 
State  even  relaxes  its  supervision  iii  the  case  of  city  districts. 
Within  the  cities  of  the  United  States  educational  administration 
tends  to  become  centralized,  lay  boards  becoming  smaller,  the 
authority  of  educational  experts  greater. 

(e)  In  a few  States  special  administrative  ways  exist.  In  Massachusetts 

a union  of  towns  forms  a supervisory  district;  in  New  York  the 
school  commissioner  district  differs  from  the  county ; in  Virginia 
the  State  is  divided  into  a few  large  areas  for  certain  kinds  of 
supervision. 

TYPES  OF  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 

I.  The  kindergarten,  usually  admitting  pupils  from  3 to  5 years  of  age,  and 
seldom  holding  them  beyond  6.  Found  mainly  in  cities,  and  most  commonly 
provided  in  poorer  sections.  In  1907-8  all  cities  having  8,000  or  more  popula- 
tion reported  their  kindergartens  as  containing — 157,900  pupils.  Nowhere  is 
kindergarten  training  prerequisite  to  entrance  to  the  elementary  school. 

II.  The  elementary  school.  This  term  is  now  commonly  applied  to  the  types 
of  schools  formerly  designated  as  primary,  intermediate,  and  grammar  or 
grammar  grades.  The  course  is  nearly  always  8 years  in  length,  very  rarely  7, 
occasionally  9 or  10.  The  completion  of  the  elementary  course  is  necessary 
for  entrance  to  the  high  schools,  and  the  elementary  school  rarely  provides 
work  paralleling  that  of  the  secondary  school,  this  providing  the  marked  con- 
trast to  European  practice.  In  a few  cases  it  is  attempted  to  teach  secondary 
subjects,  such  as  foreign  language  and  mathematics,  in  the  upper  grades  of 
the  elementary  school.  Under  present  conditions  the  standard  maintained 
by  the  elementary  school  is  such  that  seldom  more  than  half  of  all  children 
are  able  to  finish  it  by  the  close  of  the  compulsory  school  period — 14  years 
of  age.  In  1907-8  some  16,100,000  children  were  reported  in  the  elementary 
schools. 


10 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


III.  Secondary  schools  under  public  support  are  commonly  called  high  schools. 
Of  these  there  are  four  or  more  distinguishable  types:  (a)  General  high 
schools,  sometimes  subdivided  as  classical,  literary,  scientific,  etc.,  whose  aim  is 
primarily  cultural,  and  whose  curricula  are  mainly  composed  of  languages, 
mathematics,  science,  and  history.  (&)  Commercial  high  schools,  sometimes 
within  general  high  schools.  These  vary  largely  in  character,  some  having 
short  courses,  other  substantial  four-year  programs,  whose  controlling  aim  is 
preparation  for  commercial  vocations,  (c)  Technical  high  schools,  variously 
called  manual  training,  mechanic  arts,  and  polytechnic  high  schools,  which  aim 
to  include  with  parts  of  a general  course  a considerable  training  in  the  technical 
subjects  which  attach  to  the  industrial  arts  or  household  arts,  (d)  Agricul- 
tural high  schools.  These  vary  largely  in  curricula,  some  being  ordinary  high 
schools  with  attempts  at  agricultural  training,  others  centering  mainly  around 
studies  of  agriculture. 

In  1907-8  there  were  in  the  public  high  schools  of  the  United  States  790,000 
students,  or  about  0.92  per  cent  of  the  total  population ; of  these  nearly  60  per 
cent  were  girls.  Very  few  of  these  students  were  under  14  years  of  age,  and 
also  few  were  over  19.  As  contrasted  with  European  secondary  schools,  the 
most  significant  fact  is  the  late  age  at  which  pupils  may  take  up  secondary 
school  work,  it  being  obligatory  to  complete  the  elementary  course  first.  About 
one-half  the  pupils  entering  high  school  do  not  stay  more  than  two  years,  or 
beyond  the  age  of  16.  Of  the  above  number  of  students,  59,000  were  reported 
in  commercial  departments.  No  separate  statistics  are  available  of  attendance 
in  public  technical  secondary  schools,  but  in  1907-8  there  were  in  the  public 
and  private  schools  of  this  type  58,000  students. 

IV.  Normal  schools,  designed  primarily  for  the  training  of  teachers  for  ele- 
mentary schools,  are  found  in  all  but  four  States,  where  courses  at  State  col- 
leges are  provided.  In  1907-8  there  were  189  of  these  State  normal  schools, 
with  64,000  students.  Two  types  are  distinguishable : Those  receiving  only 
high-school  graduates,  and  usually  having  a course  two  years  in  length,  and 
those  receiving  pupils  with  little  more  than  elementary  school  preparation,  and 
having  courses  from  three  to  five  (usually  four)  years  in  length.  Sometimes 
both  kinds  of  courses  are  found  in  the  same  school.  The  States  better  supplied 
with  secondary  schools  now  usually  require  high-school  graduation  for  ad- 
mission. 

Many  of  the  larger  cities  of  the  United  States  also  maintain  city  training 
schools  which  receive  high-school  graduates  and  give  them  a one  or  two  years’ 
course  in  preparation  for  work  in  the  elementary  schools  of  the  respective 
cities. 

A number  of  normal  schools,  in  addition  to  their  two-year  courses  for  high- 
school  graduates,  also  maintain  four-year  courses  for  exceptional  students,  and 
give  degrees.  At  least  one  (Albany  Normal  College,  New  York)  aims  primarily 
to  prepare  teachers  for  secondary  schools.  But  a large  and  increasing  majority 
of  the  teachers  in  secondary  schools  must  be  graduates  of  the  regular  colleges 
and  universities. 

Normal  schools  are  frequently  resorted  to  by  young  people  whose  primary 
aim  is  a liberal  education,  rather  than  a preparation  for  teaching. 

Y.  Colleges  and  universities.  Satisfactory  statistics  of  public  as  distin- 
guished from  private  colleges  and  universities  do  not  exist.  In  1907-8,  of  the 
573  universities,  colleges,  and  technological  schools  having  150,000  students,  it 
was  reported  that  89  having  over  60.000  students  were  public — that  is,  were 
supported  mainly  at  public  expense  and  were  governed  by  public  bodies;  62 
of  these  were  State  universities  or  colleges  of  agriculture.  The  attendance 
at  these  institutions  averages  much  higher  than  at  private  schools.  Usually 


SCHEMATIC  SURVEY  OF  AMERICAN  INSTITUTIONS. 


11 


their  admission  requirements  coincide  with  the  requirements  for  graduation 
from  local  secondary  schools,  thus  forming  part  in  a continuous  chain  of  public 
education. 

Affiliated  with,  or  integrated  with,  many  of  the  public  universities  are  pro- 
fessional colleges  for  medicine,  law,  pharmacy,  and  the  like.  Within  recent 
years  there  are  also  appearing  special  colleges  as  parts  of  the  universities  for 
the  training  of  teachers,  especially  those  for  secondary  schools,  and  those  pre- 
paring for  administrative  work. 

VI.  Special  schools.  These  exist  to  meet  special  class  or  social  needs,  and 
have  their  standards  governed  by  the  conditions  to  which  they  must  adapt 
themselves. 

(а)  Under  the  National  Government  are  two  schools  primarily  to  train 

officers  for  the  Army  and  Navy.  These  are  of  collegiate  or  techno- 
logical rank,  and  receive  students  of  selected  qualities.  In  addition, 
the  Government  maintains  extension  or  graduate  study  for  officers 
in  service  and  a number  of  schools  for  the  training  of  cadets  or  newly 
enlisted  men  for  the  Navy. 

(б)  Indian  education  is  also  under  the  direction  of  the  National  Govern- 

ment. Schools  are  maintained  in  Alaska,  on  the  reservations  in  the 
United  States,  and  in  a number  of  cases  off  the  reservations,  for 
pupils  .especially  of  a more  advanced  type.  The  work  in  these  schools 
is  usually  elementary  in  character,  with  increasing  attention  to  prac- 
tical or  vocational  aspects.  In  a few  schools  (Hampton,  Haskell) 
special  attention  is  given  to  the  training  of  teachers,  and  especially 
for  the  transmission  of  the  household  arts  and  suitable  vocations 
for  men. 

(c)  Originally,  in  most  of  the  States,  philanthropy  supported  the  education 

of  some  defectives,  dependents,  and  delinquents.  Then  the  States 
subsidized  these  institutions  and  later  in  many  cases  either  took 
them  over  or  supplanted  them  with  public  schools  of  day  or  insti- 
tutional type.  Some  are  under  the  State  administrative  machinery, 
others  under  local  control  and  support,  but  these  distinctions  are 
unimportant.  Each  type  of  school  works  out  courses  of  instruction 
and  methods  adapted  to  its  needs.  The  work  is  increasingly  voca- 
tional in  character.  In  1907-8  there  were  40  State  schools  for  the 
blind,  with  4,340  pupils;  122  schools  for  the  deaf  (55  State,  51  pub- 
lic day  schools,  and  16  private),  with  10,042  students  in  the  State 
schools ; and  25  State  institutions  of  school  character  for  the  feeble- 
minded, with  17,225  inmates.  In  the  same  year  92  reform  schools 
reported  36,900  pupils,  nearly  all  from  12  to  16  years  of  age.  The 
care  of  dependents  is  mostly  under  private  auspices,  and  no  satis- 
factory statistics  are  extant  of  the  number  of  schools. 

(d)  Several  States  have  established  special  forms  of  industrial  schools, 

sometimes  of  secondary  grade,  sometimes  intermediate  between  sec- 
ondary school  and  college.  There  are  no  available  statistics  of  these. 
As  a rule  their  curricula  approximate  in  character  the  technical 
secondary  schools,  with  specially  intensive  developments  along  the 
lines  of  agriculture,  industrial  arts,  and  household  arts. 

(e)  Continuation  schools,  evening  schools.  These  are  extensively  devel- 

oped in  the  larger  cities  of  the  United  States.  In  1905-6,  23  cities 
reported  314,000  children  enrolled  and  129,000  in  average  daily  at- 
tendance. No  satisfactory  classification  exists  showing  number  who 
are  taking  technical  work,  high-school  work,  studies  of  an  ele- 
mentary nature,  or  special  work  in  English  for  foreigners.  All  these 


12 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE,  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


types  are  represented.  It  is  generally  known  that  special  classes 
for  the  teaching  of  English  to  foreigners  are  largely  on  the  increase 
and  that  technical  classes  are  being  steadily  developed.  But  it  is 
rare  to  find  consistent  programs  running  through  a series  of  years — 
the  work  is  fragmentary. 

A form  of  educational  work  growing  out  of  the  universities  is  that  called 
university  extension.  By  means  of  lectures  and  extension  classes  it  seeks  to 
disseminate  and  popularize  higher  education. 

NONPUBLIC  AGENCIES  OF  EDUCATION. 

I.  Religious  organizations.  A very  large  part  of  private  education  in  the 
United  States  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  grade  is  carried  on  by  religious 
organizations.  With  very  few  exceptions  (in  the  case  of  schools  for  dependents, 
delinquents,  and  defectives)  these  schools  receive  no  public  aid;  and  those  not 
receiving  public  aid  are  only  rarely  under  public  supervision,  and  that  of  the 
most  perfunctory  character.  No  system  of  certification  prevails  with  regard 
to  teachers  in  these  schools;  and  they  develop  their  own  standards  according 
to  their  own  needs.  Except  for  colleges  and  some  forms  of  secondary  educa- 
tion, it  is  not  possible  to  procure  statistics.  In  general  it  is  true  that  the 
competition  of  the  public  schools  tends  to  cause  these  private.institutions  to  en- 
deavor not  to  fall  too  far  behind  in  the  quality  of  their  teaching.  In  these 
schools,  especially  those  under  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  many  of  the  teachers 
give  their  services  as  part  of  their  religious  duty,  and  where  teachers  work  for 
pay,  that  is  very  low.  As  a rule,  these  schools  are  not  experimental,  but  aim 
deliberately  to  parallel  and  if  possible  to  fill  the  place  of  the  public  schools  for 
certain  classes  of  children. 

II.  Philanthropic  organizations.  These  not  infrequently  grow  out  of  church 
influences,  but  also  quite  commonly  have  no  direct  religious  connection.  On 
the  whole  they  tend  to  develop  types  of  education  with  which  the  system  of 
public  schools  does  not  at  present  concern  itself.  These  led  the  way  in  estab- 
lishing higher  education,  in  endeavoring  to  educate  the  defective,  the  delin- 
quent, and  the  neglected;  in  establishing  vocational  education;  and  in  develop- 
ing the  wider  adaptations  of  education  in  vacation  school,  playground  voca- 
tion bureaus,  and  so  on.  Consequently  the  schools  under  direction  of  nonre- 
ligious philanthropic  agencies  tend  to  be  experimental,  and  their  standards 
change,  and  the  results  of  their  work  do  not  lend  themselves  to  statistical  treat- 
ment. 

III.  Commercial  ventures.  Some  forms  of  education  in  the  United  States 
represent  efforts  for  private  profit.  The  types  of  school  resulting  vary  largely 
in  character  and  quality.  Private  secondary  education  usually  caters  to  the 
wealthier  classes  of  the  community,  especially  in  providing  schools  that  com- 
bine residence  and  instruction.  These  schools  have  not  State  supervision,  but 
tend,  by  virtue  of  their  clientage,  to  be  of  excellent  quality.  Many  of  them 
have  as  their  controlling  function  the  fitting  of  students  for  college.  Another 
type  is  that  fitting  for  certain  portions  of  commercial  practice.  These  vary 
enormously,  some  being  of  excellent  quality,  others  giving  short  courses  and 
relying  largely  on  advertising  to  win  students.  Of  similar  quality  are  a num- 
ber of  private  normal  schools,  which  aim  to  prepare  students  for  teachers’  ex- 
aminations. Correspondence  schools  are  private  ventures,  sometimes  giving 
good  work  under  adverse  conditions,  sometimes  preying  upon  the  credulity  of 
young  workingmen.  A few  private  schools  for  industrial  arts  (trade  schools) 
exist,  but  play  a small  part  in  vocational  education. 


SCHEMATIC  SURVEY  OF  AMERICAN  INSTITUTIONS. 


13 


Tlie  large  majority  of  colleges  and  universities  are  private,  and  frequently 
originated  under  the  auspices  of  some  religious  organization;  but  these  are 
tending  away  from  any  form  of  religious  control,  and  fall  into  the  group  de- 
scribed above  as  philanthropic,  since  only  a small  part  of  their  actual  expenses 
are  usually  derived  from  the  fees  of  students. 

Over  private  educational  agencies  of  all  sorts  there  is  almost  no  State  con- 
trol, except  in  the  case  of  those  that  deal  with  delinquent  or  afflicted  children. 
True  to  the  prevalent  individualism  of  America,  it  is  assumed  by  the  State  that 
the  demands  of  those  who  patronize  the  private  schools  and  the  competition  of 
those  under  public  management  is  sufficient  to  insure  the  quality  of  the  work 
of  the  former.  In  New  York  and  Connecticut  there  are  certain  beginnings  of 
State  supervision,  but  they  are*  not  yet  significant,  except  in  the  particular 
respect  that  scholarship  standards  in  secondary  education  are  made  largely 
the  same  in  New  York  State  for  both  public  and  private  schools  by  a system 
of  examinations  conducted  by  public  authorities.  But  in  such  matters  as  cer- 
tification of  teachers,  standards  of  attendance,  equipment,  and  methods  of 
teaching  there  exists  no  form  of  public  control. 

The  exceptions  are  found  in  those  institutions  which  care  for  destitute,  de- 
fective, and  delinquent  children,  and  here  State  supervision  is  exercised  primarily 
because  these  institutions  receive  considerable  public  aid.  Those  philanthropic 
institutions  that  do  not  obtain  public  assistance  have  little  or  no  public  in- 
spection. 


TYPES  OF  NONPUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 

These  usually  parallel  the  types  of  public  school  given  above,  except  as  re- 
gards special  features,  like  the  boarding  life  of  the  private  secondary  school, 
the  short  courses  of  the  business  school,  and  the  religious  education  found  in 
the  schools  under  religious  organizations. 

I.  Kindergartens.  Almost  always  philanthropic  and  frequently  contributing 
some  training  of  teachers. 

II.  Parochial  elementary  schools.  These  are  mainly  developed  under  the 
Lutheran  and  Roman  Catholic  Churches,  and  usually  parallel  the  public  schools. 
In  the  Catholic  schools  the  supervision  is  under  the  parish  priest,  and  the 
teachers  are  often  members  of  orders. 

III.  Private  elementary  schools  maintained  for  profit  are  few  and  have  small 
influence. 

IV.  Private  business  schools  are  conducted  chiefly  for  profit.  Over  150,000 
students  attended  such  schools  in  1906-7.  Admission  requirements  and  quality 
of  work  vary  enormously  and  generally  tend  to  be  strictly  practical,  i.  e.,  pro- 
duce in  a short  time  the  maximum  of  vocational  efficiency. 

V.  Private  trade  schools.  These  are  not  numerous  and  vary  greatly  in 
character.  A few  are  maintained  by  industries  to  assist  apprentices,  in  which 
case  the  work  is  usually  technical,  to  supplement  shop  work.  In  other  cases 
schools  maintained  for  profit  give  short  and  intensive  training  in  certain  trades 
(commonly  woodworking,  plumbing,  machine-shop  work,  and  so  on).  Several 
schools  endowed  by  philanthropy  give  long  courses  of  trade  training. 

VI.  Correspondence  schools.  These  probably  have  over  a hundred  thousand 
students  in  the  United  States  (no  exact  figures  available)  to  whom  they  teach 
mathematics,  drawing,  applied  science,  especially  mechanics,  and  in  less  degree 
a few  other  subjects.  Standards  are  variable;  much  of  the  work  plays  upon 
credulity,  but  under  favorable  conditions  the  more  self-reliant  students  gain 
much.  They  exist  mainly  for  profit. 


14 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


VII.  Parochial  secondary  education.  This  is  yet  little  developed.  Secondary 
education  for  religious  bodies  is  accomplished  mainly  in  academies  and  pre- 
paratory departments  of  denominational  colleges. 

VIII.  Private  secondary  schools.  These  are  numerous  and  strong.  They 
fill  two  chief  functions,  sometimes  not  closely  related.  They  serve  as  boarding 
schools  at  the  adolescent  period  when  many  parents  believe  that  boarding-school 
life  is  very  valuable  for  their  children ; and  they  serve  to  prepare  pupils  directly 
for  college.  They  grow  but  slowly,  but  have  a fairly  constant  attendance  of 
over  150,000  pupils.  Many  of  them  have  endowed  foundations. 

IX.  Colleges  and  universities.  These  seldom  exist  for  profit,  usually  owing 
their  foundation  to  religious  or  philanthropic  zeal.  In  recent  years  religious 
control  has  greatly  relaxed,  so  that  it  was  easily  possible  for  many  of  them 
to  change  some  nominal  restrictions  in  their  organization  and  come  under  the 
definitions  imposed  by  the  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of 
Teaching. 

In  1907-8  there  were  reported  to  the  Commissioner  of  Education  484  private 
universities,  colleges,  and  schools  of  technology,  with  enrollment  of  over  96,000 
students.  While  a secondary  education  is  assumed  as  prerequisite  for  admis- 
sion, it  is  known  that  standards  vary  widely  among  these  private  institutions 
of  higher  learning. 

Professional  schools,  often  parts  of  universities  but  also  in  many  cases 
independent,  are,  apart  from  those  devoted  to  engineering  pursuits,  of  six 
kinds — theological  (9,500  students),  law  (18,000  students),  medical  (22,000 
students),  dental  (6,500  students),  pharmaceutical  (5,500  students),  and  veter- 
inary (2,200  students). 

X.  Special  schools.  A variety  of  special  schools  not  included  above  exist 
under  private  leadership.  The  education  of  negroes,  of  immigrants,  and  of 
defectives  has  produced  schools  adapted  to  meet  particular  ends.  Frequently 
these  serve  society  as  experimental  stations,  pointing  the  way  to  subsequent 
State  action.  Their  character  and  purposes  are  too  varied  to  admit  of  statis- 
tical treatment. 


COMMITTEE  NO.  I.  GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


The  special  field  of  investigation  assigned  to  this  committee  was 
the  teaching  of  mathematics  in  both  public  and  private  schools  of 
the  rank  known  as  elementary  schools.  It  was  desired  that  while  the 
investigation  should  cover  whatever  ground  seemed  pertinent,  it 
should  especially  consider  the  following  topics: 

(a)  The  aim  and  organization  of  the  schools  and  the  general  re- 
lation of  each  type  of  school  to  the  others;  (b)  the  mathematical 
curriculum  in  other  schools;  ( c ) the  question  of  examinations  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  schools;  ( d ) the  methods  employed  in  teach- 
ing in  the  schools;  ( e ) the  preparation  of  teachers  for  the  schools. 
It  was  desired  that  the  report  should  particularly  set  forth  the  pres- 
ent conditions  and  tendencies.  An  attempt  has  been  made  to  carry 
out  the  spirit  of  these  directions.  The  report  is  organized  with  ref- 
erence to  these  five  points. 

I.  THE  AIM  AND  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

DEFINITION  AND  AIM  OF  ELEMENTARY  EDUCATION. 

Elementary  education  is  that  training  which  by  common  custom 
is  deemed  desirable  and  necessary  for  the  duties  and  privileges  of 
citizenship.  It  is  usually  made  compulsory  by  law.  Like  all  such 
definitions,  the  meaning  of  this  statement  becomes  clear  only 
through  an  examination  of  its  interpretation  as  given  in  the  curric- 
ula of  the  various  school  systems  or  in  somewhat  more  specific  state- 
ments of  its  content  by  various  individuals.  The  elementary  school 
strives  to  give  the  pupil  control  over  the  tools  for  the  acquisition  of 
knowledge,  to  develop  interests  and  desires  for  further  acquisition 
of  knowledge,  to  excite  a large  number  of  curiosities,  to  stimulate 
thinking,  to  form  the  habit  of  collecting  facts  with  which  to  think, 
and  to  aid  the  pupil  in  the  formation  of  right  habits  of  conduct. 
Prof.  Thorndike  has  said : 

The  special  proximate  aims  of  the  first  six  years  of  school  life  are  commonly 
taken  to  be  to  give  physical  training  and  protection  against  disease;  knowl- 
edge of  the  simple  facts  of  nature  and  human  life;  the  ability  to  gain  knowl- 
edge and  pleasure  through  reading,  and  to  express  ideas  and  feelings  through 
spoken  and  written  language,  music,  and  other  arts;  interest  in  the  concrete 
life  of  the  world ; habits  of  intelligent  curiosity ; purpose  in  thinking,  modesty, 
obedience,  honesty,  helpfulness,  affection,  courage,  and  justice,  and  the  ideals 
proper  to  child  life. 

1442°— 11 2 


15 


16 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE.  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


Prof.  Hanus  has  said : 

Elementary,  or  presecondary  school  education,  should  provide  the  most 
salutary  physical  environment  for  the  pupil,  and  promote  his  normal  physical 
development  through  appropriate  training.  It  should  open  the  mind  of  the 
child  and  let  the  world  in.  It  should  stimulate  and  gratify  curiosity  in  every 
field  of  worthy  human  activity,  and  utilize  this  curiosity  for  the  acquisition 
of  knowledge  and  the  development  of  incipient  permanent  interests  in  and 
power  over  this  knowledge.  It  should  acquaint  the  pupil  with  his  duties  and 
his  privileges  as  a temporarily  dependent  member  of  society,  and  promote  the 
development  of  habits  of  thought  and  conduct  in  harmony  with  his  growing  in- 
sight. 

ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

Different  localities  have  interpreted  this  definition  as  seems  proper 
to  them,  and  in  accord  with  the  interpretation  they  have  organized 
their  elementary  schools.  In  the  Eastern  States  these  schools  often 
include  the  first  nine  school  years  or  grades;  in  the  South,  usually 
seven  years;  in  the  North  and  West  usually  eight  years.  There  is  a 
movement  urged  by  some  of  the  best  educators  to  have  the  elementary 
grades  cover  the  first  six  school  years,  from  the  age  of  6 to  the  age  of 
12,  letting  the  secondary  school  cover  the  next  six  school  years. 

The  school  year  consists  of  approximately  180  school  days  per  year. 
In  1890  the  average  in  cities  of  from  4,000  to  8,000  population  was 
180.9  days,  and  for  the  whole  country  151  days.  The  school  day  is 
approximately  five  hours  in  length,  and  the  school  is  in  session  from 
Monday  to  Friday,  inclusive. 

II.  THE  CURRICULUM  IN  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY 

SCHOOLS. 

CURRICULUM  IN  GENERAL. 

The  term  “ arithmetic  ” is  used  to  denote  the  mathematical  element 
of  the  curriculum  in  American  elementary  schools.  Arithmetic  is 
taught  in  all  of  the  schools.  It  may  safely  be  said  that  the  public 
at  large  consider  it  one  of  the  most  important  subjects  of  the  curricu- 
lum, and  circumstances  have  given  it  in  the  past  an  unusually  promi- 
nent place  in  the  estimation  of  teachers.  Mathematics  was  formerly, 
and  is  to-day,  an  excellent  test  of  the  general  alertness  and  “ bright- 
ness ” of  the  pupils.  As  a result  the  “ bright  ” pupils,  who  later 
become  the  teachers,  continued  to  give  emphasis  to  the  subject. 
Furthermore,  the  organization  of  the  rural  school  with  its  one  teacher 
in  charge  of  many  classes  necessitated  much  seat  work,  and  since 
assignments  in  mathematics  could  readily  be  made  and  could  be  cor- 
rected very  easily,  while  to  have  “ ciphered  through  the  book  ” was  a 
mark  of  distinction,  and  since  pupils  who  had  any  ambition  to  attain 
this  distinction  could  thus  be  kept  “in  order”  for  long  periods, 
mathematics  came  to  form  a major  part  of  the  curriculum  in  the  rural 
school,  and  it  has  maintained  its  position  to  an  extent  up  to  the 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


17 


present.  There  is  a disposition  in  school  circles  to  deny  that  the 
importance  of  mathematical  training  is  such  as  to  warrant  the  place 
it  has  occupied  and  still  holds. 

A study  of  the  time  devoted  to  various  subjects  in  the  grades  in 
50  of  the  leading  cities  showed  that  about  15.26  per  cent  of  all  of  the 
school  time  was  devoted  to  arithmetic.  The  same  study  indicated 
certain  other  facts  bearing  upon  the  place  of  mathematics  in  the 
curriculum.  It  showed  that  arithmetic  as  a formal  study  is  being 
dropped  out  of  the  first  and  second  grades  and  that  in  the  upper 
grades  arithmetic  is  being  supplemented  by  algebra  and  geometry. 
Out  of  these  50  large  school  systems  19  only  have  algebra  as  such  in 
the  seventh  or  eighth  grades  and  only  3 give  any  time  or  attention  to 
geometry  other  than  the  work  in  mensuration.  Recommendations 
have  appeared  from  time  to  time  during  the  past  15  years  that  the 
arithmetic  course  be  curtailed  and  enriched — curtailed  by  omitting 
the  study  in  the  early  grades  and  by  omitting  certain  topics ; enriched 
by  introducing  geometry,  algebra,  and  other  interesting  topics  in  the 
upper  grades.  The  statistics  quoted  above  indicate  that  only  38  per 
cent  of  the  50  largest  cities  have  followed  out  the  recommendation. 
This  same  condition  was  found  by  another  entirely  independent 
investigation,  except  that  even  a smaller  proportion  of  the  schools 
were  giving  attention  to  algebra.  So,  in  general,  mathematics  in 
American  schools  means  particularly  arithmetic  with  a certain 
amount  of  mensuration. 

CONDUCT  OF  THE  MATHEMATICS  COURSE. 

The  teachers  follow  rather  closely  the  textbook  which  has  been  pro- 
vided for  the  schools.  Whether  following  the  text  or  independent 
of  it,  they  are  guided  as  to  the  extent  of  each  year’s  work  by  an 
outline  or  course  of  study.  The  course  of  study  is  usually  made  out 
by  the  superintendent  of  schools  of  the  city ; in  larger  cities  the  super- 
intendent delegates  this  work  either  to  assistants  or  to  a committee 
of  principals  or  of  principals  and  teachers,  while  occasionally  the 
head  of  the  department  of  mathematics  in  the  high  school  is  called 
upon  to  assist.  The  supervising  officers  of  the  schools  are  as  a rule 
expert,  experienced  men  and  women,  who  have  “ risen  to  the  top  ” 
because  of  their  ability,  and  they  bring  to  their  work  on  the  courses 
of  study  the  product  of  their  years  of  experience.  While  this  is  true, 
it  is  natural  to  inquire  whether  it  is  common  to  have  in  large  systems 
an  expert  supervisor  of  mathematics,  analogous  to  the  supervisors 
of  music  and  art.  An  investigation  has  shown  that  it  is  exceedingly 
rare  for  cities  to  employ  such  a supervisor  of  mathematics,  although 
in  some  cases  the  work  is  delegated  to  an  assistant  superintendent. 
The  same  condition  obtains  in  the  case  of  geography,  history,  and 
other  subjects.  At  the  same  time  mathematics  undoubtedly  is  a sub- 


18 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


ject  which  calls  for  expert  knowledge  which  is  less  commonly  part 
of  the  equipment  of  all  teachers;  and,  furthermore,  it  is  a subject  in 
the  teaching  of  which  there  is  to-day  an  unusual  amount  of  change 
and  uncertainty.  It  must  be  said  that  there  are  in  all  systems  of 
schools  a growing  number  of  teachers  who  have  made  a special  study 
of  the  teaching  of  mathematics  in  schools  of  education.  The  com- 
mittee feels  that  expert  supervision  of  arithmetic  in  the  public  schools 
should  be  more  common. 

COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

The  course  of  study  in  its  simplest  form  consists  merely  of  direc- 
tions as  to  the  page  limits  within  the  text,  thus  marking  the  assign- 
ment for  each  year.  It  varies  from  this  to  a much  more  detailed 
outline  in  communities  where  there  is  dissatisfaction  with  the  general 
type  of  text.  In  these  latter  places  there  is  given  an  outline  by  grades 
of  the  topics  to  be  covered,  together  with  teaching  helps,  references, 
and  suggestions  for  problem  material.  In  such  cases  it  is  generally 
understood  that  the  outline  rather  than  the  text  is  to  be  followed. 
The  wisdom  of  this  plan  depends  upon  the  amount  and  character  of 
the  supervision,  and  upon  the  ability  of  the  teaching  force. 

CONTENT  OF  THE  CURRICULUM  IN  MATHEMATICS. 

The  following  summary  indicates  the  general  content  of  the  courses 
by  grades : 

Grade  1. — More  or  less  incidental  number  work  or  number  work 
correlated  with  manual  training  or  with  some  other  definite  subject. 
Variations:  From  no  number  work  at  all  to  very  formal  work  on 
addition,  subtraction,  and  the  multiplication  tables. 

Grade  2. — Number  work  correlated  with  other  subjects.  Addition 
facts  emphasized  and  in  many  places  the  multiplication  table  begun. 
Variations:  In  a few  schools  there  is  no  number  work;  in  some,  at 
the  other  extreme,  division  is  taught. 

Grade  3. — The  processes  of  addition  and  subtraction  mastered  to- 
gether wfith  some  work  on  the  multiplication  tables,  the  tables  often 
being  completed.  Variations:  A few  schools  give  no  work  at  all, 
while  some  give  considerable  work  in  fractions. 

Grade  4- — Multiplication  and  division  mastered.  Variations : 
Fractions  are  taken  up  in  many  schools. 

Grade  5. — Fractions  mastered,  some  decimals  introduced,  denomi- 
nate numbers  employed. 

Grade  6. — Decimals  as  related  to  common  fractions,  with  much 
problem  work.  In  some  schools  simple  interest  and  percentage  are 
begun. 

Grade  7. — Percentage  and  some  of  its  applications. 

Grade  8. — Business  applications  of  percentage.  Mensuration  of 
solids.  Variations:  No  arithmetic  at  all  in  the  whole  or  the  latter 


GENERAL.  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


19 


half  of  the  grade;  the  time  devoted  to  algebra;  algebra  combined 
with  arithmetic. 

This  general  information  above  set  forth  is  here  represented  in 
graphic  form.  In  this  form  an  opportunity  is  given  to  see  when  the 
study  of  certain  topics  is  commenced,  where  the  bulk  of  it  is  done, 
and  where  it  is  completed.  This  graphic  presentation  of  the  facts 
is  based  upon  an  investigation  made  of  the  courses  of  study  in  28 
typical  cities.  Aside  from  the  subjects  taught  in  all  of  the  schools, 
it  is  interesting  to  note  that  compound  interest  is  taught  in  64  per 
cent  of  the  schools,  partial  payments  in  60  per  cent,  exchange  in  43 
per  cent,  partnership  in  57  per  cent,  stocks  and  bonds  in  71  per  cent, 
compound  proportion  in  43  per  cent,  cube  root  in  28  per  cent,  the 
metric  system  in  36  per  cent,  algebra  in  36  per  cent,  constructional 
geometry  in  28  per  cent,  and  graphical  wprk  in  7 per  cent. 

While  it  is  understood  that  the  number  of  school  courses  carefully 
examined  was  very  small,  these  results  indicate  certain  facts.  First, 
certain  subjects,  namely,  certain  of  those  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
paragraph,  are  slowly  being  dropped  from  the  course,  or  else,  in  the 
case  of  the  last  four,  are  very  slowly  entering  the  course ; second,  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  the  courses  examined  were  from  larger  cities, 
so  that  these  results  represent  conditions  above  the  average,  it  is 
evident  that  such  subjects  as  cube  root,  partnership,  exchange,  com- 
pound proportion,  and  partial  payments,  are  not  being  dropped  as 
rapidly  as  they  should  be,  while  the  other  topics  are  not  being  intro- 
duced as  rapidly  as  some  discussions  might  lead  us  to  think  they  are, 
regardless  of  whether  they  should  be  or  not. 


Grade. 


Fig.  1. — Grades  in  which  common  fractions  are  given ; taught  in  all  schools ; most 
commonly  emphasized  in  grade  5. 


20 


MATHEMATICS  rtf  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS, 


Grade. 

4 5 6 7 8 


Fig.  2. — Grades  in  which  decimals  are  given ; taught  in  all  schools  ; most  commonly 

emphasized  in  grade  6. 


Grade. 

4 5 6 7 8 


Fig.  3. — Grades  in  which  percentage  is  given  ; taught  in  all  schools ; most  commonly 

emphasized  in  grade  7. 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


21 


Grade. 


4 


6 


7 


8 


Fig.  4. — Grades  in  which  simple  interest  is  given ; taught  in  all  schools ; most  com- 
monly emphasized  in  grade  7. 


Grade.. 

5 6 7 8 


Fig.  5. — Compound  interest ; taught  in  eighteen  out  of  twenty-eight  schools,  or  64.2 
per  cent  of  them  ; most  commonly  emphasized  in  grade  8. 


22  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

Grade. 

5 G 7 8 


Fig.  6. — Commission  ; taught  in  most  schools ; most  commonly  emphasized  in  grade  7. 


Grade. 

6 


7 


8 


Pig.  7. — Commercial  discount ; taught  in  most  schools  ; most  commonly  emphasized  In 

grade  7 or  8. 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS, 


23 


Grade. 

4 5 G 7 8 


Fig.  8. — Bank  discount ; taught  in  most  schools ; most  commonly  emphasized  in  grade  8. 


Grade. 

4 5 6 7 8 


Fig.  9. — Partial  payments ; taught  in  60.7  per  cent  of  the  twenty-eight  schools ; most 
commonly  emphasized  in  grade  8. 


24 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


Grade. 


Fig.  10. — Exchange  ; taught  in  42.8  per  cent  of  the  twenty-eight  schools ; most  com- 
monly emphasized  in  grade  8. 


Grade. 


Fig.  11. — Partnership;  taught  in  57.1  per  cent  of  the  twenty-eight  schools;  most  com- 
monly emphasized  in  grade  8. 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


25 


Grade. 

4 6 6 7 8 


Fig.  12. — Stocks  and  bonds;  taught  in  71.4  per  cent  of  the  twenty-eight  schools;  most 
commonly  emphasized  in  grade  8. 


Grade. 

4 5 6 7 8 


Fig.  13. — Simple  proportion ; taught  in  most  schools ; most  commonly  emphasized  in 

grade  8. 


2G 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


Grade. 

4 5 C 7 8 


Fig.  14. — Compound  proportion  ; taught  in  42.8  per  cent  of  the  twenty-eight  schools  ; 
most  commonly  emphasized  in  grade  8. 


Grade. 

4 5 6 7 8 


Fig.  15. — Ratio;  the  idea  of  ratio  taught  in  most  schools;  usually  emphasized  in  grade  8. 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS, 


27 


Grade. 


Fig.  16. — Mensuration  of  plane  figures ; taught  in  all  schools ; being  spread  out  over 

the  grades. 


Grade. 

4 5 6 7 8 


Fig.  17. — Mensuration  of  solids ; taught  in  most  schools ; most  commonly  emphasized 

in  grade  8. 


28 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE,  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS, 


Grade. 

4 5 6 7 8 


Grade. 


Pig.  19. — Cube  root ; taught  in  28.5  per  cent  of  the  twenty-eight  schools ; usually  in 

grade  8. 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS, 


29 


Grade. 

4 5 6 7 8 


Fig.  20. — Factoring ; taught  in  most  schools ; most  commonly  emphasized  in  grade  5 or  6. 


Grade. 

4 5 6 7 8 


Fig.  21. — Metric  system ; taught  in  35.7  per  cent  of  the  twenty-eight  schools ; usually 

in  grade  8. 


30 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS, 


Grade. 


Fig.  22. — Least  common  multiple  ; taught  in  most  schools ; usually  in  grade  5 or  R 


Grade. 

4 5 6 7 8 


Fig.  23. — Highest  common  divisor ; taught  in  most  schools ; usually  in  grade  5 or  6. 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS, 


31 


Grade. 

4 5 0 7 8 


Fig.  24. — Algebra ; taught  in  35.7  per  cent  of  the  twenty-eight  schools ; usually  in 

grade  8. 


Grade. 

4 5 6 7 8 


Fig.  25.  Constructional  geometry ; taught  in  28.5  per  cent  of  the  twenty-eight  schools ; 

usually  in  grade  7 or  8. 


1442°— 11 3 


32 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


Grad©. 


Fig.  26. — Graphical  work ; taught  in  7 per  cent  of  the  twenty-eight  schools. 


TENDENCIES  AS  TO  CONTENT  OF  COURSES. 

Before  considering  the  tendencies  in  the  matter  of  the  content  of 
the  curriculum,  it  would  be  helpful  to  consider  carefully  certain  in- 
fluences affecting  the  whole  course  of  study  in  the  elementary  school. 
In  order  to  economize  space,  however,  a mere  statement  of  these  in- 
fluences will  be  made.  There  is,  among  school  men,  and  in  the  pub- 
lic to-day,  an  unwillingness  to  accept  the  doctrine  of  formal  dis- 
cipline as  it  was  formerly  stated,  so  that  it  is  no  longer  possible  to 
justify  the  retention  of  any  topic  or  subject  by  claiming  for  it  merely 
great  disciplinary  value;  there  is  growing  belief  in  the  doctrine  of 
interest  as  essential  to  will  training,  so  that  the  possible  attitude 
of  the  pupil  toward  a subject  is  taken  into  account  more  than  for- 
merly; there  is  greater  and  greater  insistence  upon  the  fact  that 
the  elementary  school  has  as  its  function  that  defined  briefly  above, 
rather  than,  for  example,  preparation  for  the  high  school.  All 
these  influences  would  bear  considerable  discussion,  for  their  effect 
upon  the  mathematics  curriculum  is  very  marked.  For  example, 
there  is  great  pressure  to  simplify  the  course.  This  is  being  done 
by  using  smaller  numbers  in  the  work  in  arithmetic ; by  eliminating 
topics  that  are  unduly  confusing;  by  giving  carefully  graded  simple 
problems;  and  by  cutting  down  the  extent  and  increasing  the  em- 
phasis on  the  part  that  remains.  There  is  also  great  pressure  to 
modernize  the  course.  This  is  being  done  by  omitting  obsolete 
problem  material,  topics,  and  processes,  and  by  substituting  therefor 
modern  problem  material.  There  is  pressure  to  make  the  subject 
possess  informational  value  as  well  as  disciplinary  value.  This  is 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


33 


being  done  by  a change  in  the  problem  material,  such  as  introducing 
problems  about  our  national  resources  and  problems  of  local  interest. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  MATERIAL  THROUGH  THE  GRADES. 

There  are  two  general  modes  of  organizing  the  whole  course  of 
study  which  have  received  much  support.  One  is  known  as  the 
topical  plan,  according  to  which  each  topic  is  treated  once  within 
the  course  of  the  eight  grades,  after  which  it  is  to  be  retained  by 
the  pupils.  The  other  plan  is  known  as  the  spiral  plan,  according 
to  which  each  topic  is  touched  upon  repeatedly  and  more  or  less 
frequently  throughout  the  course,  so  as  to  provide  the  necessary 
reviews.  In  its  extreme  form  this  plan  may  become  highly  confus- 
ing to  teacher  and  class  and  may  lead  to  a lack  of  sufficient  concen- 
tration. The  modern  tendency  seems  to  be  to  recognize  and  take 
advantage  of  the  good  in  both  plans;  to  adopt  the  spirit  of  the 
topical  plan,  to  the  extent  that  at  various  stages  of  the  course  certain 
mathematical  ideas  are  stressed  and  certain  number  facts  learned; 
and  to  adopt  the  spirit  of  the  spiral  plan,  to  the  extent  that  there 
is  frequent  review  of  the  essentials,  so  that  the  inevitable  tendency 
of  the  pupils  to  forget  is  counteracted. 

TYPICAL  COURSES  OF  STUDY. 

Further  discussion  of  the  content  of  the  course  might  be  given. 
As  a matter  of  fact,  there  is  only  one  satisfactory  way  to  get  a good 
idea  of  the  content  of  any  course  and  that  is  to  read  the  course  itself. 
This  same  remark  might  be  made  in  regard  to  the  subject  which 
will  be  discussed  in  the  next  chapter,  the  matter  of  method  in  teach- 
ing mathematics,  the  manner  in  which  the  schools  seek  to  influence 
method  also  being  understood  best  by  examining  a course  of  study. 
Some  courses  of  study  are  given  in  Part  VI  of  this  report. 

ID.  EXAMINATIONS  FROM  THE  POINT  OF  VIEW  OF  THE  SCHOOL. 

KINDS  OF  EXAMINATIONS  CONSIDERED. 

Although  the  American  commissioners  have  assigned  the  subject 
of  examinations  to  another  committee,  it  seems  proper  to  mention  it 
briefly  in  this  connection. 

Examinations  given  in  the  school  are  of  three  kinds:  (a)  Those 
given  by  the  teachers  themselves;  (b)  those  given  by  the  supervis- 
ing officers  of  the  schools;  ( c ) those  given  by  a school  to  determine 
the  qualifications  of  pupils  proposing  to  enter  the  school. 

The  examinations  given  by  the  teacher  are  of  two  kinds ; the  ordi- 
nary 44  written  recitations  ” and  the  stated  examinations  which  may  be 
required  by  school  regulations.  The  first  should  not  be  called  ex- 
aminations in  one  sense  of  the  word ; they  cover  usually  a short  period 


34  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

of  previous  instruction,  and  they  are  given  as  a means  of  affording 
the  same  sort  of  drill  to  all  members  of  the  class  or  as  a means  of 
detecting  weaknesses  as  a basis  for  further  instruction.  Such  writ- 
ten lessons  are  left  entirely  to  the  teacher,  although  it  is  advised 
that  they  be  given  frequently.  Such  examinations  are  in  every  respect 
desirable  when  conducted  by  the  teacher  with  due  regard  for  the 
general  welfare  of  the  pupils. 

The  teachers  are  sometimes  required  to  give  their  pupils  a written 
examination  monthly,  quarterly,  or  at  some  other  stated  times,  and  to 
use  the  marks  obtained  by  the  pupils  for  the  purpose  of  determining 
their  fitness  for  promotion.  These  examinations  are  more  formidable 
in  character;  they  cover  a greater  amount  of  previous  instruction; 
and  they  are  designed  to  test  the  pupils’  power.  Because  of  their 
consequences,  such  tests  are  feared  by  the  pupils;  in  many  cases  they 
are  considered  unfair,  and  the  result  upon  the  pupils  is  a nervous 
strain. 

The  use  of  these  two  kinds  of  examinations  is  very  general,  and  in 
both  types  the  teacher  is  usually  permitted  to  make  out  the  questions. 
The  practice  of  giving  such  examinations  at  the  close  of  the  year  is 
decreasing.  These  tests  are  clearly  given  as  an  aid  in  determining 
promotion  of  the  pupils,  and  it  is  against  this  type  of  examination 
that  considerable  criticism  has  been  directed  on  account  of  its  effect 
upon  the  pupils.  In  these  examinations,  however,  the  teacher  usu- 
ally has  the  power  to  adjust  the  test  to  the  capability  of  her  class,  and 
in  reading  the  papers  she  can  allow  for  individual  peculiarities. 

The  examinations  given  by  the  supervisory  staff  are  primarily 
considered  an  administrative  expedient.  The  questions  are  pre- 
pared by  the  superintendent,  or  by  a committee  of  principals  work- 
ing under  the  direction  of  the  superintendent,  and  they  are  then 
used  in  all  of  the  schools  of  the  system.  The  teachers  have  only  in 
rare  instances  the  right  to  add  to  or  to  change  the  questions  before 
submitting  them  to  their  classes.  The  teachers  mark  the  papers  and 
then  usually  submit  the  results  to  their  principals.  These  examina- 
tions are  given  for  the  purpose  of  setting  standards  of  work  through- 
out the  system,  interpreting  the  course  of  study,  promoting  uni- 
formity, discovering  weak  points  in  the  teaching,  and  revealing  the 
general  conditions  in  the  school.  In  a broad  way  they  are  designed 
to  benefit  the  pupils  only  indirectly,  since  the  emphasis  is  placed 
upon  the  administrative  advantages.  The  results  may  be  used  occa- 
sionally in  determining  a pupil’s  fitness  for  promotion,  although  it 
is  seldom  that  failure  in  the  examination  alone  would  retard  a pupil’s 
progress.  As  an  administrative  device  these  examinations  are  effec- 
tive. Their  success  depends  upon  the  wisdom,  the  experience,  and 
the  ideals  of  the  supervising  officers.  As  a rule  the  examinations 
do  not  meet  with  favor  among  the  teachers,  who  feel  that  the  test 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


35 


is  not  so  much  intended  for  their  pupils  as  for  themselves.  From 
what  has  been  said  it  is  apparent  that  this  is  true  to  a large  extent, 
although  this  depends  upon  the  supervising  force.  Many  of  the 
teachers,  recognizing  the  advantages  gained  through  the  examina- 
tions and  having  high  professional  ideals,  do  not  take  this  view, 
however,  and  are  willing  to  have  their  work  compared  with  that  of 
their  colleagues.  The  examinations  are  opposed  also  because  of 
their  effect  upon  the  pupils.  It  is  contended  that  the  pupils  are 
subjected  to  a severe  nervous  strain,  so  that  they  do  not  do  either 
themselves  or  their  teachers  credit.  This  is  possibly  true  to  an  ex- 
tent, although  the  evil  results  may  be  greatly  lessened  under  wise 
supervision.  Another  objection  made  to  such  examinations  is  that 
they  hamper  the  teachers  in  their  work,  so  that  there  is  little  progress 
from  year  to  year.  This  again  depends  upon  the  character  of  the 
supervision.  Another  objection  made  to  such  examinations  is  that 
fession  works  up  to  the  supervising  positions,  and  this  element  may 
be  counted  upon  to  promote  rather  than  to  hinder  real  progress  in 
the  schools. 

REASONS  FOR  GIVING  EXAMINATIONS. 

Examinations  have  been  ranked  highly  for  reasons  that  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  school  employing  them.  Some  feel  that  the  value 
lies  in  the  “mark”  obtained  by  the  pupil,  this  mark  being  some- 
times counted  as  one-half  of  the  pupil’s  standing  and  at  other  times 
counting  as  only  a small  per  cent  toward  his  rank  in  class  or  his 
readiness  for  promotion.  Others  deem  that  the  practice  in  organiz- 
ing quickly,  in  thinking  clearly,  and  in  stating  accurately  is  the 
main  value  of  examinations,  a theory  that  tends  to  the  use  of 
monthly  or  biweekly  examinations.  Other  schools  find  the  worth 
of  examinations  to  lie  not  in  the  benefit  to  the  pupils  (save  indi- 
rectly), but  in  the  help  given  to  the  teacher  in  the  opportunities  to 
check  objectively  her  subjective  ranking  of  pupils  and  of  class  prog- 
ress. In  the  latter  case  the  examination  papers  may  not  be  returned 
to  the  pupils,  the  teacher  noting  the  errors  on  which  to  work  with 
both  class  and  individuals.  The  other  prominent  reason  for  giving 
the  examinations,  the  administrative  advantages,  has  already  been 
discussed. 

TENDENCY  IN  THE  USE  OF  EXAMINATIONS. 

The  present  tendency  in  the  use  of  examinations  is  to  rank  them 
as  valuable  but  to  let  the  value  and  the  use  of  the  papers  be  deter- 
mined by  the  aim.  When  the  pupils  are  to  be  benefited  directly  by 
practice  (1)  in  separating  essentials  from  nonessentials,  (2)  in  clari- 
fying a viewpoint  through  the  enforced  expression  of  it,  (3)  in 
learning  to  interpret  the  printed  or  written  page  independently,  or 


36 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


(4)  in  being  tested  on  memory  or  power,  then  tests  should  be  fre- 
quent, they  should  be  carefully  looked  over  by  the  teacher,  and  soon 
thereafter  they  should  be  made  the  basis  of  further  instruction. 
Tests  to  further  the  first  three  of  these  ends  are  being  given  increas- 
ingly. Those  tests  or  examinations  of  which  the  purpose  is  to  help 
the  teacher  check  her  judgment  of  the  pupils  and  test  the  portions  of 
subject  matter  taught  as  to  their  relative  value  in  giving  the  pupils 
ideals  of  and  practice  in  perseverance,  honesty,  independent  thought 
power,  etc.,  need  not  be  returned  to  the  pupils.  The  teacher  will 
note  in  this  case  the  errors  and  will  attempt  to  classify  them;  for 
example,  as  errors  due  to  ignorance  or  to  carelessness,  those  important 
or  relatively  unimportant,  and  class  or  individual  errors.  Such 
examinations  are  a form,  and  a very  desirable  form,  of  recitation. 

STANDARDIZED  TESTS. 

Another  view  of  the  question  of  examinations  concerned  itself  with 
“ standardized  tests.”  An  investigation  by  questionnaire  sent  to  a 
large  number  of  schools  showed  that  these  tests  are  little  known  or 
used.  These  tests  are  discussed  especially  in  a book,  Arithmetical 
Abilities,  by  Dr.  C.  W.  Stone,  and  published  by  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University,  New  York.  This  book  discusses  certain  tests 
given  with  extreme  care  in  26  school  systems.  The  replies  were  care- 
fully graded,  the  results  examined,  and  deductions  drawn.  As  a 
result  these  same  tests  can  be  used  as  a standard  in  other  systems, 
giving  an  opportunity  to  compare  results  with  those  obtained  in  the 
26  systems.  Some  schools  and  systems  of  schools  have  done  this. 

These  tests  may  also  be  used  to  give  a somewhat  definite  means 
of  comparing  system  with  system  and  to  show  the  effects  of  changes 
in  curriculum  or  in  method  of  instruction,  and  doubtless  an  acquaint- 
ance with  them  would  indicate  other  uses  to  which  they  could  be  put. 

IV.  METHOD  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  ARITHMETIC. 

By  method  of  instruction  in  arithmetic  is  meant  the  special  means 
of  presenting  certain  knowledge  of  arithmetic  to  children  in  a way 
which  is  adapted  to  the  immaturity  of  their  minds.  Such  a method 
of  necessity  involves  consideration  of  the  subject  matter  selected  for 
the  course,  of  the  organization  and  distribution  of  the  material,  and 
finally  of  the  manner  of  bringing  it  before  the  pupils.  The  difficulty 
of  making  any  general  statements  which  shall  apply  to  the  country 
at  large  is  very  great,  for  in  a country  with  school  conditions  such  as 
exist  in  the  United  States  there  are  and  always  must  be  wide  varia- 
tions in  all  three  respects.  Some  common  characteristics  may  be 
pointed  out  as  being  typical  of  the  practice  in  the  country ; these  may 
be  inferred,  first,  from  the  content  and  organization  of  the  textbooks, 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


37 


and,  secondly,  from  the  known  practice  in  some  of  the  larger  or  more 
progressive  school  systems.  There  are  some  reform  tendencies  also 
to  which  attention  should  be  directed. 

Certain  influences  affecting  the  work  of  all  of  the  subjects  of  the 
elementary  school  have  produced,  and  are  producing,  changes  in  the 
method  of  instruction  in  arithmetic.  On  the  part  of  the  schools  them- 
selves there  has  been  a growing  regard  for  the  ideals  of  psychology 
and  j:>edagogy,  and  an  increasing  effort  to  put  these  ideals  into  prac- 
tice as  these  have  become  more  clearly  defined.  The  ideal  of  appeal- 
ing to  the  interests  of  the  pupils,  the  maxim  of  allowing  the  pupils 
to  learn  through  their  own  activity,  the  falsity  of  the  doctrine  of 
formal  discipline  as  formerly  understood,  the  clearer  understanding 
of  the  processes  of  perception  and  of  apperception  with  the  resulting 
theory  of  developmental  or  inductive  teaching — these  and  other  ideals 
have  led  to  changes  in  the  methods  of  instruction  from  within  the 
schools.  These  changes  have  only  started,  however,  and  the  present 
must  be  regarded  as  a transition  period.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
have  been  other  changes  brought  about  as  much  if  not  more  under 
pressure  from  without  the  school.  There  has  been  a growing  inde- 
pendence on  the  part  of  the  public  in  the  matter  of  educational  opin- 
ion ; the  result  has  been  less  acceptance  as  gospel  of  the  statements  of 
the  schoolmen,  more  questioning  of  the  worth  of  each  and  all  of  the 
subjects  taught,  and  more  insistent  demand  that  the  schools  endeavor 
to  provide  instruction  which  will  harmonize  with  and  prepare  for  the 
conditions  of  modern  life.  There  is  on  all  hands  growing  sympathy 
for  children,  as  a result  of  which  their  burdens  are  being  made  lighter, 
and,  in  particular,  their  period  of  school  life  is  being  looked  upon 
not  so  much  as  a period  of  discipline  in  preparation  for  a further  life 
of  unpleasant  tasks,  but  rather  as  a portion  of  their  life  which  they 
can  and  should  be  helped  to  enjoy.  In  response  to  this  influence, 
which  has  met  with  ready  reception  within  the  schools,  there  has  come 
a tendency  to  simplify  the  work  as  much  as  is  possible. 

Instruction  in  arithmetic  in  the  past  has  been  dominated  largely 
by  a logical  ideal  and  a disciplinary  aim;  these  influences  can  be 
observed  in  the  subject  matter,  in  the  organization  of  it  in  the  text- 
books and  in  the  means  employed  in  presenting  it  to  the  pupils.  The 
criterion  observed  in  the  selection  of  material  for  the  course  has  been 
“ to  what  extent  is  this  topic  necessary  to  round  out  the  development 
of  arithmetic  as  a mathematical  topic”;  topics  were  selected  fre- 
quently because  they  had  certain  mathematical  interest  rather  than 
because  they  met  some  actual  need  of  the  pupils  in  either  their  present 
or  later  life.  Long  lists  of  abstract  problems  of  unnecessary  difficulty 
and  complexity  were  introduced  regardless  of  the  fact  that  they  were 
much  more  involved  than  any  met  in  actual  practice  by  most  people. 
The  concrete  problems  usually  followed  the  abstract,  were  equally 


38 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE,  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


difficult,  and  seldom  were  designed  to  appeal  to  the  interest  of  the 
pupils;  up  to  within  recent  years  the  problems  often  involved 
matters  which  are  entirely  obsolete.  This  material  was  organized 
topically ; in  the  first  chapter  was  given  a treatment  of  notation  and 
numeration  which  was  designed  to  meet  the  complete  future  needs 
of  the  pupils,  containing  such  numbers  as  billions,  and  beyond. 
Then  followed  chapters  which  contained  the  treatment  of  the  four 
fundamental  operations  for  integers,  and  so  on  through  the  course. 
Logically  this  arrangement  was  a natural  one,  but  psychologically  it 
was  open  to  criticism.  In  the  presentation  of  the  material  the  book 
was  again  permeated  by  the  logical  ideal.  Processes  were  either  given 
by  a rule  followed  by  an  illustrative  example  and  exercises  for  the 
pupils,  or  some  abstract  explanation  of  the  rule  was  attempted.  The 
former  method  was  the  more  common.  This  was  a period  of  direct 
instruction  and  of  drill  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  with  little  effort  to 
provide  any  basis  of  experience  for  the  pupils  upon  which  they 
might  build  their  arithmetic. 

These  ideals  of  instruction  have  by  no  means  entirely  passed,  but 
in  most  of  the  textbooks  in  use  now  there  is  evidence  of  response  to 
the  influences  mentioned  in  a former  paragraph.  This  is  a time  of 
transition  from  the  extreme  of  these  views  of  the  past  to  the  more 
rational  methods  of  the  present.  In  the  meantime  the  schools  have 
passed  through  a period  in  which  the  quest  after  better  methods  has 
led  some  to  adopt  certain  well-known  one-idea  methods.  As  exam- 
ples of  these  may  be  mentioned  the  Grube  method,  with  its  attempted 
complete  study  of  one  number  before  passing  on  to  the  next,  and  the 
ratio  method,  in  which  the  complete  development  of  arithmetic  was 
made  to  yield  to  a special  mathematical  form. 

Whereas  in  the  past  instruction  in  mathematics  in  the  elementary 
grades  has  been  dominated  by  logical  ideals  and  a disciplinary  aim, 
at  the  present  the  leading  purpose  is  to  make  the  instruction  as  useful 
in  content  and  as  pedagogical  in  form  as  the  conditions  of  school 
work  permit.  In  regard  to  its  content,  remark  has  been  made  in  a 
previous  paragraph  of  the  tendency  to  simplify  the  course  through 
the  omission  of  unduly  complicated  problems  and  of  topics  which 
have  mathematical  rather  than  general  interest;  with  these  omissions 
has  come  a greater  insistence  upon  the  essentials  of  arithmetic  and 
additional  problems  whose  special  function  it  is  to  give  the  pupils  an 
insight  into  certain  phases  of  the  life  of  their  own  country.  The 
mathematician  may  fear  that  this  process  of  elimination  will  result 
in  a lower  standard  of  mathematics ; the  fear  is  groundless,  however, 
for  the  effort  to  direct  attention  to  a more  complete  mastery  of  the 
fundamentals  can  not  fail  to  raise  the  standard  of  mathematical 
equipment  of  the  pupils. 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


39 


Reference  has  been  made  also  to  the  general  organization  of  the 
material  of  the  course  in  a previous  part  of  this  report,  so  that  only 
a brief  statement  will  be  necessary  at  this  point.  The  modern  texts 
in  most  common  use  employ  a combination  of  the  older  topical 
method  and  of  the  extreme  form  of  the  spiral  method.  The  text  is 
usually  divided  into  sections  which  contain  sufficient  material  for 
one-half  year  or  one  year.  Within  these  sections  the  material  is 
arranged  topically;  each  section,  however,  reviews  some  or  all  of 
the  topics  contained  in  the  previous  sections.  In  this  manner  oppor- 
tunity for  review  is  provided  and  a better  gradation  of  the  mate- 
rial is  made  possible. 

The  remainder  of  this  section  of  the  report  will  be  devoted  to  a 
brief  statement  of  some  of  the  special  means  employed  for  bringing 
the  arithmetic  before  the  pupils. 

In  all  schools  instruction  is  given  to  groups  of  pupils  varying  in 
number  from  five  in  small  communities  to  thirty  or  even  more  in 
some  of  the  larger  communities;  in  cities  the  average  is  about  25. 
As  a rule  the  arithmetic  class  meets  daily  for  from  20  to  30  minutes, 
in  a period  called  the  class  or  recitation  period;  the  pupils  usually 
have  another  period  of  about  the  same  length  for  study  in  school, 
giving  a total  of  from  200  to  300  minutes  per  week  for  arithmetic. 
Custom  in  regard  to  home  study  varies;  the  tendency  is  to  cut  down 
on  home  study  in  arithmetic,  except  possibly  in  the  upper  grades. 
Each  pupil  possesses  a book,  which  is  more  than  a mere  collection 
of  problems;  in  fact,  this  book  provides  for  many  classes  about  all 
of  the  “ explanation  ” or  development  that  some  of  the  pupils  ever 
receive.  In  most  cases,  however,  new  topics  are  taken  up  in  class  by 
the  teacher,  who  gives  such  development  of  the  topic  as  seems  satis- 
factory to  her,  after  which  the  main  responsibility  of  the  pupils  con- 
sists of  the  solution  of  similar  problems  in  their  study  time.  In  the 
past  it  has  been  all  too  common  for  the  class  time  to  be  occupied  with 
indiscriminate  recitation  on  this  work  done  by  the  pupils  in  their 
study  time;  the  present  tendency  is  in  the  direction  of  use  of  this 
class  period  either  for  instruction  on  new  topics  or  for  vigorous  drill 
upon  past  and  present  work  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher. 
Another  characteristic  of  the  class  period  is  the  rather  uniform  prac- 
tice of  devoting  from  one- third  to  one-half  of  the  time  to  mental 
arithmetic,  i.  e.,  to  computations  without  the  aid  of  pencil  and  paper. 
The  function  of  this  type  of  work  is  to  produce  skill  in  mental  com- 
putation, and,  secondly,  to  maintain  and  increase  efficiency  in  the  por- 
tions of  the  subject  taught  previously,  by  having  the  pupils  solve 
many  simple  problems. 

In  the  actual  presentation  of  new  topics,  custom  varies  from  the 
unsatisfactory  plan  of  direct  instruction,  of  mere  telling  of  the  fact 


40 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


or  of  the  process  and  of  drill  upon  it  until  the  pupils  know  it,  to  the 
desirable  form  of  presentation  in  which  some  capable  teacher  con- 
sciously and  successfully  develops  the  new  idea  inductively.  One  of 
the  obvious  effects  of  the  influence  of  psychology  upon  method  is  the 
greater  insistence  upon  inductive  or  developmental  teaching.  Unfor- 
tunately, the  mass  of  teachers  have  an  entirely  inadequate  idea  of  the 
underlying  psychology  and  in  fact  of  the  essentials  of  this  general 
mode  of  procedure  in  teaching  a new  topic.  Most  of  the  teachers  are 
impressed  with  the  need  of  teaching  the  simple  before  the  complex,  the 
concrete  before  the  abstract,  the  special  before  the  general ; but  clear- 
cut  ideas  of  the  philosophy  of  the  practice  and  of  the  function  of  the 
definite  stages  which  are  possible  in  inductive  teaching  are  usually 
lacking.  This  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  all  of  mathematics  has 
been  looked  upon  as  a deductive  science  and  that  no  special  effort  has 
been  made  to  impress  the  idea  of  inductive  teaching;  it  is  probably  so 
because  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the  problem  of  method  as 
such.  Progress  in  the  direction  of  better  understanding  of  the  stages 
of  mental  development  has  been  reflected  in  the  more  progressive 
schools  in  efforts  to  provide  a teaching  method  in  harmony  with  this 
knowledge. 

The  practice  of  using  objective  aids  in  presenting  new  topics  is  the 
most  common  result  of  the  efforts  to  regard  the  teachings  of  psychol- 
ogy. The  texts  and  the  teachers  endeavor  to  lay  a foundation  of  ex- 
perience for  the  pupils  upon  which  they  can  build  their  mathematics, 
and  belief  in  the  efficacy  of  objective  work  in  accomplishing  this  is 
quite  general.  The  theory  behind  this  belief  is  often  the  crude  idea 
that  objects  help  and  that  the  younger  children  need  this  assistance 
more  than  do  the  older  ones,  with  the  result  that  objective  aids  have 
been  used  decreasingly  from  grade  one  to  grade  eight.  The  relation 
of  objective  work  to  inductive  teaching  has  not  always  been  clear; 
that  the  use  of  objects  helps  sometimes  to  present  to  the  pupils  clearly 
individual  cases  of  some  general  idea  which  is  being  taught,  out  of 
which  the  pupils  are  to  form  the  general  idea  by  a process  of  general- 
ization— this  fact  is  not  as  widely  understood  as  would  be  desirable. 
The  result  has  been  a certain  amount  of  waste  in  the  use  of  objective 
aids  and  consequent  dissatisfaction  with  such  work.  There  has  been 
a tendency  to  use  objects  too  much  in  the  lower  grades,  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  there  has  been  the  fault  of  not  using  objects  suffi- 
ciently in  the  upper  grades.  While  this  may  seem  to  represent  an 
inconsistent  state  of  affairs,  the  explanation  is  easy;  the  objects  have 
been  used  to  excess  at  times  with  young  children  and  then,  for  the 
reason  mentioned  above,  when  new  topics  have  been  undertaken  in  the 
upper  grades,  this  means  of  aiding  the  older  pupils  has  been  neg- 
lected, with  the  result  that  the  pupils  have  not  always  gotten  clear 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


41 


ideas.  The  great  desideratum  at  the  present  time  is  that  objects 
should  be  used  more  understandingly. 

The  material  used  in  the  schoolroom  as  objective  aids  is  limited 
and  highly  artificial,  consisting  of  tiles,  pegs,  splints,  toothpicks, 
squares  of  cardboard,  etc.  This  material  has  the  special  advantage 
of  being  adapted  to  the  conditions  of  schoolroom  work;  it  is  inex- 
pensive, compact,  easily  handled  and  not  too  attractive.  Besides 
this  material  which  can  be  handled,  there  is  a growing  use  of  geomet- 
rical figures,  especially  of  rectangles;  these  can  be  quickly  drawn, 
are  easily  changed  and  adapted  to  the  conditions  of  particular  prob- 
lems, are  divisible,  in  fact,  lend  themselves  readily  to  the  needs  of 
the  situation.  The  use  of  rectangles  in  teaching  fractions  is  especially 
to  be  mentioned.  In  the  selection  of  objects,  two  qualities  which  are 
particularly  desirable,  in  fact,  necessary  in  some  cases,  are  not  always 
realized  and  when  realized  are  not  always  readily  obtainable;  these 
are  the  elements  of  naturalness  and  variety.  The  element  of  natural- 
ness is  probably  sufficiently  appreciated;  in  the  early  grades,  the 
pupils  themselves,  the  seats  in  the  room,  the  material  which  is  dis- 
tributed in  connection  with  the  work  of  all  the  classes,  the  selection 
and  grouping  of  the  pupils  for  their  games,  these  are  some  of  the 
more  natural  sources  of  material  for  concrete  expression  of  the  num- 
ber facts  studied.  Similar  material  for  use  in  the  upper  grades  is 
not  always  so  readily  obtained ; of  course,  in  connection  with  denom- 
inate numbers,  the  actual  weights  and  measures  are  brought  into  the 
schoolrooms  in  the  progressive  schools.  As  much  as  possible,  the 
problem  material  in  all  of  the  grades  is  selected  from  the  experience 
of  the  pupils,  and  the  actual  conditions  of  some  of  the  topics  are 
reproduced  in  the  schoolroom.  For  example,  in  teaching  stocks  and 
bonds,  the  class  may  resolve  itself  into  a broker’s  office,  one  member 
of  the  class  acting  as  the  broker  and  the  rest  of  the  class  acting  as 
buyers  or  sellers  of  stocks  and  bonds;  again,  the  class  in  a lower 
grade  may  resolve  itself  into  a store  with  similar  distribution  of 
responsibilities  among  the  members  of  the  class;  when  discussing 
commercial  paper  and  business  forms,  samples  are  brought  into  the 
classroom  so  that  the  pupils  may  get  the  feeling  that  there  is  a real 
connection  between  the  work  they  are  doing  in  the  schoolroom  and 
that  of  adults  who  are  engaged  in  the  work  of  the  world.  An  effort 
is  made  to  permit  the  pupils  to  handle  the  material  themselves. 

The  other  quality  mentioned  as  desirable,  namely,  variety,  is  not 
appreciated  as  much  as  it  should  be.  The  advantage  in  having  a 
variety  of  objects  as  a means  of  arousing  interest  is  usually  clear, 
but  the  necessity  of  variety  in  presenting  particular  cases  of  a gen- 
eral idea  which  is  being  developed  inductively  is  not  clearly  under- 
stood. For  example,  in  presenting  the  idea  of  tens,  bundles  of  splints 


42 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


containing  10  splints  are  often  used;  the  pupil  soon  learns  to  asso- 
ciate the  word  ten  with  one  of  these  bundles  without  really  under- 
standing that  the  bundle  contains  10  splints.  This  difficulty  is 
obviated  somewhat  by  using  a variety  of  means  of  representing  10. 
Other  illustrations  might  be  given  to  make  the  point  that  in  objective 
teaching  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  too  immediate  association  of 
the  idea  being  taught  with  any  particular  manner  of  representing 
that  idea  in  a concrete  way. 

By  way  of  summary  of  this  section,  devoted  to  the  discussion  of 
methods  of  teaching  arithmetic,  it  may  be  said  that  there  has  been 
great  progress  in  establishing  the  principle  that  psychological  rather 
than  logical  ideals  should  permeate  the  teaching  of  arithmetic,  and 
that  there  has  been  some  progress  toward  incorporating  this  prin- 
ciple in  the  actual  teaching  practice,  in  the  form  of  objective  work 
and  inductive  developments. 

V.  TRAINING  AND  QUALIFICATIONS  OF  TEACHERS. 

SCOPE  AND  SOURCE  OF  MATERIAL. 

Part  V deals  with  the  training  and  qualifications  of  teachers  of 
mathematics  in  the  elementary  schools.  It  is  based  in  large  part  on 
the  report  of  subcommittee  No.  3 of  this  general  committee,  whose 
field  of  study  was  limited  to  the  training  of  teachers  for  work  in 
grades  1 to  6.  The  committee  appointed  to  study  the  same  problem 
for  grades  7 and  8 was  unable  to  report  up  to  the  time  when  this 
summary  was  first  made.  That  report  has  since  been  added  to 
part  (b)  of  this  general  report. 

GENERAL  TRAINING. 

In  an  earlier  paragraph  the  statement  was  made  that  in  the 
country  at  large  over  425,000  teachers  were  employed  in  1906,  and 
that  about  100,000  new  teachers  are  employed  annually.  Further 
statistics  show  that  not  more  than  20,000  of  these  can  receive  peda- 
gogical training  annually  as  that  is  the  limit  of  the  capacity  of 
professional  training  schools  of  all  sorts  in  this  country.  At  best, 
therefore,  not  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  new  teachers  can  have 
received  any  professional  training  whatever. 

Generally,  even  in  the  districts  where  educational  advantages  are 
very  meager,  prospective  teachers  must  be  high-school  graduates. 
Graduation  from  high  school  implies  the  completion  of  a course 
equivalent  in  content  to  the  following:  Three  years  of  English,  four 
of  Latin,  two  and  one-half  of  mathematics,  two  of  science,  two  of 
history,  and  two  years  of  additional  subjects.  In  addition  to  this 
scholastic  training  the  prospective  teacher  must  attend  a normal 
training  school  within  the  limits  mentioned.  In  some  States  a 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


43 


minimum  length  of  time  must  be  spent  in  such  school.  In  most  of 
the  cities,  in  which,  as  has  been  said,  more  than  one-half  of  the  popu- 
lation is  gathered,  this  normal  training  and  even  previous  experience 
is  absolutely  insisted  upon.  It  might  be  said  at  this  point  that  many 
of  the  best  teachers  in  the  schools  owe  most  of  their  training  to  the 
hard  school  of  experience,  especially  hard  when  that  experience  con- 
sists of  service  in  one  of  the  rural  schools  discussed  in  chapter  one. 
It  may  also  be  said  that  the  larger  cities  seek  recruits  for  their  teach- 
ing staff  very  commonly  from  the  graduates  of  this  same  school  of 
experience. 

TRAINING  IN  THE  NORMAL  SCHOOL. 

The  training  in  a normal  school  usually  consists  of  general  peda- 
gogical theory,  some  special  training  in  the  methods  of  the  different 
subjects  including  mathematics,  some  academic  study  of  the  subjects, 
such  as  algebra  in  mathematics,  some  observation  of  teaching,  usually 
in  all  subjects,  and  more  or  less  practice  teaching. 

From  a study  of  the  practice  of  the  normal  schools  the  following 
points  of  variability  seem  existent: 

1.  Method  of  teaching  enters  into  “methods”  courses  from  the 
extreme  of  being  merely  incidental  to  the  other  of  occupying  full 
time  and  attention. 

2.  Current  literature  on  the  teaching  of  mathematics  is  sometimes 
used  extensively  and  sometimes  not  used  at  all. 

3.  Similarly  with  consideration  of  games  and  recreational  devices 
in  arithmetic;  sometimes  they  are  considered,  and  again  not. 

4.  The  course  of  study  for  the  whole  curriculum  is  sometimes  not 
studied  and  is  sometimes  carefully  analyzed. 

5.  The  history  of  the  development  and  of  the  teaching  of  mathe- 
matics is  given  similar  varying  emphasis. 

RECOMMENDATIONS  FOR  A TEACHING  COURSE. 

1.  A foundation  in  subject  matter  as  a basis  for  the  professional 
study  of  mathematics  should  include  a minimum  of  one-half  year  of 
high-school  arithmetic,  one  year  of  algebra,  and  one  year  of  geometry. 

2.  Exclusive  of  all  courses  in  psychology,  pedagogy,  principles  of 
teaching,  general  method,  and  history  of  education,  a minimum  of 
one-half  year  of  the  professional  study  of  arithmetic  should  be  re- 
quired to  include  the  following: 

A.  The  teaching  of  elementary  mathematics — “ Special  Method.” 
(a)  The  special  pedagogy  of  arithmetic. 

1.  The  more  elementary  phases  of  the  psychology  of  num- 

ber. 

2.  Principles  of  general  method  applied  to  teaching  arith- 

metic. 


44  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

3.  Educational  values  of  arithmetic  and  the  place  of  arith- 
metic in  the  general  educational  scheme. 

(b)  The  organization  of  the  general  elementary  school  cur- 
riculum in  arithmetic. 

(e)  Organization  of  typical  units  of  subject  matter  for  pre- 
sentation to  appropriate  grades. 

(d)  Development  and  writing  of  typical  plans  for  teaching. 

(e)  The  utilization  of  local  and  general  economic  studies  for 

number  applications. 

(/)  Observation  and  discussion  of  typical  lessons  in  the  grades 
showing  concrete  applications  of  the  principles  devel- 
oped. 

( g ) The  place  of  games  and  other  recreational  devices  in 
grade  number  work. 

B.  The  historical  development  of  the  teaching  of  arithmetic, 
and  the  place  and  value  of  certain  “ methods,”  such  as 
those  of  Pestalozzi  and  Grube. 

3.  That  every  school  engaged  in  the  preparation  of  teachers  of 
mathematics  should  develop  a museum  of  materials,  apparatus,  books, 
pamphlets,  papers,  which  will  aid  in  interpreting  such  features  as 
the  historic  development  of  the  subject,  the  present-day  practice,  and 
the  nature  of  the  textbooks. 

4.  That  the  head  of  department  of  mathematics  should  be  largely 
responsible  for  the  organization  of  the  course  of  study  in  mathematics 
in  the  training  school,  in  cooperation  with  the  department  of  educa- 
tion and  the  supervisor  of  the  training  school. 

5.  That  the  head  of  the  department  of  mathematics  should  aid 
in  the  supervision  of  the  teaching  of  mathematics  in  the  training 
school. 

6.  That  the  head  of  the  department  of  mathematics,  as  well  as 
the  critic  teacher,  should  give  demonstration  lessons  in  the  training 
school,  illustrating  the  principles  of  teaching,  developed  in  the 
methods  class. 

7.  That  the  points  of  emphasis  in  all  observations,  discussions, 
written  plans,  and  criticisms  should  be  upon  the  basis  of  fundamental 
principles  rather  than  upon  devices  or  petty  details. 

VI.  TYPICAL  COURSES  OF  STUDY. 

INTRODUCTION. 

It  is  almost  certain  that  much  that  has  been  given  in  this  report 
will  be  intelligible  only  if  interpreted.  Since  the  main  interest  will 
probably  center  on  the  curriculum  itself  and  upon  the  teaching 
helps  given  to  the  teachers  and  recommended  for  their  use,  it  seems 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


45 


worth  whirl©  to  include  in  this  report  two  typical  courses  of  study. 
The  first  is  the  course  of  study  recently  issued  for  the  guidance  of  the 
teacher  of  the  rural  schools  of  one  of  our  States,  but  generally  con- 
sidered too  difficult  in  the  first  two  years.  The  second  course  has 
recently  been  prepared  for  the  schools  of  one  of  our  cities. 

A STATE  COURSE  OF  STUDY.* 

SUGGESTIONS. 

The  work  in  arithmetic  should,  first  of  all,  produce  accuracy  and  rapidity 
in  computation.  Accuracy  can  be  assured  only  by  holding  the  pupil  to  exactly 
correct  results  from  the  beginning.  Pupils  should  be  held  to  correct  results 
and  made  to  detect  and  correct  even  the  slightest  error. 

Rapidity  of  computation  can  be  secured  only  through  much  practice  and  drill. 
Throughout  the  first  three  years  of  the  work  the  entire  time  in  the  subject 
should  be  given  to  securing  this  accurate  and  rapid  work  in  the  fundamental 
operations. 

While  drill  in  the  facts  of  number  during  the  early  grades  should  be  largely 
in  the  abstract,  with  few  if  any  problems,  it  is  suggested  that  some  concrete 
work  in  these  combinations  be  given.  Illustration : 5 dollars  and  4 dollars 

are  how  many  dollars? 

First  Year. 

(FIRST  HALF.) 

Count  numbers  to  100.  Read  numbers  to  100.  Write  numbers  to  100. 

Memorize  the  20  of  the  45  combinations  in  addition,  the  sum  of  which  does 
not  exceed  9. 

Give  plenty  of  oral  drill  together  with  seat  work  and  blackboard  work  like 
the  following: 

253427  212  32375126 

422441  68523423732 


and  have  pupils  get  correct  results  by  copying,  where  necessary,  the  results 
from  the  combinations  placed  upon  the  blackboard.  This  work  together  with 
oral  drill  and  tests  will  in  a short  time  fix  these  combinations  in  mind  without 
the  use  of  objects  and  the  consequent  formation  of  the  pernicious  habit  of 
counting  the  fingers  in  adding. 

From  the  first,  drill  in  these  combinations  should  be  given  in  such  manner  as 
to  prepare  for  subtraction  as  well  as  addition. 

Illustration. 

Teacher — Five-four  ? 

Pupil — Nine. 

Teacher — Five  and  what  are  nine? 

Pupil — Five  and  four  are  nine. 

Teacher — Four  and  what  are  nine? 

Pupil — Four  and  five  are  nine. 

1 Prepared  by  the  Education  Department  of  New  -York  State.  As  here  given  the  course 
is  somewhat  abridged. 


46 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


When  the  combinations  are  learned  in  this  manner,  the  work  in  subtraction, 
if  taught  by  the  Austrian  method  (sometimes  called  the  addition  method), 
is  learned  at  the  same  time  as  addition. 

Illustration. 

8 7 6 3 9 
— 4 2 3 1 6 


Method. 

6 and  3 are  9. 

1 and  2 are  3. 

3 and  3 are  6. 

2 and  5 are  7. 

4 and  4 are  8. 

At  the  close  of  the  first  half  year  pupils  should  be  able  to  count,  read,  and 
write  numbers  to  100.  They  should  know  the  20  combinations,  the  sum  of 
which  does  not  exceed  9 and  their  use  in  addition. 

Objects  should  be  used  only  for  consecutive  counting  and  developing  the  idea 
of  number  in  the  abstract.  Children  should  never  be  taught  to  count  two 
groups  of  objects  to  find  the  sum.  This  gives  the  idea  that  addition  is  count- 
ing, which  is  a serious  hindrance  to  accuracy  and  rapidity  in  work.  Nothing 
has  done  more  injury  in  number  work  than  the  too  long  continued  and  inju- 
dicious use  of  objects  in  its  teaching. 

SECOND  HALF. 

Continued  drill  in  addition  and  subtraction  with  the  20  combinations  learned 
in  the  first  half. 

Count  to  100  by  twos,  by  fives,  by  tens. 

Drill  in  adding  columns  of  figures  on  board  and  cards  arranged  for  this  pur- 
pose, the  sum  not  to  exceed  nine. 

Memorize  the  remaining  25  combinations  in  addition. 

Give  oral  drill,  seat,  and  blackboard  work  in  plenty  with  examples  like  the 
following : 

6845324  869345 

4386978  124588 


Children  are  here  taught  to  carry  in  addition. 

Method.  Teach  the  very  best  model,  insist  upon  its  exact  imitation  and  much 
repetition  and  drill.  Make  no  attempt  to  explain  the  process.  This  is  the 
time  to  teach  the  art  of  computation,  not  the  science  of  numbers. 

Second  Year. 

(first  half.) 

Continued  drill  in  the  use  of  the  45  combinations  in  addition  and  subtraction. 
Drill  on  series  work  in  addition. 


Illustration. 

2 12  22  32  42  52 
5 5 5 5 5 5 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS, 


47 


Continue  drill  by  counting  by  twos,  threes,  fours,  fives. 

Illustration. 

Count  to  50  by  twos  beginning  with  0,  beginning  with  one. 

Count  to  50  by  threes,  beginning  with  0,  beginning  with  1,  beginning  with  2. 

Count  to  50  by  fours,  beginning  with  0,  beginning  with  1,  beginning  with  2, 
beginning  with  3,  etc. 

Drill  in  subtraction — Austrian  method. 

Illustration. 

1235  6 and  9 are  15. 

— 786  9 and  4 are  13. 

449  8 and  4 are  12. 

The  entire  time  of  this  half  year  should  be  given  to  use  and  drill  of  the  facts 
of  number  learned  as  here  specified.  By  the  close  of  the  period  simple  num- 
bers will  be  added  and  subtracted  with  accuracy  and  facility  and  much  progress 
made  in  the  addition  of  columns  of  figures. 

SECOND  HALF. 

Notation  and  numeration  of  numbers  through  first  three  periods. 

Continued  drill  in  addition  and  subtraction,  especially  in  the  addition  of 
columns. 

Memorize  the  45  combinations  in  multiplication. 

Teach  these  combinations  so  that  preparation  is  given  for  division  at  the 
same  time  that  multiplication  is  being  taught,  that  is,  have  the  pupil  answer 
the  questions,  how  many  sixes  in  24  and  how  many  fours  in  24  as  well  as  to 
state  that  4 times  6 are  24. 

Give  much  oral  drill,  seat  work,  and  board  work  of  the  following  character : 
3 2 6 4 5 3 8 6 2 4 5 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 

2 3 2 3 4 5 6 


Teach  the  process  of  carrying  in  multiplication. 

(1)  A good  model.  (2)  Imitation  of  the  model.  (3)  Repetition,  drill.  (4) 
No  explanation. 

Third  Year. 

FIRST  HALF. 

Continue  drill  in  counting.  Count  by  fives  to  100,  beginning  with  0,  beginning 
with  1,  beginning  with  2,  beginning  with  3,  beginning  with  4.  Count  by  sixes, 
beginning  with  each  of  the  numbers  from  0 to  5,  inclusive. 

Short  division  with  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  and  9 as  divisors.  Give  thorough  and 
systematic  oral  drill  as  a preparation  for  this  work.  Before  asking  a child  to 
use  2 as  a divisor,  he  should  be  able  to  tell  instantly  how  many  times,  with 
remainder,  2 is  contained  in  every  number  to  20.  When  3 is  used  as  a divisor, 
a similar  drill  should  be  given  in  numbers  to  30,  with  4 to  40,  with  5 to  50, 
with  6 to  60,  with  7 to  70,  with  8 to  80,  with  9 to  90. 

Multiplication  with  two  or  more  figures  in  the  multiplier. 

Definitions  of  terms  used  in  fundamental  operations.  Addend,  sum,  minuend, 
subtrahend,  remainder,  multiplicand,  multiplier,  product,  dividend,  divisor, 
quotient. 

Continue  drill  of  all  previous  work. 

1442°— 11 4 


48 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


Measures — areas  of  simple  figures  with  use  of  ruler  correlating  with  drawing. 
Dimensions  used  inch  and  foot.  Square  inch  and  square  foot,  and  the  fractions 
§ and  i as  applied  in  the  use  of  the  linear  unit  used  in  measuring. 

SECOND  HALF. 

Long  division.  Never  allow  a child  to  use  long  division  when  the  divisor  is 
a single  figure. 

Multiplication  tables  of  the  tens,  elevens,  and  twelves  and  their  use  as  divisors 
in  short  division. 

Begin  long  division  with  easy  divisors  of  two  figures.  Remember  that  31,  41, 
51,  61,  71,  81,  and  91  are  easier  divisors  than  14,  15,  16,  17,  18,  and  19,  27,  37, 
58,  76,  etc. 

Give  much  oral  drill  and  written  work  for  accuracy  and  rapidity  in  all  of  the 
fundamental  operations. 

Tests  for  divisability  of  numbers  by  2,  3,  5,  9,  10. 

Definition  of  factor,  prime  factor.  Memorize  prime  factors  up  to  25  (1,  2, 
3,  5,  7,  11,  13,  17,  19,  23). 

Oral  drill  in  finding  prime  factors  to  100. 

Continue  measurement  of  objects  in  schoolroom  for  surface  measurement. 
Additional  measure:  The  linear  yard.  Learn  liquid  measure  of  pint,  quart, 
gallon. 

At  the  close  of  this  year’s  work  the  pupils  should  be  able  to  add,  subtract, 
multiply,  and  divide  numbers  with  accuracy  and  facility. 

Fourth  Year. 

FIRST  HALF. 

Roman  numerals  I to  C and  by  hundreds  to  M. 

United  States  money.  Writing  and  reading  of  numbers  expressing  dollars 
and  cents.  The  use  of  this  knowledge  in  problem  work  demands  its  introduc- 
tion at  this*  time. 

Simple  problems,  oral  and  written,  connected  with  daily  life.  Original 
problem  work  by  the  children.  Problems  in  bills  and  accounts,  especially  where 
one  of  the  factors  is  12  or  less  the  extension  of  the  products  making  up  the 
sum  to  be  done  mentally. 

Teach  cancellation.  Have  all  problems  stated  before  being  worked.  Use  can- 
celation whenever  possible  in  the  solution  of  these  statements. 

Dry  measure:  Pint,  quart,  peck,  bushel.  Problems  in  reduction  only. 

Simple  fractions  and  equivalents.  Develop  objectively.  Also  teach  idea  that 
a fraction  is  an  indicated  division  with  the  dividend  above  the  line  and  the 
divisor  below  it. 

Fix  the  principles:  (1)  Multiplying  the  numerator  or  dividing  the  denomi- 
nator of  a fraction  by  any  number,  multiplies  the  fraction  by  that  number. 
(2)  Dividing  the  numerator  or  multiplying  the  denominator  of  a fraction  by 
any  number  divides  the  fraction  by  that  number.  (3)  Multiplying  or  dividing 
both  numerator  and  denominator  by  the  same  number  does  not  change  the  value 
of  the  fraction. 

Continue  drill  throughout  the  year  in  the  fundamental  operations.  Facility 
in  these  operations  demands  that  this  work  be  continued  daily  throughout  the 
entire  course. 

Changing  fractions  to  equivalent  fractions  of  higher  and  lower  demonina- 
tions. 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


49 


Give  much  oral  drill  in  changing  fractions  to  equivalent  fractions  of  higher 
and  lower  denominations  and  in  reducing  them  to  a common  denominator. 
Denominators  of  these  fractions  should  not  exceed  24. 

Make  little  use  of  denominators  13,  17,  19,  29,  and  39. 

Addition  and  subtraction  of  fractions,  the  denominators  of  which  do  not 
contain  more  than  two  figures. 

SECOND  HALF. 

Addition  and  subtraction  of  mixed  numbers  involving  fractions  already  used 
in  the  manner  here  indicated.  (Mixed  numbers  should  never  be  reduced  to  im- 
proper fractions  in  addition  and  subtraction.) 

Least  common  multiple  of  numbers  to  100  and  application  in  reducing  frac- 
tions to  a common  denominator.  (Use  method  of  factoring  in  equation  form.) 

45  = 5 X 3 X3  5 X 2 X 3 X 3 = L.  C.  M. 

30  = 2 X 3 X 5 5 X 3 = G.  C.  D. 

Multiplication  of — 

1.  A fraction  by  an  integer. 

2.  An  integer  by  a fraction. 

3.  A fraction  by  a fraction.  Use  cancellation  in  all  cases  where  possible. 

Written  work  in  preceding  cases  should  be  preceded  by  much  oral  drill  with 

simple  numbers. 

Division  of — 

1.  A fraction  by  an  integer. 

2.  An  integer  by  a fraction. 

3.  A fraction  by  a fraction.  Use  cancellation  whenever  possible. 

Have  the  written  work  preceded  by  much  oral  drill,  as  in  multiplication  of 
fractions. 

Continue  the  solution  of  problems  involving  the  principles  and  processes 
learned  in  all  previous  work. 

Problems  to  be  stated  before  being  solved,  including  oral  analysis. 

Cubic  measure.  Volume  involving  cubic  inches,  cubic  feet,  and  cubic  yards. 

Fifth  Year. 

FIRST  HALF. 

Reading  and  writing  of  decimals. 

Reduction  of  common  fractions  to  decimal  fractions  and  decimal  fractions 
to  common  fractions. 

Fundamental  operations  in  decimal  fractions.  (The  Austrian  method  of 
placing  the  decimal  point  in  division  is  recommended. ) 

Memorize  the  aliquot  parts  of  $1  or  of  $100. 

Review  tables  of  linear  measure,  square  measure,  and  cubic  measure. 

Memorize  number  of  cubic  inches  in  a bushel  and  in  a liquid  gallon. 

Reduction  ascending  and  descending  as  applied  to  these  tables. 

Application  of  square  measure  to  finding  area  of  squares,  triangles,  rec- 
tangles, and  to  problems  in  painting,  carpeting,  and  plastering. 

Application  of  cubic  measure  to  finding  volume  of  rectangular  solids,  the 
capacity  of  bins  and  cisterns,  cost  of  masonry. 

( Teach  accurate  capacity  by  using  2150.42  cubic  inches  in  a bushel ; also 
approximate  capacity  by  using  one  bushel  equal  to  f cubic  feet.  In  liquid 
measure  use  231  cubic  inches  to  gallon,  also  71  gallons  = 1 cubic  foot.l 


50 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


SECOND  HALF. 

Memorize  tables  of  avoirdupois  weight,  dry  measure,  liquid  measure,  English 
money,  time,  and  circular  measure.  Also  learn  number  of  pounds  in  a bushel 
of  potatoes,  wheat,  corn,  barley,  oats,  barrel  of  flour,  and  apply  in  the  solution 
of  problems.  Also  learn  value  of  franc,  pound,  and  mark  in  United  States 
money. 

Reduction  ascending  and  descending  as  applied  to  these  tables. 

Other  tables  in  denominate  number  besides  those  memorized  may  be  used 
in  problems,  but  pupils  should  be  allowed  to  refer  to  books  for  facts  used. 
Problems  in  the  form  of  bills  and  accounts  continued. 

Sixth  Year. 

FIRST  HALF. 

Review  the  work  of  fractions,  with  special  emphasis  on  the  three  questions: 

1.  To  find  a fractional  part  of  a number. 

2.  To  find  what  fractional  part  one  number  is  of  another. 

3.  Given  a fractional  part  of  a number  and  its  relation  to  the  whole,  to  find 
the  whole. 

Illustration:  § of  35=  ? What  fractional  part  of  35  is  21?  21  is  § of  what 
number? 

Review  denominate  numbers  and  drill  on  industrial  problems  demanding  their 
use. 

Fundamental  operations  in  percentage : 

1.  Any  per  cent  of  any  number.  Aliquot  per  cents.  Use  the  term  per  cent 

interchangeably  with  hundredths.  Learn  thoroughly  the  aliquot  parts 
of  a unit  and  use  interchangeably  with  hundredths  and  per  cent.  (See 
table  given  in  first  half  of  fifth  year.) 

2.  The  per  cent  one  number  is  of  another. 

3.  One  number  is  a given  per  cent  of  what  number? 

Applications  to  problems. 

SECOND  HALF. 

1.  Profit  and  loss,  including  ( a ) marking  goods;  (&)  trade  discount;  (c) 

cash  discount. 

2.  Commission — using  only  practical  and  common  problems. 

3.  Simple  interest. 

(a)  To  find  interest  on  any  sum  of  money  for  a given  time  at  a given 

rate. 

(b)  The  making  of  promissory  notes  and  the  computing  of  interest 

thereon. 

(c)  Problems  in  interest  when  three  of  the  elements  of  P,  R,  T,  and  I are 

given  to  find  the  fourth. 

4.  The  simple  equation  and  the  use  of  the  unknown  quantity  x can  be 

profitably  used  in  the  solution  of  some  problems. 

Seventh  Year. 

Pupils  who  have  completed  the  work  of  the  six  preceding  grades  should  be 
able  (1)  to  read  reasonably  large  numbers  at  sight  and  to  write  numbers  rapidly 
from  dictation;  (2)  to  add  problems  5 figures  wide  and  20  numbers  deep  ac- 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


51 


curately  at  a fair  rate  of  speed,  i.  e.,  in  about  two  minutes;  (3)  to  perform  all 
fundamental  processes  in  arithmetic  rapidly  and  accurately;  (4)  to  reason 
quickly  and  explain  simple  problems;  (5)  to  handle  ordinary  fractions — com- 
mon and  decimal — without  hesitation;  and  (6)  to  comprehend  the  fundamental 
principles  of  percentage  and  their  applications. 

At  the  end  of  the  seventh  year  any  one  of  the  following  courses  may  be  pur- 
sued: (1)  To  follow  syllabus  in  algebra  for  the  eighth  grade;  (2)  to  give  a 
part  of  the  time  to  arithmetic  and  a part  to  algebra;  (3)  to  give  the  entire 
time  to  arithmetic. 

If  the  study  of  arithmetic  is  to  stop  with  the  end  of  the  seventh  year  it  will 
be  advisable  to  follow  the  syllabus  for  this  year  and  to  include  such  topics  of 
the  eighth  year,  i.  e.,  stocks  and  bonds,  insurance  and  taxes,  as  are  deemed 
necessary  to  round  out  the  subject. 

If  the  arithmetic  is  to  continue  through  the  first  half  of  the  eighth  year, 
leaving  the  other  half  free  for  algebra,  it  will  be  necessary  to  select  those  topics 
in  arithmetic  which  are  considered  essential  to  the  laying  of  a proper  founda- 
tion for  the  study  of  advanced  arithmetic.  Under  this  condition  it  will  be 
necessary  to  eliminate  some  topics  in  the  eighth  grade  algebra. 

If  arithmetic  is  to  be  given  in  both  the  seventh  and  eighth  years  it  will  be 
possible  to  insure  greater  efficiency  along  industrial  and  commercial  lines 
through  reviewing,  drilling  on,  emphasizing,  and  enlarging  upon  those  processes 
and  applications  which  are  considered  the  essentials.  Without  attempting  to 
follow  the  syllabus  it  is  possible  to  introduce  some  algebra  in  the  solution  of 
problems  in  mensuration  and  interest  by  means  of  the  simple  equation  and  the 
use  of  the  unknown  quantity  x. 

Give  plenty  of  oral  drill  in  getting  approximate  results.  Thie  will  tend  to 
reduce  error  in  computation.  In  business  it  is  customary  to  apply  some  kind 
of  a check  to  every  result  obtained.  No  good  mechanic  or  business  man  would 
think  of  letting  his  results  stand  without  some  checking.  Pupils  should 
acquire  the  verification  habit. 

Mental  arithmetic  should  occupy  a large  share  of  the  time.  Never  allow 
pupils  to  use  pencil  if,  in  your  judgment,  the  result  should  be  obtained 
mentally. 

In  general,  papers  should  be  marked,  as  they  are  in  business,  largely  by  the 
accuracy  of  the  result.  If  the  result  is  wrong  the  paper  is  wrong.  If  the 
problem  requires  some  interpretation  a teacher  may  quite  properly  mark  both 
for  accuracy  and  for  method. 

Teachers  should  endeavor  to  get  outside  of  the  book  and  to  have  a large 
amount  of  drill  material  ready  for  each  exercise.  Use  the  mimeograph,  or 
some  other  duplicating  machine  in  the  preparation  of  lessons.  Teachers  should, 
if  possible,  learn  the  business  methods  used  by  a mason,  carpenter,  paper 
hanger,  painter,  architect,  banker,  etc.  Original  problems  can  be  obtained 
from  these  men  and  pupils  may  be  sent  to  them  to  verify  their  own  methods. 
The  problems  should  be  real  if  they  pretend  to  be  so.  They  should  relate 
when  possible,  to  the  child’s  daily  environment  and  to  his  other  school  work. 
They  should  be  concerned  with  the  school  shop,  drawing,  and  laboratory  work. 
They  should  touch  the  questions  of  the  supply  of  food,  clothing,  and  shelter 
as  related  to  our  farms,  shops,  transportation  facilities,  to  typical  industries, 
and  distributing  centers. 

Visits  to  the  shops  of  craftsmen  and  trips  to  factories,  banks,  and  business 
houses  will  clear  up  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  the  technical  points  involved  in 
such  problems  and  will  add  new  interest  to  the  work.  The  daily  activities  of 
our  people  must  be  drawn  upon  to  make  the  arithmetic  interesting,  informa- 
tional, and  practical. 


52 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


FIRST  HALF. 

1.  Continue  application  of  percentage — 

(a)  Interest,  including  commercial  paper:  (1)  Six  per  cent  method  and 
short  methods  based  upon  it;  (2)  bank  discount;  (3)  compound  in- 
terest as  applied  to  savings-bank  accounts.  Use  tables  in  compound 
interest.  The  operations  of  depositing  money,  drawing  checks,  and 
figuring  interest  should  become  as  real  as  the  school  can  make  them. 

(b)  Problems  should  be  many  but  simple.  Many  should  be  oral.  In 
many  cases  discuss  the  solution  without  requiring  any  actual  com- 
putation. Drill  on  giving  approximate  results. 

2.  Ratio  and  simple  proportion. 

Ratio  has  some  use  apart  from  being  an  introduction  to  proportion.  Fer- 
tilizers, metals,  and  liquids  are  mixed  in  given  ratios.  Proportion  may  be 
merely  one  method  of  writing  simple  equation.  The  relation  of  numbers  ex- 
pressed as  ratios  should  be  shown  and  simple  problems  involving  proportion 
should  be  given.  The  use  of  the  equation  and  the  unknown  quantity  x should 
be  used. 

3.  Powers  and  roots — 

( а ) Memorize  squares  of  numbers  to  25.  Oral  drill  in  their  use. 

(б)  Square  root  and  its  applications  in  determining  dimensions  from 
areas  of  squares.  Also  its  use  as  applied  to  the  right  triangle. 
Square  root  is  necessary  for  the  purposes  of  mensuration.  However, 
its  study  has  more  value  in  training  for  reasoning  than  in  its  prac- 
tical use,  since  many  wTho  use  it  employ  tables.  Pupils  can  compre- 
hend it  by  the  use  of  the  diagram  or  by  the  formula. 

4.  Many  miscellaneous  and  review  problems  should  be  given.  The  use  of 

the  equation  and  the  unknown  quantity  should  be  used,  whenever  con- 
venient, in  their  solution. 

SECOND  HALF. 

1.  Review  the  following  tables  until  the  pupils  use  them  readily  in  their 

work.  In  the  review  of  the  tables  of  measures  some  attention  might  be 
given  to  the  origin  of  such  measures  as  yard,  foot,  inch,  quart,  acre,  etc. 
In  this  way  the  pupil  will  find  the  work  taking  on  new  interest. 
(1)  Measure  of  length,  (a)  linear;  (2)  measure  of  area,  (a)  square; 

(3)  measure  of  contents  and  capacity,  (a)  cubic,  (b)  dry,  and  (c)  liquid; 

(4)  measure  of  weight,  (a)  avoirdupois;  (5)  measure  of  quantity,  (a)  pa- 
per; (6)  other  tables,  (a)  circular,  (b)  time;  (7)  money,  (a)  United 
States,  (b)  English. 

2.  Review  of,  and  drill  in  mensuration,  using  practical  problems  involving  sur- 

faces of  (1)  parallelogram,  (2)  rectangle,  (3)  triangle,  (4)  circle,  (5) 
trapezoid  and  contents  of  such  solids  as  (a)  cube,  (6)  sphere,  (c)  cylin- 
der, (d)  pyramid,  (c)  cone. 

Strict  geometrical  demonstrations  can  not  be  given,  but  enough  objective 
work  can  be  offered  to  make  the  matter  clear. 

3.  Begin  by  using  problems  all  of  which  require  the  use  of  the  same  table  and 

then  drill  on  mixed  problems,  making  them  practical  and  real  as  far  as 
possible.  Teachers  are  advised  that  it  is  of  little  value  for  the  pupil  to 
memorize  tables  that  are  not  to  be  used  in  practical  life,  or  to  commit  to 
memory  numerous  equivalents  that  are  readily  found  in  the  textbook  when 
needed. 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


53 


■iOHTH  Y»A*. 

FIRST  HALT. 

1.  Rapid  calculation  work. 

In  this  drill  include  daily  speed  exercises.  Set  a reasonable  time  limit  and 
hold  the  class  up  to  it.  This  will  fit  the  pupils  for  pressure  work  which  is 
bound  to  come  in  business  life.  It  may  include  practice  in  the  following : 

( a ) Addition  until  pupils  can  add  at  the  rate  of  from  75  to  100  figures  per 

minute.  Use  group  method. 

Horizontal  addition  should  be  practiced.  Example : 10  pieces  of  cloth — 
38,  82,  91,  46,  53,  67,  84,  75,  65,  69=670,  at  50c=$335. 

(b)  Multiplication,  when  multiplier  is  11,  22,  33,  44,  etc.  Example:  892 X 

11=2  as  unit  figure;  (9-f-2=ll)  1 as  tens;  (8+9+1  carried=8) 
8 as  hundreds;  (8+1  carried=9)  9 as  thousands;  final  result  9812. 
Example:  596X22=13112.  Same  as  preceding  process  except  that 
each  addition  is  multiplied  by  two  before  carried  figure  is  added.1 

(c)  Cost  of  articles  sold  by  ton  of  2000  pounds.  Example:  8942  pounds  at 

$25.50  per  ton=$8.942X  ( % of  $25.50)  =$114.01. 

( d ) Interest  practice,  short  method  given  above.  Only  a few  practical  short 

methods  should  be  given.  This  work  will  help  to  sustain  interest  and 
develop  rapid  thinking  power  of  concentrated  effort. 

2.  Business  forms. 

Some  drills  should  be  given  in  making  such  forms  as  the  following:  (a)  in- 
voices or  bills;  (b)  statements;  (c)  account  sales — in  commission. 

It  is  not  expected  that  the  pupil  will  be  taught  an  elaborate  form  of  book- 
keeping; but  everyone  should  know  how  to  keep  simple  accounts.  These  can 
easily  relate  to  the  income  and  expenditures  of  daily  life  in  the  home  and  on  the 
farm. 

SECOND  HALF. 

Stocks  and  bonds : 

Pupils  should  know  what  a corporation  is,  its  chief  officials,  its  organizaton, 
its  stocks  or  bonds,  and  its  methods  of  declaring  and  paying  dividends. 

(a)  Cost  of  a given  number  of  shares  at  a given  market  value. 

(b)  Number  of  shares  or  bonds  that  can  be  bought  for  a fixed  sum. 

(c)  Rate  of  income  on  an  investment  in  stocks  or  bonds. 

Insurance : 

Insurance,  fire,  life,  and  accident,  is  an  important  factor  in  our  life,  and  yet 
the  technicalities  in  various  types  of  policies,  especially  those  of  life  insurance, 
are  so  difficult  of  comprehension  that  the  school  can  hope  to  do  no  more  than 
to  give  a general  conception  of  the  work  of  the  various  kinds  of  companies  and 
to  confine  the  problems  to  the  simplest  practical  cases  that  the  people  need  to 
know  about. 

Taxation : 

The  subject  of  taxation  has  a close  relationship  to  civics,  and  when  com- 
bined with  it  has  a real  interest  to  the  pupils.  It  should  be  treated  from  the 
standpoint  of  local  conditions. 

Algebraic  notation : 

Algebra  has  some  place  in  this  grade,  especially  for  the  boys  in  the  industrial 
course.  Simple  formulas  are  now  quite  common  in  the  various  mechanical 
trade  papers.  Many  of  these  boys  will  have  use  for  various  mechanics’  pocket 
tables,  which  involve  the  elementary  operations  and  linear  equations.  Em- 

1 The  committee  does  not  feel  called  upon  to  comment  upon  such  features  as  this.  It 
must  say,  however,  that  the  carrying  of  this  work  beyond  11  is  not  warranted. 


54 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


phasis  should  be  laid  upon  the  study  of  formulas,  so  that  the  simple  algebraic 
expressions  of  the  trade  journals  and  mechanics’  handbooks  may  be  read 
easily. 

RELATION  TO  MANUAL  ARTS,  HOUSEHOLD  ARTS,  AND  AGRICULTURE. 

Those  schools  that  offer  instruction  in  household  and  manual  arts  and 
agriculture  have  an  excellent  opportunity  to  relate  this  instruction  to  the  book- 
work.  A series  of  problems  vitally  relating  to  cooking,  sewing,  woodworking, 
mechanical  drawing,  and  farming  may  be  worked  out.  Such  problems  will  not 
only  touch  the  school  life  of  the  pupils  but  also  the  home  life. 

The  suggestive  outlines  showing  this  relationship  are  not  limited  to  a single 
year ; neither  are  they  necessarily  entirely  taught  by  the  teacher  of  arithmetic. 
They  furnish  a splendid  field  for  cooperative  effort  between  the  special  teachers 
and  the  room  teachers.  Each  might  well  know  what  the  other  is  doing,  and 
attempt  to  fix  in  the  pupil’s  mind  the  applications  of  arithmetic  to  school  and 
home  life. 

Portions  of  these  outlines  are  common  to  the  needs  of  both  sexes.  Certainly 
both  should  have  a knowledge  of  home  accounting.  However,  the  division  of 
hand  activities  into  home-making  courses  for  girls  and  manual  training  and 
agricultural  courses  for  boys  means  that  the  most  effective  correlation  will  be 
brought  about  by  a differentiation  of  the  arithmetic  according  to  sex  and  occu- 
pational interests. 

OUTLINE  RELATING  TO  HOUSEHOLD  ARTS. 

1.  Simple  domestic  bookkeeping,  including  daily,  monthly,  and  yearly  sup- 
plies for  the  kitchen. 

2.  Calculation  of  the  prices  of  foods  bought  in  large  or  in  small  quantities 
as  related  to  the  cost  of  meals  for  the  home. 

3.  Study  of  the  simple  measurements  as  needed  in  the  household,  including 
measurements  of  materials  used  in  food  and  clothing. 

4.  Cost  of  furnishing  a kitchen,  laundry,  dining  room,  living  room,  and  bed- 
room, with  the  expense  of  renovating  and  maintaining  them. 

5.  Relative  cost  of  different  systems  of  heating  and  lighting;  reading  a gas 
meter. 

6.  General  questions  of  maintenance  of  the  home,  including  rent,  water, 
taxes,  insurance,  and  interest  on  the  mortgage. 

OUTLINE  RELATING  TO  MANUAL  ARTS. 

1.  Adding  the  detailed  dimensions  on  the  school  sketches  and  drawings  for 
the  “ over-all  ” dimensions. 

2.  Figuring  the  cost  of  the  materials  used  in  the  article  made,  including  the 
lumber,  screws,  stain,  and  varnish. 

3.  Working  out  a more  elaborate  cost  slip  of  the  object  made;  i.  e.,  reckon- 
ing the  compensation  for  labor,  the  cost  of  power,  the  interest  on  the  money 
invested  in  the  school  shop,  etc.,  as  well  as  the  bill  for  materials. 

4.  Making  out  a bill  for  the  general  lumber  supply  of  the  school,  using  the 
actual  market  prices. 

5.  Laying  out  of  simple  geometrical  forms  in  wood ; i.  e.,  hexagonal  taboret — 
calling  attention  to  the  value  in  degrees  of  the  angles. 

6.  Proportion  as  applied  to  the  speed  of  the  wood-turning  lathe,  taking  the 
speed  of  the  motor  as  a basis. 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


55 


OUTLINE  RELATING  TO  AGRICULTURE. 

1.  Actual  measurements  by  the  class  of  small  plots  of  land,  calculating  their 
area.  Measurements  of  walls,  fences,  and  calculating  their  cost. 

2.  Measurements  of  and  calculating  the  capacity  of  tanks,  cisterns,  watering 
troughs,  silos,  storage  bins,  and  barrels.  Data  may  be  obtained  from  the  home 
equipment. 

3.  Special  computation  suited  to  farm  practice  such  as  income  from  dairy 
cows,  feed  rations,  farm  labor. 

4.  Business  forms,  such  as  inventories,  time  books,  stock  accounts,  cash  ac- 
counts, notes,  receipts. 

5.  Application  of  percentage  in  study  of  soil  composition,  ratio  and  propor- 
tion in  relation  to  animal  feeds,  practice  in  estimating  amount  of  material  for 
such  spraying;  i.  e.,  emulsions,  poisons,  and  fungicides. 

6.  List  of  materials  showing  cost  of  such  farm  buildings  as  house,  barn,  poul- 
try house,  corncrib. 

A CITY  COURSE  OF  STUDY.1 

Grade  1. 

SECOND  HALF  YEAR. 

Numbers  through  10:  counting  forward  and  backward;  relative  values  of 
numbers  which  make  10 ; writing  the  names  of  numbers  in  words  and  figures. 

Grade  2. 

FIRST  HALF  YEAR. 

All  the  work  of  this  grade  should  be  objective. 

Counting  by  tens,  fives  and  ones  to  100 ; relative  values  of  numbers  within  100. 

Numbers  through  20:  counting  by  twos,  fours  and  fives.  Counting  backward 
by  ones,  1,  and  £ of  numbers  from  1 to  20,  inclusive,  which  give  an  integer 
as  result. 

Measures  used — inch  and  foot. 

second  half  year. 

Addition  and  subtraction  of  numbers  through  14 ; multiplication  and  division 
through  20 ; writing  numbers  through  100 ; and  i of  numbers  from  1 to  20, 
giving  an  integer  as  result.  Addition  of  single  columns,  using  the  combinations 
learned. 

Measures  used:  Inch,  foot,  square  inch,  square  foot,  pint,  quart. 

Review  very  thoroughly  the  work  of  the  first  half  year.  Teach  addition  and 
subtraction  of  numbers  through  14 ; multiplication  and  division  through  20. 
Teach  signs  for  all  processes,  using  the  terms  and , less , times , contains , and 
equals. 

Simple  concrete  problems  should  be  given,  using  the  combinations  learned. 
The  order  of  presentation  should  be : 1.  Objects,  in  learning  combinations. 

2.  Concrete  examples  (oral)  with  objects  present.  3.  Representation  of  com- 
binations by  figures.  4.  Recalling  combinations  without  objects;  thorough 
memorizing  of  results.  5.  Concrete  problems  without  the  use  of  objects.  These 
problems  should  be  very  simple  and  based  upon  the  child’s  experience.  Very 
little  written  work  should  be  required  and  the  result  should  be  stated  in  a 
sentence  without  any  attempt  to  show  the  process.  Readiness  in  finding  the 

1 Prepared  for  the  schools  of  Indianapolis,  Ind.  The  course  as  here  given  is  necessarily 
much  abridged. 


56 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


result  of  the  combination  of  any  two  numbers  is  to  be  considered  of  first  im- 
portance in  this  grade,  because  this  knowledge  must  be  at  command  in  all 
succeeding  stages  of  advancement.  The  addition  of  short  columns,  using  only 
the  combinations  learned,  gives  additional  practice;  it  is  an  excellent  method 
for  review. 

Grade  3. 

FIRST  HALF  YEAR. 

Addition  and  substraction  of  numbers  through  twenty;  multiplication  and 
division  tables  through  fours ; abstract  addition,  two  columns ; writing  of  num- 
bers through  one  thousand;  Roman  notation  through  one  hundred.  Fractions, 
h b and  b 

Measures  used : Inch,  foot,  square  inch,  pint,  quart,  gallon. 

SECOND  HALF  YEAR. 

Addition  and  subtraction  by  “ endings  ” through  2+9.  The  four  funda- 
mental processes — multiplication  and  division  tables  through  fives.  Multiplica- 
tion and  division  of  abstract  numbers  through  thousands;  use  2,  3,  4,  and  5 as 
divisors.  Addition  and  subtraction  of  United  States  money.  Writing  numbers 
through  ten  thousand.  Roman  notation  through  one  hundred. 

Application  of  fundamental  processes  to  simple  concrete  problems  of  one  step. 

Measures  used:  Inch,  foot,  yard,  square  inch;  pint,  quart,  gallon;  peck, 
bushel;  second,  minute,  hour,  day,  week,  month,  year.  Use  actual  measures. 
In  connection  with  the  units  of  time,  call  attention  to  the  method  of  telling  the 
time  of  day  by  the  clock. 

Grade  4. 

FIRST  HALF  YEAR. 

Addition  and  subtraction  by  “ endings  ” through  4+9.  Multiplication  and 
division  tables  through  nines.  Multiplication  of  abstract  numbers  by  two 
digits.  Short  division,  using  for  divisors  all  numbers  below  10.  Addition,  sub- 
traction, and  multiplication  of  United  States  money.  Writing  numbers  through 
millions. 

Fractions  b 4,  and  b Aliquot  parts,  + 4,  4,  and  tV,  as  applied  to  100  only. 

Measures  as  in  Grade  3,  and  in  addition,  the  ounce  and  pound.  Use  actual 
measures. 

SECOND  HALF  YEAR. 

Addition  and  subtraction  by  “ endings  ” through  9+9.  Multiplication  by 
three  figures.  Long  division.  United  States  money,  addition,  subtraction, 
multiplication,  and  division. 

Fractions,  b b 4,  h and  4. 

Pupils  of  this  grade  should  become  accurate  and  skillful  in  addition  and 
subtraction  of  integers.  Begin  the  work  of  the  term  by  making  sure  that 
pupils  can  add  and  subtract  by  endings  unfailingly.  Subtraction  by  endings  is 
especially  likely  to  be  neglected.  Require  pupils  always  to  check  their  addition 
by  adding  the  columns  in  reverse  order.  Similarly  subtraction  should  be 
checked  by  the  reverse  process  of  addition.  Thus  13  — 9 = 4,  is  checked  by 
the  process  9 + 4 = 13.  Do  not  allow  pupils  to  indicate  “borrowing”  by 
changing  the  digits  in  the  minuend. 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


57 


At  the  beginning  of  the  term,  make  sure  that  every  pupil  has  mastered  the 
multiplication  combinations  through  the  tables  of  twelve — not  only  when  given 
in  serial  order  (9X3,  9X4,  9X5,  etc.),  but  when  selected  at  random  (9X4, 
7X9,  12X11,  etc.). 

Use  multipliers  of  not  more  than  three  figures  in  this  grade.  Introduce  zero 
into  the  multiplier  often,  as  it  is  troublesome. 

Pupils  should  always  check  multiplication  by  going  over  the  work  carefully, 
adding  the  partial  products  in  the  order  reverse  to  the  first  addition. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  pupils  will  fail  in  the  long  division  process 
as  long  as  they  have  not  mastered  multiplication  and  subtraction. 

Pupils  should  always  check  long  division  by  going  over  their  work  carefully, 
using  the  reverse  process  of  addition  for  each  subtraction. 

To  insure  mastery  of  the  division  process,  after  the  process  is  acquired  give 
a problem  each  day,  either  in  long  or  short  division,  during  the  remainder  of 
the  term. 

Mental  or  oral  arithmetic  should  be  given  daily  in  abstract  and  concrete  prob- 
lems, for  at  least  one-third  of  the  arithmetic  period. 

Grade  5. 

FIRST  HALF  YEAR. 

Review  of  essential  processes  taught  in  preceding  grades.  Long  division. 
Reduction,  addition,  subtraction,  and  division  of  fractions.  Aliquot  parts: 
l,  §,  h t,  i-  Mental  arithmetic. 

Pupils  should  be  able  automatically  to  add  and  subtract  by  endings  and  to 
use  the  multiplication  combinations  through  12  times  12,  before  beginning  the 
fractional  work.  While  the  fractional  work  is  being  developed  in  class  time, 
the  written  work  should  consist  almost  entirely  of  review  problems.  Enough 
practice  should  be  given  in  long  division  to  enable  pupils  to  use  the  process 
accurately  and  fairly  rapidly.  Insist  upon  the  use  of  short  division  where  the 
divisor  is  less  than  13. 

The  chief  difficulty  that  pupils  have  in  acquiring  the  fractional  processes  is  to 
interpret  clearly  the  unfamiliar,  and  so  perplexing  forms  and  terms  used.  The 
problem  of  the  teacher  therefore  is  to  enable  pupils  to  interpret  these  con- 
ventional symbols  into  terms  of  their  own  experience.  To  this  end  pupils 
should  first  learn  to  objectify  the  common  fractional  quantities,  halves,  thirds, 
fourths,  sixths,  eighths,  and  twelfths.  Pupils  should  compare  these  fractional 
parts  when  applied  to  actual  objects  (oranges,  apples,  sheets  of  paper,  etc.), 
and  to  representations  of  objects  by  drawings.  Drawings  should  be  used  very 
largely  for  objective  development  in  this  grade,  as  they  make  possible  a much 
wider  application  of  the  fractional  parts  than  would  be  possible  with  a few 
objects.  The  drawing,  moreover,  is  the  natural  step  between  the  object  and  the 
abstract  symbol.  Whenever  a drawing  is  used  the  child  should  think  of  it  as 
representing  some  definite  object. 

Mixed  numbers,  proper  and  improper  fractions. — Develop  these  terms  objec- 
tively by  paper  folding  or  from  drawings.  Pupils  at  first  read  a mixed  number, 
2§,  as  2 whole  and  f of  a whole.  They  should  realize  that  an  improper  frac- 
tion is  equivalent  to  a mixed  number  with  the  wholes  cut  into  the  same  sized 
parts  as  those  indicated  by  the  fraction  and  all  of  these  parts  combined. 

Reduction. — Pupils  should  now  specialize  in  the  following  processes  until 
they  are  skillful  in  the  use  of  them,  approaching  each  from  the  objective  point 
of  view. 

a.  Reduction  of  integers  and  mixed  numbers  to  fractions. 


58 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


b.  Reduction  of  improper  fractions  to  integers  or  mixed  numbers. 

c.  Reduction  of  fractions  to  higher  and  lower  terms.  The  work  in  this  last 
topic  should  be  especially  thorough,  as  addition,  subtraction,  and  division  of 
fractions  usually  involve  one  or  both  processes. 

Addition,  subtraction,  and  division  of  fractions. — Pupils  that  have  had  the 
above  preparation  will  have  no  difficulty  in  acquiring  skill  in  the  use  of  these 
processes  if  abundant  practice  be  given.  It  should  be  recognized  that  the 
business  world  seldom  deals  with  fractions  whose  denominators  are  higher 
than  16,  preferring  to  use  decimals  for  all  such  fractions.  This  should  cause 
the  teacher  to  drill  largely  upon  fractions  of  the  larger  denominations  (with 
small  denominators). 

Finding  the  least  common  denominator  (by  inspection  only)  should  be  taught. 
Denominators  too  large  for  this  method  should  not  be  used. 

SECOND  HALF  YEAR. 

Review  of  preceding  essential  processes.  Multiplication  of  fractions.  Addi- 
tion, subtraction,  and  division  of  decimals.  Aliquot  parts:  £,  $,  §,  i,  §,  &,  §, 
i,  A,  A.  Mental  arithmetic. 

Make  clear  to  pupils  that  a fraction  may  be  expressed  in  a variety  of  ways : 
(1)  Five  hundredths;  (2)  5 hundredths;  (3)  ; (4)  .05. 

The  last  way  is  called  the  decimal  form,  because  it  is  used  only  to  express 
fractions  whose  denominator  is  ten  or  a multiple  of  ten. 

At  this  point  lead  pupils  to  see  that  a fraction  has  two  meanings : 

First.  The  meaning  that  they,  as  primary  school  children,  were  taught  to 
attach  to  it — namely,  that  a fraction  expresses  a certain  number  of  equal  parts 
of  a unit. 

Second.  The  meaning  that  the  mathematician  often  attaches  to  it — namely, 
that  a fraction  is  an  expression  of  division,  in  which  the  numerator  is  the 
dividend  and  the  denominator  is  the  divisor. 


Grade  6. 

FIRST  HALF  YEAR. 

Review  of  essentials.  Multiplication  of  decimals.  Percentage,  first  case. 
Denominate  numbers  and  measurements.  Bills  and  receipts.  Mental  arith- 
metic. 

Teachers  should,  at  the  outset,  determine  which  pupils  can  not  add  and  sub- 
tract readily  and  use  the  multiplication  combinations  automatically,  and  assist 
them  to  overcome  these  fundamental  weaknesses.  The  first  two  or  three  weeks 
should  be  used  in  a thorough  review  of  the  essential  processes.  Teachers 
should,  throughout  the  term,  emphasize  the  work  in  all  the  decimal  processes 
so  that  the  pupils  may  acquire  skill  in  the  use  of  them  before  leaving  the  grade. 

In  this  grade  give  only  the  first  view  of  percentage.  For  this  reason  confine 
the  work  to  an  explanation  of  the  way  of  reading  and  writing  per  cents,  to 
teaching  the  connection  between  per  cents  and  integers,  and  to  finding  given 
per  cents  of  numbers.  Keep  the  work  simple,  using  only  whole  numbers  of 
per  cents.  For  example,  use  4%,  5%,  6%,  etc.,  but  not  4£%,  6§%,  etc.,  in  this 
grade.  Some  suggestions : 

(a)  Teach  percentage  as  a phase  of  multiplication  of  decimals. 

(&)  Teach  the  idea  of  per  cent  by  finding,  orally  and  in  writing,  hundredths 
of  given  numbers,  expressing  the  written  work  at  first  by  the  com- 
mon and  then  by  the  decimal  form  of  the  fraction.  After  the  pupils 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


59 


have  a clear  idea  of  finding  hundredths  of  a number  decimally,  give 
them  the  percentage  form  of  notation  and  expression ; i.  e.,  tell 
them  that  0.05  is  written  5%,  etc.  They  should  learn  to  associate 
hundredths  and  per  cents. 

(c)  Give  the  pupils  wide  experience  in  changing  decimals  to  per  cents 

and  per  cents  to  decimals,  using  integral  numbers  of  hundredths. 

( d ) Give  the  pupils  wide  experience  in  finding  by  the  decimal  process  a 

given  per  cent  of  a given  number.  Do  not  introduce  during  this 
term  the  difficulty  of  deciding  whether  or  not  to  use  the  common 
fraction  or  the  decimal  fraction  equivalent  of  a given  per  cent;  that 
is,  use  always  the  decimal  fractions. 

Denominate  numbers  and  measurements  should  receive  a thorough  treat- 
ment in  a practical  way  in  this  grade.  Teach  the  necessary  tables  of  denomi- 
nate numbers.  Some  of  these  tables  the  pupils  already  know,  whereas  others 
they  will  now  meet  for  the  first  time. 

(a)  The  pupils  should  memorize  thoroughly  these  tables,  excepting  that 
every  item  which  modern  business  does  not  require  the  average  man 
to  know  should  be  excluded;  more  definitely  teach  the  following 
tables:  time,  weight,  dry  measure,  liquid  measure,  linear  measure, 
square  measure,  and  cubic  measure. 

Ask  the  pupils  to  bring  to  school  bills  that  have  been  used  in  business  trans- 
actions. Talk  them  over  with  the  class,  showing  the  advantage  of  the  conven- 
tional forms  of  ruling,  heading,  receipting,  etc.  The  pupils  should  be  asked  to 
make  out  bills  first  on  blank  forms,  if  they  can  be  obtained,  afterwards  on 
paper  which  they  have  ruled  themselves.  Let  their  imagination  be  used  to 
make  these  business  transactions  represent  actual  transactions  as  far  as  pos- 
sible. Let  it  be  imagined  or  represented,  that  the  teacher  or  one  of  the  members 
of  the  class  has  sold  the  rest  of  the  class  a bill  of  goods  or  done  a piece  of  work 
for  them,  or  rented  a house  to  them.  The  resulting  bill  should  contain  the 
real  names  of  the  parties  to  the  transactions.  The  pupils  should  learn  how 
to  receipt  a bill  properly  and  also  how  to  give  a receipt  for  any  obligation; 
that  is,  an  account  settled,  rent  paid,  wages  received,  and  part-payment  receipt. 

All  processes  and  subjects  taught  in  this  grade  should  be  introduced  by  simple 
work  given  orally.  After  a principle  has  been  taught  a large  number  of  simple 
exercises  should  be  given  in  mental  arithmetic,  so  that  the  pupils  can  become 
sure  and  skillful  in  the  application  of  the  process.  Mental  arithmetic  should 
be  given  daily  for  one-third  of  the  recitation  period. 

SECOND  HALF  YEAR. 

Review  of  all  essential  processes  previously  taught,  as  follows: 

(a)  Addition  and  multiplication  combinations. 

(b)  Notation  and  numeration  of  integers,  Arabic  and  Roman;  fractions, 

common  and  decimal. 

(c)  Reduction.  Changing  denominate  numbers  to  higher  and  lower  de- 

nominations; a common  and  decimal  fraction  to  higher  and  lower 
terms ; changing  mixed  numbers  to  improper  fractions,  and  the 
reverse  process ; changing  decimals  into  common  fractions  and  com- 
mon fractions  into  decimals. 

(d)  Addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division  of  integers;  com- 

mon and  decimal  fractions ; denominate  numbers. 

( e ) The  use  of  the  common  aliquot  parts. 

Percentage. 

Measurements. 


60 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


Simple  bills,  accounts,  and  receipts. 

Mental  arithmetic. 

The  purpose  of  the  review  work  in  this  grade  is  to  establish  a strong  founda- 
tion for  future  mathematical  study  by  making  pupils  sure  and  skillful  in  the 
use  of  the  essential  processes  previously  studied,  and  by  revealing  to  them  the 
unity  of  the  subject  as  based  upon  the  two  general  underlying  principles. 

At  the  outset  the  teacher  should  make  sure  that  every  pupil  can  add  and 
subtract  accurately  and  use  the  multiplication  combinations  automatically.  All 
cases  of  “arrested  development” — such  as  counting  in  adding,  adding  instead 
of  using  the  multiplication  combinations,  and  writing  down  numbers  to  be  added 
to  the  next  higher  order  in  multiplication — should  be  earnestly  sought  out  and 
corrected.  The  teacher,  particularly  of  this  grade,  should  feel  that  unless  this 
fundamental  work  is  thoroughly  accomplished  her  work  in  arithmetic  is,  to  a 
considerable  extent,  a failure. 

Pupils  should  now  be  able  to  read  and  write  the  quantities,  appearing  under 
various  forms,  which  they  will  need  to  use.  They  will  probably  have  no 
difficulty  with  common  fractions  and  denominate  numbers,  but  they  may  need 
considerable  drill  in  integers,  Arabic  and  Roman,  and  in  decimals.  Their 
knowledge  of  the  Roman  system  will  be  used  almost  exclusively  in  connection 
with  the  numbering  of  chapters  in  books,  and  it  should  be  taught  with  this 
in  view.  Drill  only  upon  numbers  below  C. 

In  the  decimal  notation  considerable  drill  may  be  necessary  before  the  pupils 
will  readily  associate  the  name  of  the  order  with  the  number  of  decimal  places. 

Sufficient  drill  should  be  given  to  enable  pupils  to  reduce  denominate  num- 
bers to  higher  and  lower  denominations  and  to  give  them  proficiency  in  chang- 
ing fractions  to  other  fractional  forms ; common  and  decimal  fractions  to  higher 
and  lower  terms ; improper  fractions  to  mixed  numbers,  etc. 

It  should  be  the  aim  of  the  teacher  to  keep  the  percentage  work  entirely  on 
the  thought  side,  avoiding  all  formulas  or  rules.  The  work  includes  the  rela- 
tion between  common  fractions,  decimals,  and  per  cents;  the  finding  of  a given 
per  cent  of  a number ; the  finding  of  a number  when  a part  is  given ; and  the 
finding  what  part  one  number  is  of  another. 

“ Gain  and  loss  ” should  not  be  taught  as  an  independent  topic,  for  the 
problems  which  come  under  this  head  can  be  classified  with  the  three  kinds  of 
percentage  problems  mentioned  above.  If  it  is  clearly  established  with  the 
child,  by  means  of  blocks  or  by  representation  by  drawings,  that  the  selling 
price  is  always  made  up  of  the  cost  with  a part  of  itself  added  or  taken  away, 
according  as  there  has  been  a gain  or  a loss,  he  will  have  no  difficulty  with 
these  problems. 

In  connection  with  the  percentage  work,  pupils  should  acquire  facility  in  the 
use  of  the  common  aliquot  parts.  Those  that  are  easily  computed  (as  £=60%) 
should  not  be  committed  to  memory,  neither  should  those  that  are  not  commonly 
used  (as  tk=31£%).  Pupils  should  learn,  however,  to  compute  quickly  the 
decimal  equivalent  of  any  fraction,  by  expressing  the  numerator  as  a decimal 
and  dividing  by  the  denominator.  An  excellent  drill  consists  in  counting  by 
fractional  parts,  giving  at  the  same  time  the  decimal  or  per  cent  equivalents. 

In  measurements,  review  the  work  with  the  rectangle,  square,  triangle,  cube, 
distinguishing  them  from  each  other  and  associating  these  geometrical  names 
with  the  figure  already  familiar. 

The  problems  under  this  head  should  be  practical.  Require  pupils  fre- 
quently to  make  their  own  measurements  in  order  to  obtain  the  conditions  of 
the  problems  they  are  to  solve.  Illustration:  Find  the  dimensions  of  your 
schoolroom.  What  is  the  total  area  of  the  walls  and  ceiling?  How  much 
window  surface?  How  much  blackboard  surface?  Determine  the, cost  of  sod- 
ding the  yard  of  your  school  and  inclosing  the  school  yard  with  a fence. 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


61 


One  good  way  of  treating  this  topic  is  to  work  out  problems  in  connection 
with  building  and  equipping  a house  or  the  school  building.  If  a building  is 
being  erected  in  the  neighborhood,  it  should  be  used  for  this  work  in  order  that 
the  problems  may  be  real. 

In  order  to  train  pupils  to  keep  simple  accounts — an  accomplishment  that 
everyone  should  possess — teachers  are  requested  to  have  at  least  one  exercise 
a week  in  which  the  children  make  a record  of  their  income  and  expenses. 
This  exercise  need  not  occupy  an  entire  period.  Except  when  class  instruction 
is  needed,  the  records  may  be  made  before  school,  or  at  odd  times. 

The  accounts  should  be  of  actual  moneys  belonging  to  the  pupils,  if  that  is 
possible.  It  is  better  to  have  a briefer  account  and  have  it  a real  one  than  to 
fill  it  with  fanciful  transactions  or  family  transactions.  The  accounts  should 
indicate  briefly,  but  adequately,  the  sources  and  dispositions  of  income;  not 
Rec.  from  Aunt  Mary,  but  Gift  from  Aunt  Mary;  not  Paid  out,  but  Paid  for 
candy;  not  Earned,  but  Shoveling  snow,  etc.  The  headings  at  the  top  of  the 
pages  should  be  uniform  through  each  book — either  Received — Paid,  or  In- 
come— Outgo,  or  Receipts — Payments.  Balances  should  be  computed  at  the 
close  of  each  month.  These  balances  should  be  properly  brought  down  by  use 
of  red  lines,  if  possible,  and  carried  forward  to  the  next  month’s  account.  Begin 
each  month  on  two  new  pages,  with  proper  statements  of  amounts  brought  for- 
ward from  previous  month.  Have  a uniform  use  of  capitals  and  punctuation. 
Pupils  may  keep  memorandum  slips,  but  entries  in  the  account  books  should 
be  made  in  school,  with  ink,  and  accounts  should  not  be  copied.  Accounts 
through  vacations  should  be  kept  in  memorandum  form  and  entered  in  the 
books  in  school  after  vacation.  The  accounts  will  be  opened  October  1 and 
February  1 and  be  continued  through  the  6A  grade  only,  including  vacations. 
Account  books  will  be  furnished  this  grade. 

Ask  the  pupils  to  bring  to  school  bills  that  have  been  used  in  business  trans- 
actions. This  work  is  review,  and  pupils  should  become  proficient  in  making 
and  receipting  bills  of  various  sorts  that  are  used  in  the  common  business  of 
life.  Make  the  work  practical,  and  frequently  during  the  term  give  practice  in 
this  work. 

All  processes  and  subjects  taught  in  this  grade  should  be  introduced  by 
simple  work  given  orally.  After  a principle  has  been  taught  a large  number  of 
simple  problems  should  be  given  in  mental  arithmetic  exercises,  so  that  the 
pupils  may  become  sure  and  skillful  in  the  application  of  the  principle.  Mental 
arithmetic  should  be  given  daily  for  about  one-third  of  the  recitation  period. 

Grade  7. 

FIRST  HALF  YEAR. 

Review  of  essential  processes.  Applications  of  percentage  (commercial  dis- 
count, commission,  taxes,  simple  interest).  Constructional  geometry.  Mental 
arithmetic. 

First  make  sure  that  all  pupils  can  use  the  fundamental  processes  skillfully. 
If  weaknesses  are  revealed,  test  for  addition  endings  and  multiplication  com- 
binations and  follow  up  all  deficiencies  until  they  are  overcome. 

Devote  the  first  two  or  three  weeks — more  or  less,  according  to  the  class — 
to  a review  of  the  essential  processes.  It  is  only  when  a good  foundation  is 
established  in  this  review  work  that  the  best  results  in  the  advance  work  can 
be  assured. 

Do  not  allow  pupils  to  become  confused  by  the  new  terminology  found  in  the 
applications  of  percentage  to  various  kinds  of  business.  Cause  them  to  see  that 


62 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


these  involve  the  identical  principles  and  processes  which  they  used  in  their  study 
of  percentage  in  the  preceding  grades.  Keep  the  work  simple,  practical,  and 
in  accordance  with  present  business  methods.  Train  pupils  to  investigate  by 
polite  and  pointed  inquiries  the  different  kinds  of  business  studied.  The  in- 
formation thus  gained  should  be  reported  to  the  class  in  an  interesting  and 
profitable  manner. 

The  subject  of  commercial  discount  is  of  great  value  because  of  its  extensive 
use  “ from  wholesale  transactions  down  to  bargain  sales.”  Pupils  should  under- 
stand some  of  the  reasons  for  allowing  discounts.  Buying  in  large  quantities, 
paying  “ cash  down  ” or  within  a specified  time,  the  usual  deductions  from 
list  prices,  etc.  It  would  be  well,  for  obvious  reasons,  to  review  bills  and  re- 
ceipts in  connection  with  the  study  of  this  topic. 

Let  the  pupils  interview  commission  merchants  and  obtain  conditions  for 
some  practical  problems,  and,  at  the  same  time,  a social  interest  in  this  im- 
portant business.  Eliminate  all  problems  that  state  that  the  sum  of  money  sent 
includes  the  commission  and  the  price  of  the  goods  bought,  as  this  is  contrary 
to  business  practice. 

The  subject  of  taxes  should  be  treated  briefly.  It  should  be  shown  that  there 
is  expense  involved  in  conducting  the  affairs  of  a city.  To  make  this  concrete, 
use  as  an  illustration  the  fact  that  the  public  schools  are  dependent  upon  the 
taxpayers  for  their  support.  Point  out  the  necessity  of  each  citizen  paying  his 
rightful  share  of  the  public  expenses  of  government.  The  simple  mathematical 
work  in  the  subject  may  be  developed  by  the  analogy  between  levying  a city 
tax  and  taxing  the  members  of  a ball  team  to  meet  its  expenses.  The  attempt 
in  the  former  case  to  apportion  the  taxes,  according  to  the  individual’s  property, 
may  be  brought  out  by  the  contrast  in  this  respect  between  these  two  illus- 
trations of  taxation. 

Confine  the  work  in  this  grade  to  the  subject  of  municipal  taxes,  discussing 
the  subject  only  in  a simple  way.  Use  the  current  tax  rate  in  problems. 

Present  conditions  so  that  the  child  can  discover  that  interest  is  merely  a 
form  of  percentage  with  the  time  element  introduced. 

One  arithmetic  period  each  week  should  be  devoted  tc  the  geometry  work. 
The  purpose  of  the  work  is  to  teach  pupils  to  use  the  few  mechanical  drawing 
instruments  which  they  buy,  and  to  acquaint  them  with  some  of  the  essential 
fundamental  terms  and  principles  of  geometry. 

SECOND  HALF  YEAR. 

Review  of  essential  processes. 

Problems  of  the  home.  Grocery,  meat  market,  department  store  problems. 
Making  change.  Cost  of  heating  and  lighting  the  home.  Cost  of  furnishings 
for  the  home.  Other  problems  relating  to  the  cost  of  food,  heat,  light,  clothing, 
etc.,  for  the  family. 

Saving  and  investing  money.  Saving  money.  Investing  money.  Banking. 
Interest.  Real  estate.  Loans. 

Constructional  geometry. 

Mental  arithmetic. 

In  the  problems  for  the  home  this  city  provides  data  in  a pamphlet  on  com- 
munity arithmetic. 

These  problems  are  designed  to  give  drill  upon  the  essential  processes  through 
the  use  of  such  problems  as  are  met  by  individuals  in  their  daily  life.  They 
are  to  be  solved  upon  the  basis  of  current  prices  in  every  case.  For  this  reason 
it  is  important  that  the  teacher  should  get  in  advance  a list  of  the  items, 
together  with  the  current  prices.  These  problems  are  the  kind  all  of  us  as 


GENERAL  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


63 


purchasers  should  be  prepared  to  solve  mentally,  or  if  not  so,  then  in  writing 
with  very  brief  notes ; they  are  the  kind  that  salesmen  and  clerks  are  called 
upon  to  solve  in  their  daily  work.  The  problems  will  be  found  useful  for  both 
mental  drill  and  for  written  lessons. 

The  department-store  problems  are  designed  to  meet  the  criticism  of  store 
men  that  both  clerks  and  the  public  are  unskillful  in  the  solution  of  such  simple 
problems  as  occur  in  the  conduct  of  a department  store. 

Give  problems  showing  that  small  daily  and  weekly  savings  will  amount  to 
large  sums  in  time;  that  money  may  often  be  saved  by  making  cash  payments 
rather  than  paying  by  installments  or  buying  on  credit ; that  it  is  more  eco- 
nomical to  buy  in  reasonably  large  quantities;  that  the  cheapest  things  are 
sometimes  the  most  expensive  in  the  long  run. 

Consider  the  various  ways  of  investing  money : Banks  and  trust  companies ; 
real  estate;  loaning  money.  Establish  the  economic  principle  that  the  higher 
the  rate  of  interest  offered  by  an  investment,  the  greater  the  risk  involved; 
also,  that  the  element  of  safety  in  investments  is  of  far  greater  importance  than 
the  amount  of  income  from  them. 

The  bank  is  the  most  commonly  used  means  provided  for  the  safe-keeping  of 
money.  Certain  kinds  of  banks — for  instance,  savings  banks  and  trust  com- 
panies— not  only  guarantee  to  take  care  of  all  money  left  with  them  by  de- 
positors but  they  also  pay  a certain  per  cent  of  interest. 

When  practicable,  pupils  should  go  to  a bank  and  ask  some  official  to  show 
them  about  the  bank.  Report  what  you  learn  to  the  class.  Ascertain  what 
officials  there  are  in  the  bank,  and  the  duties  of  each. 

Many  schools  have  found  it  interesting  and  profitable  to  organize  school 
banks,  electing  the  officers  and  carrying  on  a regular  banking  business,  either 
with  small  amounts  of  real  money  placed  on  deposit  by  pupils  and  transferred 
by  the  teacher  to  some  bank  or  trust  company,  or  with  imitation  money,  which 
can  be  made  by  cutting  out  rectangular  pieces  of  paper  for  bills  and  circular 
pieces  for  coins,  marking  on  each  piece  its  denomination. 

Teach  the  method  of  depositing  money,  of  drawing  checks,  of  borrowing 
money,  and  of  discounting  notes. 

Not  less  than  one  arithmetic  period  a week  should  be  devoted  to  the  geometry 
work.  The  purpose  of  the  work  is  to  teach  pupils  to  use  the  few  mechanical 
drawing  instruments  which  they  buy  and  to  acquaint  them  with  some  of  the 
essential  fundamental  terms  and  principles  of  geometry. 

The  aim  of  each  exercise  should  be  clearly  stated  to  the  pupils  and  they 
should  be  led,  so  far  as  practicable,  to  think  the  successive  steps  to  the  con- 
clusion. In  other  words,  make  it  a thinking  exercise  rather  than  a mere  dic- 
tation exercise.  Encourage  pupils  to  use  their  instruments  as  much  as  possible 
in  the  mensuration  work  in  arithmetic,  in  the  art  work  and  manual  training 
work,  and  whenever  they  will  be  serviceable. 

Grade  8. 

FIRST  HALF  YEAR. 

Review  of  essentials. 

Problems  relating  to  the  industries  of  the  city  and  State.  Manufacturing 
interests  of  Indianapolis.  Manufacturing  interests  of  Indiana.  Problems  met 
in  certain  lines  of  work;  some  railroad  problems;  foundry  problems;  problems 
of  buying  and  selling  paper ; making  out  a pay  roll. 

Paying  and  collecting  money  by  checks,  drafts,  and  money  orders. 

Generalized  arithmetic  and  equations. 

1442°— 11 5 


64 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE.  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


Proportion. 

Mental  arithmetic. 

Instead  of  the  above,  the  Latin  classes  take  algebra;  however,  in  these 
classes  also,  drill  in  the  previous  arithmetic  work  so  as  to  maintain  efficiency. 

In  the  eighth  grade,  problems  relating  to  the  interests  of  the  city  are  prepared 
and  are  issued  in  pamphlet  form. 

SECOND  HALF  YEAR. 


Review  of  essentials. 

Generalized  arithmetic  and  equations. 

Stocks  and  bonds. 

Insurance — fire,  life  and  accident. 

Cost  and  support  of  our  Government.  Cost  of  city  schools.  Cost  of  city 
government.  Money  raised  by  taxes.  Money  raised  by  sale  of  bonds.  Money 
raised  by  special  assessment. 

In  treating  of  stocks  and  bonds  show  that  a great  deal  of  the  wealth  of  the 
country  is  invested  in  the  various  kinds  of  business  which  supply  our  wants 
and  minister  to  our  welfare.  Name  a number  of  the  business  enterprises  in 
or  near  your  community  which  are  owned  and  controlled  by  single  indi- 
viduals; a number  in  which  more  than  one  person  have  invested  their  money. 
Show  that  much  of  the  business  of  the  country  is  now  carried  on  by  these 
corporations — for  instance,  railroads,  trolley  systems,  and  many  of  the  large 
manufactories.  The  money  contributed  to  carry  on  these  industries  is  repre- 
sented by  bonds  or  certificates  of  stock,  which  are  bought  and  sold  like  land  or 
merchandise.  Explain  the  fluctuation  of  stocks  and  the  difference  between 
stocks  and  bonds. 

Pupils  can  find  the  market  price  of  the  more  common  stocks  and  bonds 
quoted  in  the  daily  newspapers,  and  while  studying  this  subject  they  should 
follow  these  quotations  from  day  to  day.  Explain  the  abbreviation  “ pfd.” 
(preferred),  and  the  difference  between  preferred  and  common  stock.  Most 
railroads  and  many  other  business  enterprises  issue  these  three  forms  of 
securities — bonds,  preferred  and  common  stock.  Pupils  should  study  these  dif- 
ferent forms  of  securities  as  issued  by  some  local  corporation,  as  a traction 
company  or  railroad. 

The  work  in  stocks  and  bonds  will  be  limited  to  the  finding  of  the  cost  of  a 
given  number  of  shares  of  stock  or  of  a given  number  of  bonds,  at  a given 
market  price,  and  to  the  finding  of  the  income  from  a given  number  of  shares 
of  stock  or  a given  number  of  bonds. 

Insurance  should  be  studied  for  its  informational  rather  than  its  mathemati- 
cal value.  Three  kinds  of  insurance  should  be  briefly  and  simply  discussed — 
life,  accident,  and  fire. 

Pupils  should  understand  the  underlying  principle  in  insurance;  paying  a 
relatively  small,  but  carefully  estimated  sum  of  money  to  a company  for  their 
guarantee  to  pay  a very  much  larger  sum  of  money  in  case  of  a specified  con- 
tingency. 

They  should  understand  the  following  terms : Policy,  premium ; “ straight 
life”  and  “endowment”  policies;  “good”  and  “poor”  risks. 

The  problems  in  the  cost  and  support  of  the  Government  should  be  designed 
to  maintain  and  increase  efficiency  in  the  essential  processes  of  arithmetic 
through  constant  application  and  to  convey  information  concerning  matters  of 
local  or  national  interest,  of  which  all  citizens  should  have  some  knowledge. 
This  aspect  of  the  work  is  designed  to  correlate  with  the  work  of  the  civics 
class.  The  problems  should  afford  opportunity  for  the  use  of  the  four  funda- 
mental operations  with  integers,  percentage,  and  some  of  its  applications. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  KINDERGARTEN. 


65 


SUBCOMMITTEE  2.  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  KINDERGARTEN. 

In  the  early  history  of  the  kindergarten  as  an  educational  move- 
ment, there  was  a somewhat  unanimous  opinion  current  regarding 
the  direct  mathematical  training  and  the  instructions  to  be  given  to 
the  children  through  concrete  experiences  with  Froebel’s  educational 
materials. 

The  gifts  and  occupations  (the  technical  names  given  to  Frcebel’s 
.play  materials)  form  a related  series  planned  to  meet  the  creative 
and  constructive  impulses  of  the  child,  through  activities  involving 
the  analysis  and  synthesis  of  geometric  forms.  The  gifts  begin  writh 
the  ball  (sphere),  the  cube,  and  the  cylinder,  progressing  through 
the  analysis  of  these  to  the  study  of  surfaces,  lines,  and  points.  The 
occupations  are  based  upon  such  activities  as  perforating,  sewing, 
drawing,  weaving,  the  folding  and  cutting  of  paper,  and  modeling. 
They  reverse  the  geometric  evolution,  embodying  the  synthesis  of 
form  from  the  point,  through  lines  and  surfaces,  back  to  the  solid. 

The  traditional  method  of  using  these  materials  in  the  early  history 
of  the  kindergarten  tended  toward  a much  more  direct  process  of 
instruction,  bringing  to  the  children  a consciousness  of  the  geometric 
relations  embodied  in  the  gifts  and  occupations. 

As  the  modern  primary  school  reduced  the  amount  of  conscious 
arithmetical  knowledge  and  instruction  in  the  course  of  study  for 
the  younger  children,  a parallel  movement  took  place  in  the  kinder- 
garten. As  a consequence,  the  more  direct  method  of  mathematical 
instruction,  which  the  geometric  basis  of  the  Frcebelian  materials 
made  possible,  gradually  gave  place  to  a more  indirect  approach  to 
number,  measurements,  and  geometric  relations,  through  a more  inci- 
dental, organic,  and  fundamental  emphasis  upon  these  aspects  of  the 
materials  in  the  moral  activities  of  w^ork  and  play. 

The  present  tendency  seems  to  point  toward  a valuation  of  the 
mathematical  possibilities  of  the  Froebelian  materials  as  means  to  a 
higher  end ; that  is,  as  structural,  functional,  or  organic  means  neces- 
sary to  realize  the  playful,  the  creative,  or  constructive  impulses  of 
the  child  through  which  these  mathematical  values  may  begin  to  come 
to  consciousness. 

The  fact  that  the  Froebelian  gifts  and  occupations  are  based,  upon 
a geometric  analysis  and  synthesis  of  form,  need  not  reduce  or  inter- 
fere with  their  creative  and  playful  opportunities,  except  in  the  hands 
of  a kindergartner  who  clings  to  the  formal  use  of  them  as  a means 
of  direct  mathematical  instruction.  On  the  other  hand,  the  very  fact 
that  their  structure  and  use  involve  such  unconscious  activities  as 
counting,  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division,  some 
consciousness  of  these  mental  processes  and  their  results  will  grad- 


66 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


ually  come  to  the  child  whether  the  teacher  emphasizes  or  ignores 
them. 

The  very  nature  of  the  material  familiarizes  the  child,  through 
playful  concrete  experiences,  with  the  mental  processes  involved  in 
the  solution  of  problems  in  fractions  and  all  the  elementary  activities 
of  mathematics  which  may  be  brought  to  consciousness  later  through 
the  more  direct  methods  of  instruction  in  the  elementary  school.  To 
what  degree  the  mathematical  values  involved  in  these  playful  activ- 
ities should  be  brought  to  consciousness  at  the  kindergarten  period, 
is  still  under  discussion,  with  much  less  decided  differences  of  opin- 
ion than  would  have  been  apparent  five  or  ten  years  ago. 

While  the  structural  and'  functional  use  of  the  activities  of  count- 
ing, measuring,  adding,  subtracting,  and  dividing  seems  to  be  on  the 
increase,  there  is  an  equally  evident  growth  in  the  appreciating  of 
the  fact  that  they  must  not  be  left  to  chance  experience  without  due 
attention  to  ways  and  means  for  providing  opportunities  for  further 
progress.  In  other  words,  there  is  a decided  feeling  that  in  mathe- 
matical experiences,  as  with  all  others  in  the  kindergarten,  the  teacher 
must  provide  conditions  which  insure  steady  progress  from  the  sim- 
ple to  the  more  complex,  from  the  unconscious  activities  involving 
mathematical  values  to  the  more  conscious  abstraction  of  these,  and 
to  a continuous  growth  in  the  appreciation  and  control  of  the  mathe- 
matical possibilities  which  are  normal  to  the  child  at  this  period. 

As  a knowledge  of  mathematics  in  some  form  underlies  all  indus- 
trial activities  of  mankind  and  in  the  foundation  of  all  true  propor- 
tion in  the  art  world,  the  kindergarten  brings  the  child  to  a gradual 
consciousness  of  numerical  and  geometric  relations,  the  former  by 
such  features  as  simple  counting,  measuring,  and  adding,  as  his  work 
and  play  may  demand,  and  the  latter  by  the  use  of  the  geometric  gifts 
and  not  by  abstract  exercises.  In  this  way  the  younger  children 
get  arithmetical  and  geometric  impressions  incidentally,  and  the  older 
children  come  into  a more  definite  knowledge  of  mathematical  rela- 
tions, and  thus  begin  an  intelligent  mastery  of  the  material  world. 

The  kindergarten  which  represents  the  progressive  school  makes 
no  attempt  to  teach  mathematics  in  a formal  or  direct  way,  since  the 
child  of  kindergarten  age  is  not  interested  in  and  can  not  grasp  any- 
thing so  abstract  as  number  or  geometric  form  apart  from  the  use  he 
may  need  to  make  of  each  in  carrying  on  his  play  activities  success- 
fully. But  in  his  experimenting  and  play  with  different  materials 
he  discovers  certain  facts  in  regard  to  number  and  special  relations ; 
for  example,  that  if  he  uses  four  of  his  eight  building  blocks  to  make 
a square  table,  he  has  four  left  to  use  as  chairs.  Later  he  will  make 
use  of  the  knowledge  thus  gained,  and  will  acquire  further  knowl- 
edge of  the  same  sort  in  his  efforts  to  carry  out  his  ideas  and  pur- 
poses. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  KINDERGARTEN. 


67 


Often  the  hand  work  requires  the  division  of  material  into  halves, 
quarters,  etc.,  or  some  material  needs  to  be  measured  and  cut  to  fit. 
Through  such  experiences  the  child  acquires  a working  knowledge  of 
certain  satisfactory  methods  of  dividing  and  measuring  material. 
Furthermore,  he  becomes  familiar  with  a number  of  geometric  solids 
through  using  them  in  building,  and  he  learns  to  select  the  kind  that 
will  best  express  his  idea.  The  same  is  true  of  his  work  with  paper 
cut  in  the  form  of  squares,  circles,  and  triangles.  The  games  some- 
times call  for  the  grouping  of  children  in  threes  or  fours,  and  there 
are  many  occasions  when  counting  is  advantageous.  The  child  in  the 
kindergarten  thus  gains  considerable  knowledge  which  may  be  termed 
mathematical.  Such  knowledge  comes  at  first  incidentally  and  un- 
consciously through  play,  and  later  as  the  result  of  conscious  efforts 
to  reach  ends  which  appeal  to  him  as  valuable. 

After  due  investigation  an  effort  was  made  by  this  committee  to 
arrive  at  some  conclusion  regarding  the  amount  of  mathematical 
knowledge  which  kindergarten  children  could  acquire,  without  direct 
instruction,  through  the  normal  activities  of  work  and  play.  As  a 
result  the  committee  has  agreed  upon  the  following : 

(1)  Ability  to  count  up  to  35  or  40  can  be  secured  through  the 
children’s  helping  to  keep  the  daily  record  of  attendance. 

(2)  Ability  to  know  and  name  correctly  the  sphere,  cube,  and  cylin- 
der, and  the  most  characteristic  surface  forms  such  as  circles,  squares, 
rectangles,  and  the  right  triangles. 

(3)  Ability  to  know  groups  of  objects  up  to  five  or  six. 

(4)  Ability  to  know,  construct,  and  use  intelligently  halves,  thirds, 
and  quarters,  by  the  help  of  blocks  and  the  kindergarten  occupations. 

(5)  Ability  to  add,  subtract,  divide,  and  multiply  small  numbers 
through  constructive  play.  For  example:  (a)  2+2,  2+3,  2+4,  3+3, 
3+4,  4+4,  5+5;  (b)  2X2,  2X+  2X4.  (c)  4-2,  6-3,  8-4. 

As  to  method,  the  committee  calls  attention  to  the  following  points : 

(a)  The  concreteness  of  the  work. 

(b)  The  work  is  functional  and  structural,  as  means  to  an  end, 
through  the  activities  of  work  and  play. 

(c)  Knowledge  is  acquired  through  self-active  experience. 

( d ) In  an  incidental  but  not  accidental  fashion,  as  a result  of 
definitely  planning  the  experiences  which  involve  steady  progress  in 
the  use  and  control  of  mathematical  facts,  the  child  comes  to  realize 
ends  that  are  of  worth  and  interest. 

That  a better  knowledge  of  the  child  is  leading  to  a greater  una- 
nimity of  opinion  is  quite  evident  from  this  report,  since  it  is  pre- 
pared by  members  who  were  selected  because  they  were  supposed  to 
represent  widely  different  points  of  view  that  obtained  a few  years 
since. 


68 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE,  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


SUBCOMMITTEE  3.  MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES 
ONE  TO  SIX. 

I.  INTRODUCTION. 

As  four  definite  topics  were  assigned  the  committee,  it  was  agreed 
to  divide  them  among  the  four  members  other  than  the  chairman,  so 
that  each  could  do  intensive  work  on  one  topic.  The  chairman 
was  thus  left  the  task  of  checking  each  by  doing  extensive  work  in  all 
the  fields  designated.  The  topics  were  consequently  assigned  as 
follows : 

Topic  a. — The  organization  of  schools  and  the  general  relation  of  each  kind 
of  school  to  the  others. — Miss  Julia  Martin,  Howard  University,  Washington, 
D.  C. 

Topic  b. — The  mathematical  curriculum  in  each  type  of  school. — Miss  Harriet 
Peet,  State  Normal  School,  Salem,  Mass. 

Topic  c. — The  question  of  examinations  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
school. — Dr.  C.  W.  Stone,  State  Normal  School,  Farmville,  Ya. 

Topic  d. — The  methods  employed  in  teaching  mathematics. — Prof.  Henry 
Suzzallo,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York  City. 

The  reports  on  these  topics  naturally  overlap  in  certain  investi- 
gations. As  originally  prepared  they  contained  numerous  graphs 
and  statistical  tables,  embodying  many  scientific  data,  and  only  the 
exigencies  of  publication  prevent  their  appearing  in  complete  form. 
All  have  necessarily  been  condensed  for  present  publication. 

The  chairman  gathered  her  data  in  narrower  fields,  but  in  the  same 
way  as  did  her  colleagues,  namely,  by — 

(1)  Personal  conferences  during  eight  months  with  hundreds  of  teachers, 
met  at  institutes  and  in  conventions,  at  teachers’  meetings  and  study  clubs. 
(2)  Correspondence  with  teacher  friends  in  almost  every  section  of  the  United 
States.  (3)  Study  of  text  books  and  manuals  in  mathematics,  published  dur- 
ing every  decade  since  1860.  (4)  Study  of  methods  in  mathematics  as  given 

in  all  forms  of  pedagogical  writings  during  the  last  50  years.  (5)  Ex- 
amination of  courses  of  study  issued  by  four  State  departments,  five  State 
normal  schools,  six  city  systems,  and  five  private  schools.  (6)  Testing  several 
fifth  grades  in  one  city  by  means  of  Dr.  Stone’s  “standardized  tests.”  (7)  A 
careful  study  of  examination  questions  issued  by  teachers,  superintendents, 
and  State  departments.  (8)  A questionnaire  given  to  about  300  normal-school 
students. 

The  questionnaire  was  formulated  to  secure  evidence  on  topics  £>,  cy 
and  d.  Plainly,  during  the  last  10  to  15  years  (when  the  students 
questioned  were  in  grades  one  to  six)  arithmetic  grew  yearly  a more 
vital  part  of  the  course  of  study,  being  “ the  subject  most  empha- 
sized,” being  most  often  “ the  subject  governing  promotion,”  and 
being  the  subject  in  which  the  majority  of  the  so-called  “ brightest  ” 
pupils  “ excelled.” 

The  course  of  study  as  recalled  limits  the  fundamental  operations 
applied  to  both  integers  and  fractions,  leaving  all  “ extras  ” to  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades.  One  interesting  fact  was  the  great  uni- 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


69 


formity  in  distribution  of  arithmetic  topics ; the  students  questioned 
had  had  their  early  training  in  at  least  10  different  States,  and  in  no 
less  than  100  different  schools. 

On  the  question  of  examination  over  87  per  cent  had  to  take  ex- 
aminations, the  majority  taking  them  either  monthly  or  semi- 
annually. In  general  the  examination  counted  for  one-third  to 
one-half  of  a pupil’s  promotion  average.  Eighty-two  per  cent  ob- 
jected to  examinations,  usually  because  the  student  was  “ nervous,” 
u worried,”  “ afraid,”  or  filled  with  “ dread,”  but  occasionally  because 
the  test  seemed  unfair  or  caused  cheating. 

These  same  students  imagine  (in  a few  cases  only  they  “know”) 
that  only  78  per  cent  of  the  teachers  favored  examinations,  fully  one- 
third  of  this  number  favoring  them  only  because  “ it  was  a duty  to 
be  met.”  At  least  22  per  cent  of  teachers  are  thought  to  object  to 
examinations. 

The  questionnaire  gave  little  help  on  the  question  of  change  in 
methods,  since  students  were  plainly  influenced  by  very  recent  work, 
or  else  could  not  write  out  the  explanations  they  had  once  had. 
Ratio  work  was  evidently  little  understood,  students  almost  in- 
variably using  one  as  the  only  basis  of  comparison.  If  they  had 
ratio  work  since  they  left  the  intermediate  grades,  it  must  have  ap- 
peared so  difficult  that  they  think  young  pupils  should  still  be  taught 
the  to  them  easier  or  simpler  way  of  returning  to  one  each  time. 

The  chairman  made  her  report  in  full  before  the  individual  re- 
ports were  received  (or,  at  any  rate,  opened),  so  that  the  unanimity 
of  opinion  as  to  present  conditions  and  marked  tendencies  in  the 
teaching  of  mathematics  displayed  in  the  five  separate  reports  pre- 
pared at  great  distance  from  one  another,  based  upon  different 
sources  of  information,  and  frequently  overlapping,  gives  one  con- 
fidence in  the  validity  of  the  results  indicated. 

In  recasting  the  whole  for  publication,  extra  effort  was  given  to 
eliminating  whatever  did  not  bear  directly  upon  the  topic  of  mathe- 
matics as  taught  in  grades  one  to  six  of  the  general  elementary 
schools,  public  and  private. 

TOPIC  A:  THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  THE  GENERAL  RELATION  OF 
EACH  KIND  OF  SCHOOL  TO  THE  OTHERS. 

A fair  degree  of  uniformity  marks  the  organization  of  schools  in 
the  different  States  of  the  Union,  only  such  variations  being  notice- 
able as  would  naturally  come  from  difference  in  (a)  age  of  the 
settled  territory,  (h)  density  of  population,  and  ( c ) inherited  ideals. 

First,  we  note  two  large  classes  of  schools,  public  and  private. 
The  first  group  naturally  divides  again  into  three  subdivisions, 
namely — 

(a)  Those  found  in  rural  communities,  and  called  66  ungraded 
schools,”  “ country  schools,”  “ rural  schools,”  “ district  schools,”  or 


70 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


“ parish  schools,”  according  to  the  locality  and  the  educational  sys- 
tem. As  rural  communities  increase  their  wealth,  their  ambition  for 
educational  advantages,  and  their  interest  in  educational  problems, 
new  forms  of  these  rural  schools  come  into  existence,  called  “ semi- 
graded  schools,”  “consolidated  district  schools,”  “township  high 
schools,”  etc. 

(b)  So-called  “graded  schools,”  found  in  smaller  as  well  as  in 
large  cities.  Such  a city  system  usually  consists  of  an  “ elementary 
school  ” — eight  years  of  work,  divided  into  primary,  including  kin- 
dergarten if  given,  intermediate,  and  grammar  grades — and  a “ sec- 
ondary school  ” or  “ high  school.” 

( c ) Those  schools  which  the  State  or  Government  at  large  sup- 
ports, the  only  ones  of  these  which  include  grades  one  to  six  being 
(1)  schools  for  abnormal  and  indigent  children  and  (2)  elementary 
schools  in  connection  with  normal  schools  and  with  such  State  uni- 
versities as  have  a department  of  education  and  maintain  a “ prac- 
tice school.” 

The  relationship  between  these  subclasses  of  public  schools  is  very 
slight,  rural  schools  being  largely  autocratic,  in  spite  of  existing 
school  boards  and  county  superintendents,  wdiereas  graded  systems,  also 
(nominally)  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  county  superintendent,  are 
in  smaller  cities  much  more  democratic,  though  perhaps  plutocratic 
in  large  cities  where  specialists  supervise  the  work,  while  schools  of 
the  third  class  might,  in  a similar  way,  be  denominated  as  bureau- 
cratic. Of  course,  schools  for  defectives,  incorrigibles,  etc.,  do  not 
pretend  to  employ  the  same  materials  of  education  nor  the  same 
standards  of  scholarship  as  do  the  other  classes  of  schools.  Theo- 
retically, if  not  actually,  normal  school  and  university  “ model 
schools  ” establish  the  standards  for  their  State.  They  are  organized 
to  further  a threefold  function:  (1)  “Model”  instruction  for  pupils 
attending,  (2)  opportunities  for  practice  in  teaching  by  the  students 
of  the  main  school,  and  (3)  opportunities  for  testing  out  theories 
of  education  by  professors  of  the  different  departments.  Different 
schools  may  emphasize  one  or  the  other  of  these  functions,  but  the 
three  are  still  ever  present.  Because  of  the  relationship  between  these 
functions,  the  curricula,  the  grading  or  organization,  and  the  methods 
of  instruction  employed  in  a normal  school,  for  example,  are  usually 
submitted  to  the  faculty  for  discussion,  so  that  the  result  represents 
a “ cabinet  ” conclusion,  and  therefore  is  authoritative ; usually, 
though  not  always,  being  adopted  by  other  schools  of  the  State. 

Specialists  who  supervise  the  work  in  large  cities  have  not  the 
help  of  such  discussions  and  must  grow  somewhat  autocratic  in  the 
selection  of  subject  matter  and  of  method,  the  system  being  too  large 
for  them  to  get  the  expression  of  teachers  in  the  same  way  that  a 
superintendent  may  in  a smaller  city  where  all  of  the  teachers  know 
ali  the  phases  of  work  and  so  feel  freer  to  express  their  opinions. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


71 


The  rural  school  is  organized  with  one  teacher  for  all  grades  and 
for  all  subjects,  with  many  classes  to  be  heard  daily  and  with  long 
periods  between  recitations  for  each  individual  pupil.  The  county 
superintendent,  with  large  territory  to  cover  and  with  bad  roads  and 
inclement  weather  to  work  against,  sees  the  teacher  very  seldom;  the 
directors  are  inclined  to  visit  the  school  still  less  frequently  than  does 
the  county  superintendent ; so  that  the  rural  teacher  is  truly  absolute 
monarch  in  his  dominion,  and,  if  he  profits  by  his  own  mistakes, 
there  is  no  better  training  for  any  teacher  than  just  this  independent 
battling  with  the  problems  of  the  professions. 

A glance  at  the  second  class  of  schools,  those  not  supported  by 
public  funds,  reveals  very  few  schools  which  contain  grades  one  to 
six.  In  the  United  States  comparatively  few  parents  send  either 
boys  or  or  girls  away  from  home  to  school  before  they  are  12  or 
14  years  of  age,  so  that  most  preparatory  departments  in  acade- 
mies, colleges,  etc.,  begin  with  work  ranking  in  difficulty  with  that 
done  somewhere  from  the  sixth  to  the  eighth  grade.  Some  technical 
schools,  trade  and  night  schools,  a few  philanthropic  schools  like 
those  of  the  Educational  Alliance  in  New  York  and  Hull  House  in 
Chicago,  and  some  private  schools  like  the  Lower  Shattuck  (Fari- 
bault, Minn.),  and  the  Horace  Mann  and  Ethical  Culture  Schools  of 
New  York  City,  contain  all  the  lower  grades  and  deserve  our  study,  but 
as  these  schools  usually  form  no  part  of  a “ system,”  each,  stands  alone 
in  its  organization,  and  consequently  in  its  curriculum,  both  being 
largely  based  upon  the  aim  which  actuated  the  founding  of  the  school. 

TOPIC  B:  THE  MATHEMATICAL  CURRICULUM  IN  EACH  TYPE  OF  SCHOOL. 

Rural  schools  have  the  reputation  of  doing  a greater  amount  of 
mathematics  in  grades  one  to  six  than  other  classes  of  schools,  and 
though  the  studies  made  for  this  paper  gave  no  proof  of  this,  it  may 
well  be  true,  for  such  a result  would  be  the  natural  outgrowth  of  (1) 
the  old-time  emphasis  upon  mathematics  as  a test  of  u brightness ; ” 
(2)  the  consequent  selection  of  teachers  (the  “ brightest  ” students  of 
a community)  good  in  mathematics,  so  that  they  probably  taught 
this  science  better  than  they  did  other  subjects,  or,  if  not,  they  at 
least  continued  the  emphasis  upon  it;  and  (3)  the  organization  of  the 
rural  school,  with  its  one  teacher,  many  classes,  and  much  necessary 
seat  work  or  independent  study.  Since  assignments  in  mathematics 
could  be  easily  made  and  most  easily  corrected,  since  to  have  “ ciphered 
through  the  book  ” was  a mark  of  distinction,  and  since  pupils  who 
had  any  ambition  to  attain  this  distinction  could  thus  be  kept  “ in 
order”  for  long  periods,  mathematics  came  to  form  a major  part  of 
the  curriculum  of  the  rural  school.  Prof.  W.  S.  Smiley’s  statement 1 
that  rural  pupils  are  superior  to  urban  pupils  is  of  interest  here,  even 


1 Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  vol.  1,  no.  9. 


1 2 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


though  it  deals  with  eighth-grade  pupils,  and  probably  contains  some 
error  in  comparisons. 

The  graded  school,  with  the  necessity  for  meeting  the  wider  and 
more  varied  interests  of  the  city,  naturally  feels  that  other  subjects 
must  be  given  equal  prominence  with  mathematics.  The  organiza- 
tion of  the  work  usually  permits  one  teacher  to  have  a single  grade, 
with  two  or  at  most  three  divisions  in  a room,  so  that  long  study 
periods  are  unnecessary.  These  two'  influences  tend  to  make  mathe- 
matics less  prominent  in  city  systems  than  in  the  rural  districts. 
Changes  in  method,  usually  first  adopted  by  city  systems,  also  con- 
tribute to  changes  in  the  mathematical  curriculum,  so  that  we  usually 
find  graded-school  curricula  placing  mathematical  topics  from  one  to 
two  years  farther  up  the  grades  than  do  rural  schools.  One  influence 
that  has  been  strongly  felt  in  this  postponement  of  difficult  subject 
matter  is  that  of  the  kindergarten,  comparatively  recently  made  a 
part  of  public  primary  education,  it  having  begun  as  an  independent 
factor.  Before  this,  the  tendency  had  been  to  push  subjects  lower 
and  lower  into  the  grades  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  secondary  school 
which  in  turn  was  dictated  to  by  college  and  university.  Out  of  the 
conflict  which  naturally  ensued  there  has  arisen  much  earnest  thought 
and  discussion  over  the  mathematical  curriculum  of  the  common 
school,  no  decision  as  yet  being  reached.  Nevertheless,  through 
examination  of  courses  of  study  and  through  the  returns  from  some 
questions  propounded  to  normal-school  students,  it  appears  that 
within  a small  range  of  variation  the  schools  of  the  United  States 
have  fallen  into  a fairly  uniform  course  of  study  in  arithmetic. 

A study  of  textbooks  in  common  use  shows  a very  marked  change 
throughout  the  course  in  the  sort  of  problems  given  as  means  of 
applying  these  fundamental  operations.  The  latest  and  best  arith- 
metics choose  material  closely  related  to  daily  life,  so  that  children 
can  not  fail  to  feel  a greater  and  more  reasonable  need  of  the  me- 
chanics of  mathematics — a more  “ rational  motivation  ” for  the  sub- 
ject than  pupils  of  the  past  could  ever  have  felt. 

TOPIC  C:  THE  OUESTION  OF  EXAMINATIONS  FROM  THE  POINT  OF  VIEW  OF 

THE  SCHOOL. 

The  writer’s  report  on  this  topic  is  less  valuable  than  on  the  others, 
because  (1)  the  topic  seemed  difficult  of  interpretation,  (2)  the  ques- 
tionnaire given  failed  to  limit  the  question  to  examinations  in  mathe- 
matics, and  (3)  the  student’s  answers  about  time  spent,  etc.,  proved 
unusable. 

To  get  the  view  of  “the  school  ” it  was  decided  that  one  must  know 
(1)  the  view  of  teachers,  both  from  their  own  and  their  pupils’  stand- 
points, and  (2)  the  view  of  superintendent  and  supervisors  whenever 
such  view  proved  more  representative  of  the  “ school’s  ” attitude  than 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


73 


did  the  feeling  of  the  teachers.  Finally,  the  report  is  based  upon  very 
limited  resources,  viz:  (a)  The  study  of  a few  books  or  chapters 
dealing  with  the  reasons  for  giving  examinations,  (b)  an  inspection 
of  some  examination  questions  given  by  different  schools  and  State 
departments  of  education,  ( c ) the  giving  of  Dr.  C.  W.  Stone’s  tests 
to  a number  of  classes,  and  ( d ) such  general  information  as  a teacher 
naturally  acquires  during  several  years’  experience. 

Even  to  the  present  time  examinations  have  been  ranked  most 
highly,  but  for  different  reasons  by  different  schools.  Some  feel 
that  the  value  lies  in  the  mark  obtained  by  the  pupil,  this  mark  being 
made  a definite  test  of  his  ability,  and  upon  it  depending  very  largely 
his  rank  in  class  and  his  readiness  for  promotion.  This  belief  causes 
great  stress  to  be  laid  on  “ finals.”  Others  deem  the  practice  in  or- 
ganizing quickly,  in  thinking  clearly,  and  in  expressing  accurately  to 
be  the  main  value  of  examinations.  This  theory  tends  to  the  use 
of  monthly  or  biweekly  examinations.  Still  other  schools  find  the 
worth  of  examinations  to  lie  not  in  a benefit  to  the  pupils  (save  in- 
directly), but  to  the  teacher,  giving  her,  as  they  do,  opportunities  to 
check  objectively  her  subjective  ranking  of  pupils  and  of  class  prog- 
ress. In  this  case,  the  examination  papers  are  never  returned  to 
pupils,  the  teacher  merely  noting  errors  on  which  to  work  with  both 
class  and  individuals.  Yet  other  schools  stand  strongly  for  more  or 
less  frequent  examinations,  because  of  the  chance  this  gives  the  su- 
perintendent to  check  the  results  obtained  by  different  teachers,  and 
to  locate  the  cause  of  any  unusual  divergence  from  the  norm, 
whether  the  cause  lie  in  the  teacher,  in  the  pupil  body,  or  in  the 
course  of  study.  Other  reasons  are  advanced,  but  these  are  sufficient 
to  illustrate  their  variance. 

The  present  attitude  and  seeming  future  tendency  concerning  ex- 
aminations is  to  rank  them  as  valuable,  but  to  let  the  value,  and  the 
consequent  use  made  of  the  papers,  be  controlled  wholly  by  the  aim. 
The  benefit  to  the  pupils  arises  largely  through  practice  (1)  in  sepa- 
rating essentials  from  nonessentials;  (2)  in  clarifying  a viewpoint 
through  the  enforced  expression  of  it,  or  perhaps  through  its  defense; 
(3)  in  learning  to  interpret  the  printed  or  written  page  independently, 
i.  e.,  without  the  teacher’s  voice  or  eye  or  gesture  to  guide;  or  (4) 
in  merely  being  tested  upon  memorized  facts,  which,  though  not  the 
most  vital  thing  in  education,  are  yet  the  basis  for  all  comparing, 
relating,  and  judging  that  are  to  follow.  With  this  aim  the  tests 
should  be  frequent,  should  be  carefully  looked  over  by  the  teacher, 
and  very  soon  thereafter  should  be  made  the  basis  of  further  class  or 
individual  instruction. 

One  proof  that  the  first  three  forms  of  practice  are  growing  in  im- 
portance to  teachers  is  found  in  the  very  different  sorts  of  questions 
asked  to-day  from  those  of  a decade  or  more  ago.  The  earlier  purely 


74 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


memoriter  questions  are  giving  place  to  those  which  require  old 
knowledge,  not  as  isolated  bits,  but  as  knowledge  to  be  utilized  in  new 
situations,  to  be  marshaled  quickly  at  will,  and  arranged  logically, 
i.  e.,  to  questions  which  demand  thought,  judgment,  choice,  defense  of 
opinion,  etc. 

Those  tests,  examinations,  or  parts  of  examinations  whose  purpose 
is  to  help  the  teacher  check  her  judgment  of  pupils  and  test  the  por- 
tions of  subject  matter  taught  as  to  their  relative  value  in  giving  the 
pupil  ideals  of  and  practice  in  persistence,  honesty,  independent 
thought-power,  etc.,  need  not  be  returned  to  the  pupils.  Though  the 
teacher  seems  by  this  means  to  be  saved  considerable  labor  in  check- 
ing errors,  attempting  to  grade  each  paper  justly,  etc.,  the  con- 
scientious teacher  has  still  the  task  of  noting  errors  and  classifying 
them  in  various  ways;  for  example,  errors  due  to  ignorance  or  to 
carelessness ; those  relatively  important  or  unimportant ; class  or  indi- 
vidual errors;  errors  to  be  immediately  dealt  with  or  those  which 
may  better  be  handled  each  time  an  opportunity  offers  and  so  must 
be  kept  constantly  in  mind. 

Were  the  correcting  not  so  burdensome,  many  teachers  would  in- 
crease rather  than  decrease  the  frequency  of  examinations,  especially 
if  the  time  could  be  set  and  the  questions  made  out  by  the  teachers 
themselves.  The  greatest  complaint  about  examinations  comes  from 
teachers  who  feel  strongly  that  questions  made  out  by  any  other  per- 
son than  the  teacher  of  the  children  tend  to  become  of  the  mechanical 
or  memoriter  type.  Particularly  is  this  resented  when  questions  have 
so  become,  and  when  no  latitude  is  given  either  pupils  or  teachers, 
i.  e.,  when  no  account  (in  a large  system)  is  taken  of  the  personal 
equation,  and  when  teachers  and  pupils  are  measured  by  these  tests 
alone.  As  superintendents  and  supervisors  make  broader  studies  in 
these  fields,  they  recognize  the  need  of  allowing  for  individual  differ- 
ences and  the  cause  of  the  above  complaint  is  fast  disappearing. 
Without  doubt  a movement  in  the  right  direction  is  being  made  by 
Dr.  Stone  and  others  who  are  working  out  standardized  tests,  and 
it  is  hoped  that  this  work  will  continue,  being  constantly  improved 
and  made  more  far-reaching  in  its  effect.  That  superintendents  find 
the  returns  as  valuable  in  checking  up  their  teachers  as  teachers  do 
in  checking  up  their  pupils  must  be  recognized  by  all. 

To  summarize,  then,  little  change  is  seen  in  the  value  placed  upon 
examinations;  but  marked  changes  are  occurring  in  the  type  of  the 
questions.  The  formal,  lengthy,  memoriter  type  which  counted  much 
in  promotion  and  class  ranking  is  rapidly  changing  to  the  type  which 
is  only  another  means  of  teaching,  another  form  of  recitation,  a test 
similar  to  that  which  life  daily  demands  of  us,  viz,  to  know  some 
things  perfectly,  to  relate  these  things  to  new  situations,  and  thus 
quickly  to  solve  new  problems. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


75 


TOPIC  D:  THE  METHODS  EMPLOYED  IN  TEACHING  MATHEMATICS. 

In  no  other  field  under  discussion  can  tendencies  be  more  clearly 
noted  than  in  this  one  of  methods.  Though  many  methods  are  still 
in  use,  there  has  been  within  a decade  a most  decided  veering  from 
mechanical  rule-of-thumb  methods  to  thought  methods. 

The  present  chaotic  state  of  our  methods  in  mathematics  seems 
due  to  a number  of  causes,  some  of  which  are  (1)  the  various  views 
of  what  number  is;  (2)  difference  of  opinion  as  to  what  shall  be 
selected  from  the  whole  field  to  be  taught  in  grades  1 to  6 of  the 
elementary  school;  (3)  the  bondage  we  are  in  to  past  ideals;  (4)  the 
inertia  of  the  school  itself  or  the  slowness  with  which  a great  institu- 
tion like  the  school  changes;  (5)  recent  marked  progress  in  the  indus- 
trial world,  demanding  different  life  preparation  of  elementary 
school  graduates;  (6)  social  progress;  and  (7),  though  by  no  means 
least,  the  great  demand  for  teachers,  a demand  so  urgent  that  we 
press  into  service  vast  numbers  of  immature  girls  who,  though  earnest 
and  zealous,  yet  lack  that  higher  and  broader  professional  training 
spoken  of  by  Miinsterberg  which  makes  a teacher  see  the  aims  of 
education  and  know  well  the  means  available  for  meeting  these  aims. 

The  many  methods  which  these  causes  produce  may,  after  all,  be 
classed  into  two  main  divisions — mechanical  and  thought — though 
it  is  true  that  most  methods  are  a decided  mixture  of  the  two. 

By  mechanical  methods  we  mean  such  as  emphasize  the  symbol, 
the  form,  the  expression,  to  the  subordination,  or  even  exclusion,  of 
the  thought,  the  content,  the  meaning.  In  direct  opposition  to  this, 
thought  methods,  while  not  ignoring  expression,  lay  greatest  stress 
upon  meaning. 

Though  the  various  views  of  what  number  is  give  a very  different 
content  to  the  number  symbols  in  common  use — that  is,  2 may  mean 
how  many,  how  much,  location  in  a series,  the  ratio  of  one  mag- 
nitude to  another,  etc.,  according  to  the  individual’s  view  of  the  essen- 
tials of  the  number  idea — yet,  thought  methods  ever  give  this  content 
first  place,  whereas  mechanical  methods  center  about  the  symbol.  It 
is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  the  human  mind  tends  to  make  auto- 
matic, mechanical,  or  formal  whatever  it  can.  That  symbols,  then, 
incline  to  supersede  meaning  is  due  to  very  natural  causes:  (1)  All 
must  admit  ( a ) that  conventionalized  symbols  are  needed  to  insure 
race  progress,  (b)  that  the  higher  the  degree  of  conventionality  the 
further  is  the  symbol  removed  from  its  meaning,  and,  consequently, 
( c ) that  with  this  greater  conventionality  there  is  increased  danger 
that  the  child  may  never  get  the  meaning,  that  the  symbols  will  grow 
to  have  undue  importance  to  him  so  that  he  may,  indeed,  become  a 
mere  juggler  with  figures;  and  (2)  if  it  is  admitted  that  even  any 
part  of  the  science  of  number  deals  not  with  things  but  with  rela- 
tions of  things,  it  must  readily  be  seen  what  difficulty  children  have 


76 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


in  giving  symbols  any  real  content.  Therefore  has  the  teaching  of 
the  past,  in  a more  or  less  conscious  effort  to  meet  children’s  needs, 
vacillated  from  too  abstract  teaching  to  teaching  so  concrete  as  to 
hide  relations,  or,  in  other  words,  from  no  attempt  to  make  children 
understand,  from  avoiding  content  and  giving  rules  and  form  to  be 
mechanically  learned,  to  such  profuse  and  such  long  continued  use 
of  objects  in  trying  to  give  a content  to  number  that  thinking  has 
been  retarded. 

But  that,  in  spite  of  our  keeping  away  from  either  extreme,  there 
is  still  an  inevitable  tendency  among  pupils  to  become  formal  even 
in  what  seems  real  thought  work  was  proved  satisfactorily  to  a 
group  of  observers  who  gave  Dr.  C.  W.  Stone’s  tests  to  one  class  of 
pupils,  and,  a month  later,  gave  the  same  children  the  thought-test 
problems  which  they  had  not  done,  at  the  blackboard  where  work 
could  be  watched  and  where  there  was  a chance  to  question  the  pupils. 
We  were  convinced  that  many  of  what  seemed  like  thought  processes 
really  went  off  mechanically  when  the  cue  was  at  hand.  Additional 
problems  were  given  to  the  children,  among  them,  this:  A man 
hitches  up  a horse  to  a buggy  and  drives  three  hours  at  the  rate  of 
six  miles  an  hour.  How  much  farther  would  he  have  gone  if  he  had 
hitched  up  two  horses  ? All  but  one  child  doubled  the  distance.  This 
child  thought  “ no  farther.”  Questioning  this  one  child  brought  out 
from  the  others  that  the  two  horses  would  help  one  another  so  that 
some  more  distance  would  be  covered,  but  certainly  not  double  the 
distance.  Another  problem  tried  with  many  more  individuals  was 
the  following  (changed,  in  different  cases,  to  sheep  or  dog  on  two  or 
on  four  legs)  : If  a duck  weighs  three  pounds  when  it  is  standing  on 
one  leg,  what  does  it  weigh  when  standing  on  two?  It  is  the  excep- 
tion to  receive  any  other  answer  than  twice  the  original  number  of 
pounds. 

Though  this  remarked  tendency  to  cast  even  the  thinking  into 
habitual  forms  must  be  watched  throughout  the  early  years  of  school 
life,  it  yet  must  be  agreed  that  life  demands  that  we  learn  many 
processes  automatically.  The  error  of  the  past  was  that  these 
processes  were  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  the  teaching.  A more 
thorough  study  of  method  in  all  fields  shows  us  that  men  have  ever 
passed  through  three  stages  in  the  development  of  any  field : 

(1)  Simple  or  natural  art,  or  mere  manner  of  doing  the  deed; 

(2)  conscious  attention  to  the  method,  running  into  science;  and 

(3)  art  again,  finished  art  this  time. 

Methods  which  are  predominantly  thought  methods  plan  (1)  that 
pupils  begin  with  content  (having  first  felt  some  sensible  reason  for 
approaching  the  subject)  ; (2)  that  they  then  pass  to  a use  of  symbols, 
to  be  handled  automatically  when  expediency  demands  it,  employing 
a particular  form  of  expression  only  because  that  form  best  expresses 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


77 


the  thought  held;  (3)  that  pupils  are  encouraged  in  flexibility  of 
expression  as  well  as  of  thinking,  the  former,  however,  always  being 
controlled  by  the  latter;  and  (4)  that  pupils  are  given  many  oppor- 
tunities to  exercise  choice  and  judgment  in  applying  the  knowledge 
gained  to  life  situations. 

Games,  plays,  and  construction  work  are  some  of  the  means  em- 
ployed by  many  grade  teachers  to  give  content  to,  or  else  a rational 
motive  for,  many  phases  of  number  work,  e.  g.,  number  combinations, 
United  States  money,  and  fraction  study. 

During  the  current  year  the  writer  has  witnessed  the  teaching  of 
some  arithmetic  lessons  dealing  with  (1)  finding  areas,  perimeters, 
etc.;  (2)  subtraction;  (3)  areas  of  triangles ; (4)  fractions;  (5)  com- 
mercial discount;  (6)  interest;  and  (7)  insurance.  The  methods 
employed  were  mainly  thought  methods,  for  each  time  such  an 
appeal  was  made  to  pupils’  acquaintance  with  life  situations  as  to 
make  the  plan  in  common  use  a most  sensible  one  to  the  child,  a 
plan  he  might  even  think  out  by  himself,  and  never  have  given  to 
him  as  a rule  to  be  learned.  The  symbols  or  forms  of  expression 
grew  from  the  children’s  hunting  the  best  expression  to  say  what 
they  thought,  and  though  they  were  plainly  guided  into  adopting 
conventional  modes  of  expression,  the  pressure  was  ever  from  the 
thought  side. 

Modern  psychology,  which  emphasizes  the  formative  as  well  as 
the  revealing  function  of  expression,  enables  us  to  select  our  methods 
of  procedure  as  well  as  our  mathematical  curriculum  with  much  more 
reason  than  did  our  predecessors  in  education.  Though  in  the  main 
content  should  precede  form,  there  will  ever  be  found  situations  which 
demand  form  before  content,  or  if  not  before  content,  at  least  without 
content  at  the  time  of  use.  When  thought  methods  are  in  the  main 
employed  in  the  presentation  of  such  work  the  teacher  is  first  sure 
that  she  has  the  content  herself,  then  she  presents  the  process  in  a 
way  to  make  pupils  recognize  its  rationality,  even  though  they  can 
not  and  perhaps  should  not  be  asked  to  explain ; drill  follows,  and  yet. 
demands  on  thinking  are  made  throughout  ; applications  continue 
the  thought  work,  but  the  wise  teacher  patiently  waits  for  maturity 
to  bring  full  interpretation.  (Long  multiplication  might  be  cited 
as  an  illustration  of  such  work.) 

Finally,  methods  of  teaching  arithmetic,  besides  depending  upon 
the  subject  matter  chosen  by  makers  of  the  curriculum,  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  aim  of  teaching  mathematics  held  by  the  teacher,  the  school, 
or  the  community — whether  the  end  of  it  all  is  technical  skill  for 
utility  or  economic  purposes,  whether  it  is  formal  discipline  or  cul- 
ture, whether  it  is  to  interpret  the  quantitative  side  of  life  experi- 
ences, or  whether  it  is  a union  of  all  these  aims.  Furthermore,  the 
still  more  specific  method  selected  for  each  recitation  in  mathematics 


78 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


is  determined  by  the  narrow  result  desired  or  the  means  at  hand  for 
realizing  this  end,  and  hence  often  is,  or  may  be,  (1)  objective,  con- 
crete, and  rationally  motivated,  if  a new  topic  is  to  be  developed;  (2) 
abstract  and  mechanical,  if  drill  or  mere  repetition  is  the  object;  and 
(3)  objective  again,  and  full  of  original  thought  work,  when  appli- 
cation is  the  motive. 

In  conclusion,  then,  it  appears  that  (1)  the  aims  of  teaching  mathe- 
matics, the  selection  of  subject  matter,  and  the  methods  employed 
are  constantly  acting  and  reacting  upon  one  another,  so  that  a study 
of  all  is  necessary  to  an  understanding  of  one;  (2)  that  topics  in 
arithmetic  for  grades  one  to  six  are  being  rationally  motivated,  and 
processes  are  being  steadily  rationalized  to  the  child;  and  (3)  that 
thought  methods  are  gaining  ground. 

II.  THE  ORGANIZATION  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  THE  GENERAL  RELATION 
OF  EACH  KIND  OF  SCHOOL  TO  THE  OTHERS. 

A.  EXTERNAL  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL. 

The  present  organization  of  the  elementary  school  is  very  difficult 
to  describe,  because  of  the  many  factors  that  have  contributed  to  its 
upbuilding  and  the  great  variation  that  exists.  We  have  no  central 
school  organization  in  the  United  States;  each  State  is  supreme  in 
educational  matters.  The  work  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cation is  advisory,  instructive,  and  inspirational.  It  collects  and 
publishes  statistics  in  regard  to  educational  matters  at  home  and 
abroad ; it  publishes  many  fine  articles  and  documents ; but  its  greatest 
power  lies  in  the  way  it  unifies  and  shapes  the  educational  thought  of 
the  country.  School  legislation  is  in  the  hands  of  the  lawmaking  body 
of  each  State,  and  the  executive  authority  is  vested  in  a State  depart- 
ment. The  officers  of  the  State  department  are  State  superintendent 
and  State  board  of  education.  The  duties  of  the  State  superintendent 
vary  in  the  different  States,  but  in  general,  he  has  charge  of  the 
certification  of  teachers,  State  institute  department,  collection  of 
statistics,  the  making  of  a course  of  study  for  the  rural  schools,  pub- 
lishing of  bulletins  on  teaching,  publishing  of  an  annual  report  in 
regard  to  the  work  of  the  schools,  and  the  apportioning  of  school 
funds  of  the  State.  In  the  States  where  the  office  of  State  superin- 
tendent has  been  dignified  by  giving  it  large  opportunities  and 
supreme  authority  in  carrying  out  school  matters  the  position  is 
one  of  great  honor  and  the  educational  affairs  of  those  States  are 
on  a high  plane. 

The  State  board  of  education  varies  in  its  powers  and  functions. 
In  some  of  the  States  it  has  entire  charge  of  the  normal-school  system 
(Michigan,  Illinois,  Massachusetts,  and  Connecticut),  while  in  others 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


79 


its  duties  are  conducting  examinations  and  certificating  teachers 
(California  and  Kansas).  In  the  States  where  the  board  is  made  up 
of  educators  rather  than  politicians  the  influence  is  marked. 

The  political  division  of  the  State  is  the  county,  and  the  educational 
organization  has  the  same  unit.  The  county  officers  and  the  county 
organization  vary  sectionally.  In  the  South  the  county  is  the  smallest 
political  unit,  while  in  the  North  the  county  is  divided  into  towns  or 
townships,  and  in  most  States  the  townships  are  divided  into  school 
districts.  The  reason  for  this  difference  is  historical  and  industrial. 
The  southern  colonies  had  the  county  unit  probably  because  of  the 
method  of  holding  land.  The  large  plantations  gave  a thin  and 
scattered  population,  and  thus  a large  area  was  necessary  for  a unit 
of  government.  Elementary  education  in  the  southern  colonies  was 
largely  in  the  hands  of  private  schools,  and  not  until  after  the  War 
of  1861  did  State  organization  of  school  systems  become  universal. 
The  county  following  the  political  division  is  generally  the  unit  of 
school  organization  at  the  South.  Louisiana  calls  the  county  the 
parish. 

The  county  school  organization  is  in  the  hands  of  a county 
superintendent  or  county  commissioners  and  a county  board,  some- 
times called  board  of  examiners,  in  all  of  the  States  except  those  of 
New  England.  The  office  of  county  superintendent  is  generally  an 
elective  one,1  and  the  duties  vary  from  mere  clerical  work  to  real 
supervision  of  school  organization  and  classroom  teaching.  “ The 
county  superintendent  of  schools  shall  have  the  general  superintend- 
ence of  the  public  schools  in  his  county,  except  those  in  the  cities  which 
are  organized  under  special  law  and  those  in  special  or  independent 
school  districts,  and  shall  visit  each  public  school  under  his  supervi- 
sion. He  shall  at  such  visits  carefully  observe  the  conditions  of  the 
school,  the  mental  and  moral  instruction  given,  the  methods  of  teach- 
ing employed  by  the  teacher,  the  teacher’s  ability,  and  the  progress  of 
the  pupils.  He  shall  advise  and  direct  the  teacher  in  regard  to  the 
instruction,  classification,  government,  and  discipline  of  the  school 
and  the  course  of  study.  He  shall  keep  a record  of  such  visits,  and 
by  memoranda  indicate  his  judgment  of  the  teacher’s  ability  to  teach 
and  govern,  and  the  condition  and  progress  of  the  school,  which 
shall  be  open  to  inspection  by  any  school  director,”  2 etc. 

The  county  board  of  education  in  many  States  together  with  the 
county  superintendent  has  charge  of  the  examination  of  teachers  for 
county  certificates. 

1 Exceptions  : Pennsylvania,  township  trustees  elect  county  superintendent.  New  Jersey, 
Mississippi,  Virginia,  State  board  of  education  appoints  county  superintendent.  Delaware, 
Florida,  governor  appoints  county  superintendent.  Alabama,  State  superintendent  ap- 
points county  superintendent.  North  Carolina,  county  board  of  education,  clerk  of 
supreme  court,  register  of  deeds  appoint  county  superintendent. 

2 General  school  law  of  North  Dakota,  1909. 

1442°— 11 


-6 


80  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE.  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

In  the  South,  where  the  county  is  the  educational  unit,  the  duties 
of  the  executive  officers  are  quite  different.  The  county  organization 
of  schools  in  Kentucky  is  quite  typical,  and  is  as  follows : “ Each  and 
every  county  in  this  Commonwealth  shall  compose  one  school  dis- 
trict * * * and  shall  be  confided  to  the  control  of  a county  board 

of  education.  The  county  superintendent  of  schools,  county  judge, 
and  county  attorney  of  each  county  of  the  Commonwealth  is  hereby 
created  a commission  to  divide  their  respective  counties  into  four  dis- 
tricts as  nearly  equal  in  area  as  is  practicable.  * * * Each  edu- 

cational district  elects,  at  its  regular  November  election,  one  member 
of  the  county  board  of  education.  These  four  members,  together 
with  the  county  superintendent,  comprise  the  board  of  education, 
and  have  entire  charge  of  the  schools  of  the  county.”1 

“ The  township  organization  of  schools  is  but  a merger  of  districts, 
with  practically  the  same  rights  and  privileges  as  were  invested  in 
each  of  the  original  districts.  The  officers  are  chosen  at  the  annual 
town  meetings  by  all  the  electors,  or,  as  is  sometimes  the  case,  the 
township  is  the  unit  of  school  government  and  the  schools  are  made 
uniform  throughout  its  extent.  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont, 
Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  and  Indiana  have  a compulsory  township 
organization  by  legislative  enactment.  In  at  least  21  other  States 
there  is  permissive  legislation.”  2 

The  district  is  the  smallest  unit  of  organization  and  is  found  in 
some  form  or  other  in  a large  number  of  the  States.  This  unit  grew 
up  in  New  England.  The  Puritan’s  spirit  of  determination  to  pro- 
vide education  for  his  children  and  the  inconvenience  of  sending 
pupils  a long  distance  to  school,  gave  us  the  district  schoolhouse  in 
each  settlement.  The  families  sending  their  children  to  the  school 
constituted  the  school  district.  Its  size  was  a matter  of  convenience. 
When  the  New  Englanders  migrated  to  the  West  they  took  their 
school  unit  with  them,  making  it  more  definite  in  organization  and 
more  suitable  to  the  land  holdings  in  size.  The  district  to-day  is  a 
definite  division  of  the  township  and  is  presided  over  by  three 
officers  elected  by  the  voters  of  the  district  at  an  annual  meeting. 
The  annual  school  meeting  is  the  most  perfect  democracy  we  have,  as 
it  elects  its  own  officers,  fixes  the  sum  of  money  to  be  raised,  and  votes 
the  number  of  months  of  excess  of  the  school  year  prescribed  by  law. 
The  term  of  school  office  is  generally  three  years,  and  the  officers 
have  power  to  employ  teachers,  handle  the  funds  of  the  district,  and 
provide  for  the  care  of  all  school  property. 

The  great  industrial  changes  in  this  country,  the  large  movement 
of  the  rural  population  to  the  cities,  and  the  settling  of  large  numbers 
of  the  foreign  immigrants  in  the  cities,  have  made  the  district  orgnni- 


1 General  school  law  of  Kentucky,  1008. 

2 History  of  education  in  the  United  States  , Dexter. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


81 


zation  in  many  regions  unsuitable.  The  large  number  of  district 
schools  with  less  than  ten  pupils  has  meant  great  expense,  poor 
facilities  for  work,  and  unsupervised  teaching.  The  State  superin- 
tendents are  urging  upon  the  people  the  reorganization  of  the  district 
and  the  consolidation  of  weak  districts.  The  township  unit  is 
probably  the  unit  of  the  future.  Massachusetts  solved  this  problem 
as  early  as  1882,  and  the  other  New  England  States  have  followed 
her  example.  “The  school  district  in  all  towns  in  the  state  are 
abolished.  * * * Every  town  shall  choose  by  ballot  at  its  annual 

meeting  a superintending  school  committee  of  three.  The  manage- 
ment of  the  schools  and  the  custody  and  care  shall  devolve  upon  the 
school  committee,  which  shall  annually  elect  a superintendent  of 
schools,  who  shall  not  be  a member  of  the  committee.”1  This  law 
does  not  apply  to  towns  authorized  to  control  school  matters  accord- 
ing to  special  conditions  as  in  large  cities.  The  Maine  system  is  quite 
typical  of  township  organization  derived  from  the  district  organiza- 
tion. “ The  school  committee  of  two  or  more  towns  having  under 
their  care  and  custody  an  aggregate  of  not  less  than  20  or  more  than 
50  schools  may  unite  in  the  employment  of  a superintendent  of 
schools,  provided  they  have  been  so  authorized  by  a vote  of  their  own 
towns  at  a regular  town  meeting  or  a special  town  meeting  organized 
for  that  purpose.” 2 

Every  State  has  made  special  laws  for  the  organization  of  city 
schools,  and  in  many  cases  special  charters  have  been  given  certain 
cities  to  meet  unusual  conditions.  The  city  unit  is  usually  a collec- 
tion of  districts.  It  is  governed  by  a board  of  education  and  a super- 
intendent. Other  than  this  there  is  little  uniformity  of  organization. 
The  city  boards  of  education  vary  in  number  from  3 members  to  84, 
but  a very  common  number  is  9.  The  superintendent  is  elected  by 
the  board  of  education  and  is  its  executive  in  all  matters  pertaining 
to  the  workings  of  the  school. 

B.  INTERNAL  ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL. 

The  term  elementary  school  has  various  meanings.  In  the  Eastern 
States  it  refers  to  the  first  nine  school  years  or  grades ; in  the  South 
it  usually  means  seven  grades;  and  in  the  North  and  West  eight 
grades.  These  grades  or  years  are  usually  divided  into  four  primary 
grades  and  four  grammar  grades.  There  are,  however,  other  organi- 
zations, as  in  Tennessee,  where  the  grades  are  defined  by  law,  as 
follows : 

The  course  of  study  in  the  primary  school  shall  consist  of  five  grades  and 
the  course  of  study  in  the  secondary  school  shall  consist  of  eight  grades. 


1 Laws  of  Maine  relating  to  publie  schools,  1909. 

2 Report  of  public  instruction.  New  Hampshire,  1908.* 


82 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


* * * Pupils  completing  the  first-year  grades  and  attaining  proficiency 

therein  shall  receive  a certificate  from  the  State  superintendent  certifying  that 
the  holder  has  completed  the  primary-school  course,  which  shall  be  counter- 
signed by  the  county  superintendent  and  district  directors  and  the  teacher  or 
teachers  of  the  school,  and  shall  entitle  the  holder  to  enter  the  sixth  grade  of 
the  secondary  school  of  any  school  district,  or  of  the  high  school  of  any  high- 
school  district.  The  county  high  schools  shall  be  graded  by  the  board  of  edu- 
cation under  the  general  regulation  of  the  State  superintendent  and  super- 
vision of  the  county  superintendent,  beginning  with  the  sixth  grade,  shall  be 
adjusted  for  the  admission  of  pupils  who  have  completed  the  five  grades  of  the 
primary  schools.1 

The  coordination  of  the  elementary  school  with  the  secondary 
school  has  been  perfected  in  many  States  by  a county  or  State  leav- 
ing examination.  This  examination  is  given  by  the  county  board  of 
education  and  all  papers  are  rated  by  the  county  board.  The  exami- 
nations are  the  same  throughout  the  county.  A pupil  receiving  an 
elementary-school  diploma  of  this  character  is  allowed  to  enter  any 
high  school  of  the  State  without  further  examination.  In  California 
the  lav/  is  as  follows: 

The  courses  of  study  for  the  day  elementary  schools  of  California  shall  em- 
brace eight  years  of  instruction  * * * except  in  city  school  districts  having 
boards  of  education,  the  county  or  city  and  county  board  of  education  shall 
provide  for  the  conferring  of  diplomas  of  graduation  by  examination  upon  the 
pupils  who  have  satisfactorily  completed  the  course  of  study  provided  for  the 
day  and  evening  schools  of  the  country  or  city  and  country.2 

The  States  that  have  provided  for  the  coordination  of  the  elemen- 
tary school  with  the  high  have  raised  their  rural  schools  to  a higher 
plane.  The  teachers  who  do  not  succeed  in  preparing  their  last 
classes  for  these  county  examinations  soon  find  that  there  are  no 
schools  needing  their  services.  Many  schools  look  forward  to  the 
elementary-school  graduation  with  as  much  pleasure  as  to  the  high- 
school  graduation. 

Some  of  our  best  educators  are  recommending  a six-year  ele- 
mentary school  period,  to  be  followed  by  a six-year  secondary 
school.  This  plan  has  many  arguments  in  its  favor.  The  pupil  at 
the  close  of  the  sixth  grade  should  be  between  12  and  13  years  of  age. 
Those  that  are  under  grade  average  about  14.  The  under-grade  pu- 
pils are  in  general  the  ones  who  leave  school  as  soon  as  the  age  limit 
of  compulsory  education  is  reached.  Nearly  all  of  the  States  make 
the  age  limit  14  years.  It  would  be  an  incentive  to  good  work  and 
regular  attendance  for  the  pupil  to  feel  that  graduation  'and  a di- 
ploma are  within  his  reach.  From  12  to  14  there  is  a marked  change 
in  the  ability  of  pupils  to  think  and  to  grasp  the  meaning  of  prob- 
lems. The  teacher  who  is  a specialist  in  his  line  of  work  appeals  to 
the  pupil.  This  is  shown  in  the  marked  success  of  the  departmental 
plan  for  the  grammar  grades.  Looking  toward  a six-year  high  school 


1 Public  school  law  of  Tennessee,  1909. 

2 School  laws  of  California,  1909. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  G. 


83 


a number  of  our  schools  already  have  a seven-grade  elementary  school 
and  a five-year  high  school.  The  Horace  Mann  School  of  New  York 
City  finds  the  latter  an  admirable  scheme  of  organization. 

C.  EFFECT  OF  THE  ABOVE  UPON  THE  TEACHING  OF  ARITHMETIC. 

This  report  is  particularly  interested  in  the  effects  of  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  schools  upon  the  teaching  of  arithmetic.  “ There  is  not 
complete  agreement  among  teachers  as  to  the  extent  and  character  of 
the  number  work  of  the  first  school  year.” 1 All  schools,  rural  and  vil- 
lage, agree  in  general  as  to  the  amount  of  arithmetic  to  be  covered  in 
the  grades,  but  the  grade  where  formal  arithmetic  should  begin,  the 
way  arithmetic  should  be  taught  to  the  young  child,  and  the  grade 
where  arithmetic  should  be  completed,  are  unsettled.  “ For  the  first 
half  year  the  work  should  be  mainly  oral  and  largely  incidental  to 
other  school  exercises,  especially  to  the  construction  work.”  1 

u There  should  be  no  formal  number  work  in  this  grade.  In  con- 
nection with  the  general  oral  lessons  and  occupation  work  many  facts 
concerning  the  simpler  number  relations  are  informally  presented 
and  acquired.”  2 

“ Arithmetic  grows  out  of  other  school  exercises  and  is  applied  in 
problems  of  construction.”  3 

“ In  grade  one  the  children  repeatedly  discover  numerical  rela- 
tions through  counting.  In  grade  two  numerical  relations  are  further 
revealed  through  work  with  measures.  Grade  three  is  a year  of  drill 
in  number  facts,  the  teacher  resorting  to  the  use  of  measures  only 
when  necessary.  Grades  four,  five,  and  six  are  drill  years  in  the  pro- 
cesses and  operations,  with  an  increasing  amount  of  applied  arith- 
metic. In  grades  seven  and  eight  pupils  should  increase  in  facility 
through  abstract  drill  and  in  power  to  reason  through  applied  arith- 
metic.” 4 

In  the  course  of  study  prepared  for  the  rural  schools  of  Michigan 
the  entire  work  of  the  first  four  grades  is  oral,  and  the  work  of  the 
first  two  places  the  emphasis  on  sense  training.  In  the  course  of 
study  prepared  for  the  District  of  Columbia  the  first  year  is  given 
to  sense  training.  In  the  schools  of  San  Francisco  all  of  the  work 
of  the  first  grade  is  oral.  It  includes  counting,  addition,  and  sub- 
traction, with  nine  as  the  limiting  number.  In  the  training  school 
of  the  Michigan  State  Normal  College  the  first  year  of  the  arithmetic 
course  is  devoted  to  sense  training.  “ Not  to  put  arithmetic  as  a topic 
in  the  first  grade  is  to  make  sure  that  it  will  not  be  seriously  or 
systematically  taught  in  nine-tenths  of  the  schools  of  the  country. 

1 Course  of  study  for  the  common  schools  of  Illinois,  1907. 

2 Course  of  study,  Denver  public  schools. 

3 Course  of  study,  Cleveland  public  schools. 

* Course  of  study,  Boston  public  schools. 


84 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


The  average  teacher,  not  in  the  cities  merely,  but  throughout  the  coun- 
try generally,  will  simply  touch  upon  it  in  the  most  perfunctory  way. 
Whatever  of  scientific  statistics  we  have  show  that  this  is  true  and 
that  children  so  taught  are  not,  when  they  enter  the  intermediate 
grades,  as  well  prepared  in  arithmetic  as  those  who  have  studied  the 
subject  from  the  first  grade  on. 

“ F urthermore,  while  it  is  true  that  the  essential  part  of  arithmetic 
can  be  taught  in  about  three  years,  it  can  not  for  psychological  rea- 
sons be  as  well  retained  if  taught  for  only  a short  period.  The  in- 
dividual needs  prolonged  experience  with  number  facts  to  impress 
them  thoroughly  on  the  mind.”  1 

In  regard  to  the  completion  of  arithmetic  there  are  three  positions 
taken : First,  that  arithmetic  should  continue  through  the  eight  grades ; 
second,  that  arithmetic  should  be  completed  in  the  seventh  grade  and 
algebra  or  geometry  given  in  the  eighth  grade;  and  third,  the  simul- 
taneous teaching  of  arithmetic  and  algebra  or  geometry  in  the  eighth 
grade.  The  majority  of  schools  teach  arithmetic  through  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades  but  introduce  the  use  of  the  equation  in  the  fifth 
grade  and  give  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  some  descriptive 
geometry  in  connection  with  mensuration.  This  course  seems  to 
make  the  necessary  preparation  for  high  school  work. 

D.  ELEMENTARY  PRIVATE  SCHOOLS. 

The  private  elementary  schools  are  few  in  number.  They  are  gen- 
erally organized  in  connection  with  the  private  secondary  schools  as 
the  elementary  department.  The  private  schools  of  the  country  are 
largely  located  in  the  East  and  South.  Their  purpose  determines  the 
organization  and  course  of  study.  “ The  school  aims  to  offer  educa- 
tional facilities  fully  abreast  of  the  changing  conditions  of  modern 
life;  to  retain  those  features  of  scholastic  work  that  experience  has 
stamped  as  sound  and  effective;  to  inaugurate  promptly  such  plans 
as  local  conditions  may  require.”  2 “ The  purpose  of  the  school  is  to 
maintain  a high  order  of  training — mental,  moral,  and  physical — to 
both  boys  and  girls  of  the  primary,  intermediate,  and  high  school 
grades.3 4 

“ The  object  of  the  school  is  to  give  thorough  preparation  for  col- 
leges and  universities  and  at  the  same  time  to  give  instruction  in 
those  branches  of  an  English  education  necessary  to  success  in  the 
ordinary  pursuits  of  life.”  i 

“ The  formation  of  character  and  not  the  acquisition  of  knowledge 
as  an  end  in  itself  is  the  chief  purpose  of  the  school — a purpose 

1 David  Eugene  Smith  : The  teaching  of  arithmetic.  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity Press. 

2 Friends  School,  Baltimore,  Md. 

3 Friends  School,  Washington,  D.  C. 

4 University  School,  Montgomery,  Ala. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


85 


which  the  home  and  school  should  pursue  together,  in  close  coopera- 
tion with  each  other.”1 

“ The  title  4 University  School  ’ partly  explains  itself,  for  the 
school’s  first  aim  is  to  thoroughly  prepare  boys  for  college  work. 
The  second  particular  purpose  of  the  school  is  physical  and  moral 
development  in  connection  with  mental  work.”  2 

44  The  end  set  up  is  a social,  an  ethical  one.  The  means  taken  to 
attain  this  aim  are:  First,  the  inculcation  of  the  democratic  spirit. 
* * * Children  of  the  rich  and  poor  and  of  different  nationalities 

and  races  are  to  meet  together  and  learn  to  respect  one  another,  both 
in  their  work  and  their  play;  secondly,  the  awakening  of  serious 
intellectual  interests  and  enthusiasms  in  order  to  counterbalance  the 
pleasure-loving  and  self-indulgent  tendencies;  third,  the  awaken- 
ing of  the  spirit  of  social  service  by  enlisting  the  interest  of  the 
students  in  the  work  of  settlements  and  neighborhood  houses  with 
which  the  school  is  in  touch;  fourth,  the  building  up  of  a largely 
humanitarian  and  ideal  purpose  toward  which  all  lines  converge.”  3 

And  thus  to  give  the  aim  and  organization  of  the  private  school  is 
to  write  all  the  individual  means  of  carrying  out  the  various  aims. 
In  general,  the  organization  and  course  of  study  are  the  same  as  in  the 
public  elementary  school.  In  place  of  emphasis  each  school  shows 
its  own  individuality  in  carrying  out  the  purpose  for  which  it  was 
organized.  The  variation  in  amount  of  arithmetic  taught  and  time 
given  is  quite  similar  to  that  of  the  public  school. 

m.  THE  MATHEMATICAL  CURRICULUM  IN  EACH  TYPE  OF  SCHOOL. 

Information  concerning  the  course  of  study  for  the  first  six  years 
of  the  elementary  schools  was  obtained  from  the  replies  to  a question- 
naire sent  to  all  States  and  leading  cities  and  from  an  examination 
of  a large  number  of  printed  courses  of  study. 

Of  the  48  States  and  Territories  to  which  questionnaires  were  sent, 
40  were  heard  from  either  directly  through  the  State  superintendent 
or  from  a representative  city  within  the  State.  The  eight  from  whom 
no  replies  came  were  in  all  cases  States  of  small  population.  Of  the 
25  largest  cities,  24  replied ; of  the  50  largest,  37  replied.  The  total 
number  of  cities  heard  from  was  52.  The  total  number  of  question- 
naires sent  out  was  200 ; the  number  of  usable  replies,  90. 

The  replies  from  the  leading  private  schools  were  limited  and,  as 
far  as  they  could  be  interpreted,  differed  but  little  from  those  of  the 
public  schools.  The  replies  from  the  State  superintendents  were 
inadequate  owing  to  the  impossibility  of  making  generalizations 
upon  the  work  of  a State  where  there  is  of  necessity,  with  few  excep- 


1 Francis  W.  Parker  School,  Chicago,  111. 

2 University  School,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

3 Ethical  Culture  School,  New  York  City. 


86 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


lions,  great  variability  in  the  courses  of  study.  The  most  valuable 
replies  were  those  from  the  leading  cities  of  the  country.  A statis- 
tical report  was  therefore  made  from  these.  The  52  city  school 
systems  which  formed  the  basis  for  the  work  represented  in  the 
aggregate  2,480,000  pupils.  Every  section  of  the  country  was  repre- 
sented, but  the  most  densely  populated  States,  such  as  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  and  Massachusetts,  were  proportionately  largely 
represented. 

The  questionnaire  was  in  three  sections.  The  first  section  asked 
for  the  means  employed  to  broaden  the  scope  of  arithmetic,  the  second 
for  means  used  to  narrow  the  field,  and  the  third  asked  for  specific 
information  as  to  the  time  the  study  of  number  was  commenced  and 
the  year  in  which  different  arithmetical  topics  were  studied. 

The  questions  as  to  the  means  employed  to  broaden  the  scope  were : 
(1)  Are  geometric  forms  studied?  (2)  Are  the  equation  and  a lit- 
eral notation  used  in  the  solution  of  problems?  (3)  Is  the  applica- 
tion of  number  to  manual  training  emphasized  ? To  geography  and 
nature  study?  To  practical  affairs?  (4)  What  other  means  are 
used  to  broaden  the  scope  of  arithmetic  ? 

In  reply  to  the  question  as  to  the  means  used  to  broaden  the  scope 
of  arithmetic  through  the  study  of  geometric  forms  72  per  cent  of 
the  school  systems  replied  in  the  affirmative,  23  per  cent  were  in 
a qualified  affirmative,  such  as  “somewhat,”  “ a little,”  making  a 
total  affirmative  of  95  per  cent  and  a total  negative  of  5 per  cent. 
The  questions  on  the  equation  and  literal  notation  were,  it  was  evi- 
dent, understood  to  include  seventh  and  eighth  grades  instead  of  the 
grades  within  the  limits  of  the  investigation.  The  replies,  although 
of  little  value  for  this  report,  were  as  follows:  Affirmative  for  the 
use  of  the  equation,  51  per  cent;  qualified  affirmative,  36  per  cent; 
negative,  13  per  cent;  affirmative  for  the  use  of  a literal  notation,  9 
per  cent;  qualified  affirmative,  50  per  cent  (all  labeled  for  seventh 
and  eighth  grades)  ; negative,  41  per  cent.  In  reply  to  the  question 
on  the  application  of  number  (1)  to  manual  training,  50  per  cent 
of  the  school  systems  replied  in  the  affirmative;  35  per  cent  with  a 
qualified  affirmative  “ somewhat,”  making  a total  affirmative  of  85 
per  cent  and  a negative  of  15  per  cent;  (2)  to  geography  and  nature 
study,  affirmative,  50  per  cent;  qualified  affirmative,  18  per  cent; 
total  affirmative,  68  per  cent;  negative,  32  per  cent;  (3)  to  practical 
affairs,  affirmative,  95  per  cent ; negative,  5 per  cent.  Typical  replies 
to  the  fourth  question  as  to  other  means  used  to  broaden  the  scope 
of  arithmetic  were:  “ Our  tendency  is  to  concrete  work  in  all  grades 
in  terms  of  a child’s  experience ; ” “ Data  for  exercises  taken  from 
actual  measurements  and  actual  affairs ; ” “ Practical  affairs  cover  the 
ground;”  “Arithmetic  throughout  is  considered  a social  study;” 
“Use  of  actual  tax  bills,  gas  bills,  water  bills,  etc.  (forms  borrowed 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


87 


from  public  service  companies)  ; ” “Arithmetic  not  valued  as  formerly 
for  its  worth  in  discipline,  but  it  is  being  made  very  practical ; ” 
“ Connected  with  home  life  and  local  industries.” 

The  questions  on  the  means  used  to  narrow  the  field  were:  (1)  Do 
you  have  the  children  do  more  work  with  small  numbers  and  less 
with  numbers  in  the  millions  than  formerly?  (2)  Do  you  teach  only 
those  arithmetic  topics  for  which  children  have  immediate  use,  ex- 
cluding such  topics  as  interest  and  wall  papering?  (3)  Other 
tendencies  ? 

Of  the  replies  as  to  the  use  of  smaller  numbers  91  per  cent  were 
affirmative,  3 per  cent  qualified  affirmative,  making  a total  affirmative 
of  94  per  cent  and  a negative  of  6 per  cent.  In  reply  to  the  question 
on  the  choice  of  those  subjects  for  which  the  children  had  immediate 
use,  44  per  cent  replied  in  the  affirmative,  32  per  cent  gave  a qualified 
affirmative,  making  a total  of  76  per  cent  affirmative  and  24  per  cent 
negative.  The  replies  to  the  third  question  “ Other  tendencies  ” ran 
as  follows:  “Toward  simplification,”  “Our  tendency  is  toward  the 
elimination  of  topics  not  clearly  serviceable,”  “ We  emphasize  mental 
and  oral  work  with  small  numbers  to  secure  facility  in  common  proc- 
esses,” “ Insistence  upon  simple  problems  and  proficiency  within 
narrow  limits,”  “ Toward  simplification,  accuracy ; certainty,”  “ Much 
work  with  small  numbers ; simplified  problems,”  “ The  elimination 
of  topics;  emphasis  on  mental  work.” 

In  the  third  section  of  the  questionnaire  the  following  questions 
were  asked:  In  what  year  is  the  study  of  arithmetic  commenced? 

The  four  fundamental  processes  completed?  The  study  of  fractions 
commenced?  The  study  of  fractions  emphasized?  Ratio  studied? 
Percentage  commenced? 

The  replies  answering  these  specific  questions  as  to  the  order  of 
work  were  as  follows:  Number  was  recorded  as  commenced  in  first 
grade  in  71J  per  cent  of  the  school  systems  replying;  in  second 
grade  in  22  per  cent  of  the  schools  and  in  third  grade  in  6^  per  cent. 
The  four  fundamental  processes  were  reported  as  completed  in  the 
third  grade  in  5 per  cent  of  the  schools  replying;  in  fourth  grade  in 
78  per  cent  of  the  schools;  and  in  fifth  grade  in  17  per  cent.  Frac- 
tions were  commenced  in  the  first  grade  in  14  per  cent  of  the  schools 
replying,  in  second  grade  in  21  per  cent,  in  third  grade  in  17  per 
cent,  in  fourth  grade  in  21  per  cent,  and  in  fifth  grade  in  27  per  cent. 
Fractions  were  emphasized  in  the  third  grade  in  2 per  cent  of  the 
schools  replying,  in  fourth  grade  in  10  per  cent  of  the  schools,  in  fifth 
grade  in  63  per  cent,  in  sixth  grade  in  23  per  cent,  in  seventh  grade  in 
2 per  cent.  Ratio  was  studied  somewhere  in  the  lower  grades  as  a 
basis  for  later  work  in  40  per  cent  of  the  schools,  in  the  middle 
grades  (fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth)  in  30  per  cent  of  schools  and  left 
entirely  for  upper  grades  (seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth)  in  30  per  cent 


88 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE.  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


of  the  schools.  Percentage  was  commenced  in  the  fourth  grade  in 
5 per  cent  of  the  schools,  in  fifth  grade  in  30  per  cent  of  the  schools, 
in  sixth  grade  in  45  per  cent,  and  in  seventh  grade  in  20  per  cent. 

It  is  difficult  to  get  at  the  real  truth  in  any  situation  through  a 
system  of  questions  and  answers  for  the  reason  that  almost  any 
question  which  can  be  formulated  admits  of  misinterpretation.  By 
comparison  of  the  replies  to  the  questionnaire  with  the  printed  courses 
of  study  it  was  found  that  the  greatest  liability  to  misinterpretation 
lay  in  the  first  section  of  the  questionnaire,  which  refers  to  the  means 
used  to  broaden  the  scope  of  arithmetic.  The  replies  throughout  the 
section  included  in  many  cases  the  seventh  and  eighth  years  of  the 
elementary  school.  This  makes  it  necessary  to  interpret  not  only 
the  answers  in  the  equation  and  literal  notation  in  a different  way 
from  which  the  replies  indicated  (attention  has  already  been  called 
to  this),  but  the  answers  also  on  the  application  of  arithmetic  to 
manual  training,  geography,  and  nature  study.  In  the  second  sec- 
tion of  the  questionnaire  there  was  no  difficulty.  In  the  third  sec- 
tion there  was  some  difference  in  the  interpretation  of  the  question  on 
the  year  in  which  number  was  commenced.  In  several  schools  where 
number  was  introduced  incidentally  in  the  first  grade  it  was  some- 
times recorded  as  commenced  there  and  sometimes  not.  The  report, 
therefore,  gives  an  idea  of  an  earlier  commencement  of  the  formal 
study  of  arithmetic  than  actually  exists.  There  was  a similar  con- 
fusion between  incidental  and  formal  work  in  fractions  and  ratio. 
Much  incidental  work  in  fractions  is  done  in  the  first  three  years,  but 
the  study  of  a fraction  as  a fraction  is  left  in  the  majority  of  cases  to 
the  fourth  and  fifth  years.  Ratio  forms  the  basis  of  several  special 
methods  of  teaching  number  used  in  many  localities  throughout  the 
country.  In  such  cases  it  is  recorded  as  studied  in  the  primary 
grades.  Ratio  and  proportion  as  such  are  usually  put  down  in  the 
printed  courses  of  study  as  work  for  the  seventh  and  eighth  years. 

The  summary  is  indicative  of  an  advance  in  the  work  in  general. 
One  step  forward  is  the  tendency  to  broaden  the  scope  of  arithmetic  so 
that  it  is  less  a series  of  exercises  for  the  manipulation  of  figures  and 
more  of  an  introduction  to  mathematics  in  general.  If  we  may  take 
the  summary  as  typical  of  the  state  of  affairs,  the  study  of  geometric 
forms  is  becoming  current,  and  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  the 
use  of  the  equation  and  of  literal  notation  is  making  some  head- 
way. It  is  possibly  wise  that  the  latter  are  not  used  below  these 
years,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  substitution  of  a formal  means 
of  solving  a problem  for  a child’s  own  natural  logic  is  likely  to 
cause  confusion  in  his  mind.  The  tendency  to  correlate  arith- 
metic with  other  subjects  and  make  it  a thoroughly  practical  subject 
is  strong.  An  equally  striking  demand  throughout  the  country  is 
the  cry  for  the  simplification  of  arithmetic  through  the  use  of  smaller 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


89 


numbers,  the  elimination  of  topics,  the  simplification  of  problems, 
and  an  emphasis  on  mental  rather  than  written  work.  The  tendency 
is  to  limit  the  work  to  what  comes  within  the  child’s  experience  and 
expect  greater  efficiency  within  the  narrower  field.  As  to  the  pro- 
gram of  work  there  is  a tendency  to  begin  number  somewhat  later 
in  the  primary  school  than  formerly ; to  devote  the  years  before  the 
fifth  grade  to  the  four  fundamental  processes  with  integers,  the  fifth 
year  to  fractions,  and  the  sixth  j^ear  to  fractions  and  percentage. 

Since  the  cities  as  a usual  thing  are  in  advance  of  the  smaller  com- 
munities and  the  rural  districts  and  serve,  more  or  less  as  their 
leaders,  the  summary  is  more  indicative  of  the  trend  of  the  courses  of 
study  than  of  the  state  of  things  as  they  actually  exist.  It  shows  a 
more  advanced  state  of  affairs  than  would  be  found  extant  if  an 
average  could  be  made  of  the  work  of  the  country  as  an  entirety. 

IV.  THE  QUESTION  OF  EXAMINATIONS  FROM  THE  POINT  OF  VIEW  OF 

THE  SCHOOL. 

The  specific  purpose  of  this  section  is  to  treat  the  question  of  ex- 
aminations from  the  point  of  view  of  the  school  in  its  present  status 
and  as  to  its  present  tendencies. 

The  main  sources  of  data  on  which  this  report  is  based  are : (1)  the 
returns  from  the  questionnaire,  formulated  in  conjunction  with  the 
subcommittee  on  the  nature  of  promotion  in  elementary  schools  and 
admission  to  secondary  schools,  and  sent  out  by  the  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Education,  and  (2)  the  subcommittee’s  knowledge 
of  the  uses  being  made  of  “ standardized  tests.” 

Of  the  1,000  questionnaires  returned,  427  were  fully  tabulated. 
These  were  the  first  received  and  are  believed  to  be  representative. 

The  subject  as  assigned  placed  the  emphasis  on  examinations  as 
used  and  viewed  by  immediate  school  workers  rather  than  by  super- 
intendents or  examining  boards.  Hence  the  superintendents  were 
requested  to  have  the  questions  answered  by  their  principals.  This 
was  done  so  as  to  make  the  replies  represent  more  fully  u the  point 
of  view  of  the  school.”  Answers  from  teachers  would  have  repre- 
sented this  point  of  view  still  more  fully,  but  the  securing  and 
handling  of  a sufficient  number  to  be  representative  of  the  entire 
country  seemed  impracticable. 

Conclusions  based  on  returns  from  questionnaires  must  always  be 
made  guardedly.  Caution  is  especially  necessary  in  dealing  with 
these  returns  because  of  the  unavoidable  vagueness  and  overlapping 
of  some  of  the  answers.  However,  the  tabulated  answers  seem  to 
warrant  the  following  conclusions : 

1.  The  use  of  examinations  is  very  general,  practically  universal. 
They  are  made  use  of  to  some  extent  in  all  grades  above  the  second ; 
102  of  the  427  schools  report  their  use  in  the  second  grade;  twice  as 


90 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE.  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


many  in  the  third;  and  in  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  grades  practi- 
cally all  report  them. 

2.  In  this  very  general  use  of  examinations  the  point  of  view  of 
the  school  is  commonly  recognized.  This  is  clearly  shown  in  the 
answers  to  the  question,  By  whom  are  the  questions  made  out? 
Only  106  of  the  427  reports  show  the  superintendent  making  exam- 
ination questions  independently;  220  show  the  teachers  and  superin- 
tendents or  supervisors  in  cooperation ; 203  show  the  teacher  making 
questions  independently;  only  48  principals  are  reported  as  making 
the  questions ; and  in  only  22  answers  were  there  any  State  or  county 
questions  reported. 

3.  There  is  no  agreement  as  to  the  frequency  of  giving  examina- 
tions. One  hundred  and  forty-two  say  every  month  or  less;  124 
irregularly;  55  bimonthly;  48  quarterly;  180  twice  per  year;  and  only 
19  annually.  One  conclusion  seems  safe,  viz.,  that  the  practice  of 
giving  “ finals  ” at  the  end  of  the  year  is  decidedly  uncommon. 
However,  the  180  giving  them  twice  a year  may  indicate  some  ad- 
ditional use  as  “ term  end  ” finals. 

4.  The  use  of  examinations  seems  to  be  decreasing  somewhat.  Two 
hundred  and  fifty-six  say  it  is  decreasing,  while  110  say  increasing; 
97  report  no  change ; 57  do  not  know ; and  19  say  that  the  nature  of 
examinations  is  changing. 

5.  The  purposes  for  which  examinations  are  given  are  not  clearly 
indicated.  There  were  only  99  of  the  427  that  gave  “aid  in  deter- 
mining promotion  or  giving  marks  ” as  a purpose,  while  181  gave  the 
answer,  “to  help  the  teacher  judge  the  efficiency  of  her  teaching;” 
and  390  “ to  test  the  knowledge  or  power  of  the  pupils.”  While  the 
vagueness  of  the  last  answer  makes  it  susceptible  to  several  interpre- 
tations, taking  the  390  with  the  181,  it  is  probably  safe  to  infer  that 
the  largest  single  purpose  of  examinations  is  to  measure  progress  of 
pupils. 

6.  There  seems  to  be  a clearly  voiced  desire  for  “standardized 
tests;”  289  of  the  427  answered  “ Yes  ” to  the  question,  “ Do  you  be- 
lieve that  there  is  any  increasing  desire  for  standardized  tests?”  and 
73  said  that  such  tests  would  be  desirable  if  available;  only  92  an- 
swered “No”  and  22  “Not  desirable.”  Those  who  understand  the 
idea  of  such  tests  are  enthusiastic  in  their  approval. 

The  questionnaire  answers  gave  evidence  that  standardized  tests 
are  not  widely  known;  that  they  are  comparatively  little  used;  but 
that  there  is  a present  tendency  to  do  so,  since  several  representative 
schools  are  making  use  of  tests  recently  published  in  book  form.1 
These  tests  are  standardized  in  that,  •under  identical  circumstances, 
they  have  been  used  to  measure  the  abilities  of  pupils  in  the  second 

1 Arithmetical  Abilities,  by  C.  W.  Stone,  Teachers  College  Bureau  of  Publications,  Co- 
lumbia University. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  G. 


91 


half  of  the  sixth  school  year  in  representative  systems  of  schools; 
and  in  that  the  respective  achievements  of  these  pupils  are  given  in 
the  book.  By  using  these  tests  as  directed  anyone  can  determine 
where  his  pupils  stand  in  the  essentials  of  arithmetic  as  compared 
with  the  pupils  of  some  of  the  best  systems  in  the  United  States. 

Accounts  of  four  of  the  uses  of  these  standardized  tests  have  re- 
cently been  published.  The  most  recent  of  these  articles  is  by  Mr. 
J.  C.  Brown,  of  the  Horace  Mann  High  School,  New  York  City,  who 
used  the  “fundamental”  test  as  a basis  for  determining  the  value 
of  drill  d 

Another  recent  investigation  in  which  the  tests  were  used  was  made 
by  Prof.  W.  S.  Smiley  at  the  State  University  of  Iowa.  Prof. 
Smiley  measured  and  compared  the  arithmetical  abilities  of  one 
room  of  rural  school  pupils  and  graded  town  school  pupils.1 2 

Messrs.  Birckhead  and  Somers,  principals  of  schools  at  Louisa,  Va., 
and  Bed  Hill,  Va.,  respectively,  used  the  tests  to  measure  arithmetical 
abilities  in  six  representative  public  schools  of  Virginia.3 

The  most  extensive  study  utilizing  these  tests  is  that  made  by  Mr. 
S.  A.  Courtis,  of  the  Detroit  Home  and  Day  School,  a private  school 
for  girls  in  Detroit,  Mich.  Mr.  Courtis  is  using  the  tests  as  a means 
of  determining  the  effects  of  certain  changes  in  the  teaching  of  the 
mathematics  for  which  he  is  responsible.  Mr.  Courtis  has  written 
a number  of  articles  on  the  subject;  he  says  in  conclusion: 

More  than  all  else,  it  lias  proved  conclusively  to  the  writer  at  least,  that  it 
is  practicable  to  measure  not  only  the  general  condition  of  arithmetic  teaching 
throughout  a school,  the  growth  in  ability  and  efficiency  from  grade  to  grade, 
the  defects  and  needs  of  any  one  grade  or  individual,  but  the  effects  of  changes 
in  method  or  procedure  as  well.4 

The  value  of  standardized  tests  has  appealed  so  strongly  to  Mr. 
Courtis  that  he  has  recently  published  a set  that  are  by  far  the  best 
extant ; 5 and  mathematics  teaching  will  doubtless  receive  even  greater 
help  from  him  in  the  near  future. 

Another  use  of  these  tests  may  be  illustrated  by  tests  recently  given 
to  determine  the  effects  of  changes  in  teaching.  When  tested  in 
1907  the  pupils  of  a certain  school  made  a score  of  468  points  per  100 
pupils  in  reasoning,  and  2,311  points  per  100  pupils  in  fundamentals. 
In  1910  the  pupils  of  this  same  system  made  a score  of  607  in  reason- 
ing, a gain  of  139,  and  a score  of  2,833  in  fundamentals,  a gain  of  522. 

1 An  investigation  of  the  value  of  drill  work  in  the  fundamental  operations.  Journal  of 
Educational  Psychology,  February,  1911. 

2 A comparative  study  of  the  results  obtained  in  instruction  in  the  “ single  teacher  ” 
rural  schools  and  the  graded  town  schools.  Elementary  School  Teacher  (University  of 
Chicago  Press),  .January,  1911. 

3 How  do  our  Virginia  schools  stand  in  arithmetic’  Virginia  Journal  of  education 
(Richmond,  Va.),  March,  1910. 

4 Elementary  School  Teacher,  October  and  December,  1909,  and  December,  1910. 

5 The  Courtis  standard  tests  in  arithmetic  with  manual  of  instructions  for  giving  and 
scoring.  S.  A.  Courtis,  441  John  R.  Street,  Detroit,  Mich. 


92 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


Thus  the  use  of  these  tests  indicate  that  in  this  school  the  present 
teaching  of  arithmetic  produces  considerable  more  ability  in  the 
essentials  than  did  the  teaching  of  1907. 

Another  purpose  for  which  these  tests  are  being  given  is  to  measure 
the  effect  of  such  radical  changes  in  administration  as  omitting  all 
arithmetic  work  from  grades  one  and  two.  This  experiment  has  been 
tried  in  several  cities  in  New  England,  in  a few  on  the  Pacific  coast, 
and  in  one  in  the  Middle  West. 

The  question  that  immediately  arises  is,  How  well  do  children  learn 
arithmetic  without  its  being  taught  during  the  first  two  grades? 
This  question  is  being  answered  by  measuring  the  abilities  of  chil- 
dren so  taught  and  comparing  them  with  the  achievements  of  children 
who  have  had  arithmetic  teaching  during  the  first  two  grades.  In 
one  of  the  above-mentioned  systems  the  last  class  of  pupils  in  the 
second  half  of  the  sixth  grade,  who  had  had  arithmetic  teaching  in 
grades  one  and  two,  were  measured.  During  the  present  school  year 
the  first  class  of  pupils  who  have  not  had  arithmetic  teaching  in 
grades  one  and  two  will  reach  the  second  half  of  the  sixth  grade. 
The  abilities  of  this  class  will  be  measured  and  the  results  of  meas- 
uring these  two  sets  of  pupils  from  the  same  system,  together  with 
the  results  from  the  original  twenty-six  systems,  will  constitute  the 
basis  of  a comparative  study  which  may  yield  objective  data  for  an- 
swering questions  concerning  the  advisability  of  omitting  arithmetic 
teaching  from  the  first  two  grades.1 

The  question  of  examinations  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  school 
may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  Examinations  are  used  in  some  form  in  some  grades  in  prac- 
tically all  schools. 

2.  The  point  of  view  of  the  school  is  largely  recognized. 

3.  As  to  the  purpose  of  examinations  and  their  frequency  there  is 
no  agreement. 

4.  Their  use  is  probably  decreasing,  especially  the  use  of  “ finals,” 
as  the  main  basis  of  promotions. 

5.  There  is  increasing  desire  for  “ standardized  tests.” 

6.  These  tests  are  beginning  to  be  used  to  measure  the  relation  be- 
tween the  theories  and  products  of  arithmetic  teaching;  and  as  a 
means  of  securing  data  from  which  the  best  procedures  can  be  deter- 
mined. 


1 Of  course,  the  danger  of  fallacy  here  is  evident.  The  abolition  of  arithmetic  in  grades 
one  and  two  may  have  been  accompanied  by  more  enthusiastic  and  skillful  teaching  after 
the  second  grade,  or  by  even  a greater  amount  of  time  being  devoted  to  the  subject,  so 
the  results  of  such  a comparison  must  be  guarded  by  checks. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


93 


V.  THE  METHODS  EMPLOYED  IN  TEACHING  ELEMENTARY 
MATHEMATICS.1 

I.  SCOPE  OF  THE  STUDY. 

It  is  the  function  of  this  study  to  convey  some  notion  of  the  methods 
employed  in  teaching  mathematics  in  the  first  six  grades  of  the 
American  elementary  school.  No  attempt  is  made  to  give  a minute 
description  of  the  endless  details  of  teaching  procedure,  nor  even 
to  enumerate  all  the  types  of  teaching  method  employed.  Its  pur- 
pose is  restricted  to  an  analysis  of  the  larger  tendencies  in  teach- 
ing practice  which  are  representative  of  the  spirit  of  mathematical 
instruction  in  the  lower  schools. 

Owing  to  the  existing  confusions,  it  is  well  at  the  very  outset  to 
have  in  mind  a clear  definition  of  the  term  “ teaching  methods.” 
Teaching  methods  are  always  methods  of  presentation.  In  this  re- 
spect the  teaching  art  is  like  any  other  art,  literary,  graphic,  plastic, 
or  what  not.  The  literary  artist,  for  example,  has  a purpose,  a sub- 
ject matter,  a particular  audience,  and  a special  style  of  presenta- 
tion. All  these  factors  are  present  in  the  teaching  art.  The  aims  of 
instruction,  the  particular  facts  to  be  taught,  the  immaturity  of  the 
child  taught,  and  the  inevitable  personality  of  the  teacher  determine 
the  style  of  instruction,  or,  to  use  our  own  “ trade  word,”  a method 
of  teaching.  Every  teacher,  then,  has  a style  or  method — conscious  or 
unconscious,  good,  bad,  or  indifferent.  Unlike  the  literary  artist,  he 
has  many  ends  to  serve  rather  than  one.  His  functions  are  general 
to  life,  and  include  moral,  social,  and  personal  ends,  as  well  as  those 
that  are  aesthetic.  His  methods  of  communication,  too,  are  more 
than  one.  He  presents  his  experiences  objectively  and  graphically, 
as  well  as  through  the  medium  of  written  words  and  speech.  Always 
the  teacher’s  end  is  to  stimulate  growth  through  the  presentation  of 
experiences.  When  that  presentation  of  experience  takes  a form  and 
order  different  from  that  usual  to  adult  life  for  the  precise  purpose 
of  making  the  fact  more  readily  comprehensible  by  the  immature 
mind  of  the  child,  then  that  modification  may  be  called  a method  of 
teaching.  Teaching  methods  are  always  special  manners  of  readjust- 
ing adult  wisdom  to  the  special  psychological  conditions  of  a student’s 
mind. 

In  the  concrete,  methods  of  teaching  would  always  represent  some- 
thing particular  to  a situation,  and  as  variable  as  situations  are 
variable.  Life  is  never  just  the  same  at  any  point.  Yet  certain  es- 
sential similarities  exist  and  give  us  the  opportunity  to  interpret  life 
in  terms  of  law.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  teaching  life.  In  a 

1This  part  of  the  report  was  prepared  by  Prof.  Henry  Suzzallo,  Teachers  College,  Co- 
lumbia University,  New  York  City.  In  more  extended  form  it  appeared  in  the  Teachers 
College  Record  for  March,  1911, 


94 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


sense  it  never  repeats  itself,  yet  to  the  degree  that  the  same  end,  the 
same  subject  matter,  and  the  same  immaturity  of  mind  recur  in  class- 
rooms, teachers  will  tend  to  use  similar  modes  of  adjustment.  In 
describing  mathematical  teaching  in  the  primary  schools,  it  is  these 
similar  modes  of  teaching  adjustment,  these  similar  “general 
methods”  that  we  shall  describe  and  analyze. 

It  will  be  unnecessary  to  have  a separate  treatment  of  the  “ general 
methods”  of  mathematical  teaching  for  public  schools  and  private 
schools.  Whatever  may  be  said  of  the  State-supported  schools  will 
in  general  be  true  of  private  institutions.  It  is  true  of  elementary 
schools,  as  it  is  not  of  secondary  and  higher  schools,  that  private 
institutions  hold  a relatively  minor  place,  as  compared  with  public 
or  State  schools.  They  are  in  a sense  mere  adjuncts  to  the  public- 
school  system,  claiming,  in  the  generality  of  cases,  no  real  difference 
in  their  ideals  and  methods  of  instruction. 

It  will  perhaps  simplify  the  task  of  this  study  and  make  its  treat- 
ment more  thoroughly  representative  of  all  conditions,  if  the  general 
methods  described  be  restricted  to  that  field  which  is  most  character- 
istic of  the  first  five  or  six  years  of  mathematical  instruction,  namely, 
to  the  teaching  of  the  fundamental  processes  of  manipulating  inte- 
gers and  fractions  along  with  their  simple  applications  to  concrete 
problems. 

While  the  aspects  of  mathematical  instruction  here  studied  and 
presented  are  selected  because  of  their  representative  nature,  it  would 
be  unwise  to  restrict  ourselves  to  a statement  of  the  commonly  ac- 
cepted procedures  of  schoolroom  practice.  There  are  in  America 
certain  reform  tendencies  which  are  as  characteristic  of  conditions  as 
*>re  the  conservative  practices.  These  modifying  forces  need  to  be 
mentioned  along  with  the  practices  that  they  alter.  Again,  there 
are  certain  scientific  efforts,  now  well  underway,  to  study  the  prob- 
lem of  methods  in  teaching.  While  these  have,  as  their  immediate 
aim,  the  acquisition  of  new  knowledge  rather  than  direct  educational 
reform,  their  ultimate  effect  will  be  to  change  methods  of  teaching. 
For  this  reason  they  are  important,  and  have  a proper  place  in  this 
presentation. 

II.  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  AIMS  ON  TEACHING. 

The  purposes  of  mathematical  instruction  in  the  elementary  school 
must  always  be  very  influential  upon  method.  It  makes  a great  dif- 
ference whether  one  is  merely  teaching  the  elements  of  mathematics 
or  is  teaching  mathematics  as  a tool  for  business  life. 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  A SCIENTIFIC  AIM. 

It  has  not  been  long  since  the  aim  of  mathematical  teaching  was 
merely  scientific.  The  facts  taught  were  the  beginning  of  a science, 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


95 


and  the  end  was  to  obtain  a foundation  for  more  advanced  facts  of  the 
same  kind  which  were  dependent  upon  this  foundation.  As  the 
teacher  had  learned  his  mathematics,  so  he  taught  the  subject.  To  a 
considerable  degree  as  the  master’s  adult  mind  classified  the  facts 
of  the  subject,  so  he  presented  it  to  the  child.  His  methods  were 
logical  rather  than  psychological.  He  gave  the  finished  product  or 
process  to  the  child  without  special  modification  because  the  child 
was  immature;  a roundabout  method  that  slowly  approximated  and 
only  finally  achieved  the  full  result  was  with  such  a teacher  ex- 
ceptional. 

Such  a scientific  aim,  implicit  rather  than  expressed,  dominated  the 
methods  of  teaching  when  arithmetic  was  handed  over  to  the  elemen- 
tary schools  by  the  higher  institutions  of  education.  As  the  first 
purpose  to  be  rooted  in  the  traditions  of  mathematical  teaching  it 
still  persists  with  all  the  rigidity  of  a conservative  force.  Teachers 
still  tend  to  teach  future  workmen  in  the  lower  schools  as  they  them- 
selves were  taught  by  scientific  scholars  in  the  universities.  And 
high  school  and  college  instructors  still  impose  their  standards  upon 
the  lower  schools  so  as  to  influence  their  methods  of  instruction.  As 
the  purposes  of  higher  instruction  still  remain  largely  scientific  in 
purpose  and  method  they  give  aid  to  the  persistence  of  an  original 
tradition  in  the  elementary  schools.  Under  such  an  influence  the 
worth  of  a mathematical  fact  is  measured  by  its  place  in  a logical 
scheme,  rather  than  by  its  significance  and  recurrence  in  everyday 
life.  The  mathematician  may  need  to  know  all  about  the  names  of 
the  places  in  notation  and  numeration;  the  layman  cares  only  about 
the  accurate  reading  and  writing  of  numbers,  and  not  at  all  about 
the  verbal  title  of  “ units  of  thousands  ” place.  Again,  the  rational 
needs  of  a thinker  about  mathematics  may  require  an  understanding 
of  the  reasons  why  we  “ carry  ” in  column  addition,  but  the  effective 
everyday  use  demands  an  accurate  habit  of  “ carrying  ” rather  than 
an  accurate  explanation.  Yet  just  such  methods  persist  in  our  schools 
because  of  the  domination  of  a scientific  treatment  of  the  subject. 

The  remoteness  of  such  mathematical  teaching  from  the  needs  of 
common  life  constantly  threatens  the  loyalty  and  support  of  the- 
public.  Some  defense  becomes  necessary  on  other  than  scientific 
grounds.  Such  a sanction  could  not  be  found  in  utilitarianism,  for 
the  waste  was  evident.  It  remained  for  a psychological  theory  to 
sketch  a defense  upon  “ disciplinary  ” grounds.  The  doctrine  of 
“ formal  discipline  ” says  that  such  mathematical  teaching  trains  the 
powers  of  the  mind  so  that  any  mastery  gained  in  mathematics  is  a 
mastery  operating  in  full  elsewhere,  regardless  of  the  remoteness  of 
the  new  situations  from  those  in  connection  with  which  the  power 
or  ability  was  originally  acquired. 

1442°— 11 7 


96 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


The  effect  of  such  doctrine  is  to  defend  and  perpetuate  every 
obsolete,  unimportant,  and  wasteful  practice  in  the  teaching  of  mathe- 
matics. No  matter  that  partnership  as  taught  in  the  schools  had  its 
original  sanction  in  its  close  correspondence  to  the  reality  of  business 
practice;  no  matter  that  the  old  sanction  had  passed;  teach  it  now  for 
its  ability  to  discipline  the  mind.  This  questionable  psychological 
doctrine,  said  in  consequence,  “Whatever  is,  is  right!”  No  matter 
that  “ life  insurance  ” touches  more  men  than  “cube  root  ” ; the  latter 
should  be  kept  because  of  its  power  to  train  the  mind.  In  life,  where 
“ approximation  ” of  amounts  suffices,  the  teacher  demands  absolute 
accuracy,  and  the  ethical  worth  of  such  precise  truth  is  the  high  law 
for  its  defense.  Regardless  of  the  truth  that  is  concealed  in  the 
doctrine  of  “ formal  discipline,”  it  must  be  confessed  by  those  who 
know  the  history  of  teaching  methods  in  the  United  States  that  it  is 
the  main  defense  of  conservatism  and  the  largest  cause  of  waste  in 
teaching  methods. 

Such  has  been  the  ground  upon  which  recent  educational  reform 
has  operated.  Slowly  the  older  scientific  and  disciplinary  aims  of 
instruction  have  given  way  to  the  newer  purposes  of  business  utility 
and  social  insight.  In  that  step  a large  transition  was  covered. 
Before  the  school  had  measured  the  worth  of  its  work  by 
standards  internal  to  educational  institutions,  the  schoolmaster 
and  the  scholar,  rather  than  the  man  on  the  street,  had  formulated 
the  scientific  classifications  of  mathematics  and  expounded  the  doc- 
trine of  formal  discipline.  Hereafter  the  measure  of  efficient  school 
instruction  is  a reference  to  standards  external  to  the  school,  the 
product  of  conditions  outside  of  school  life.  Business  need  and  social 
situation  determine  if  a fact  or  process  is  worth  comprehending,  and 
whether  the  method  of  instruction  has  been  effective. 

Business  utility,  coming  at  a time  when  the  elementary -school 
course  was  felt  to  be  overcrowded,  met  with  a ready  reception.  It 
operated  for  the  time  being  as  the  standard  by  which  materials  and 
methods  in  arithmetic  are  to  be  eliminated,  if  not  actually  selected. 
Materials  not  general  to  the  business  world,  such  as  the  table  of 
troy  weight,  were  therefore  eliminated.  Processes  of  computing  in- 
terest infrequently  used  were  supplemented  by  more  widespread  and 
up-to-date  methods.  More  doing  and  less  explaining  characterized 
the  instruction  in  adding  columns  of  figures,  and  such  manipulation 
mimicked  the  exact  conditions  of  its  use  in  the  world  at  large.  If 
strings  of  figures  are  usually  added  in  vertical  columns  in  the  busi- 
ness world,  then  they  should  be  taught  in  vertical  columns  more 
nearly  exclusively  than  before.  The  obsolete  and  the  relatively 
infrequent,  the  over-complex  and  the  wasteful  processes  of  the  old 
arithmetic  tended  to  disappear.  More  than  any  other  influence  this 
aim  of  business  utility  has  combated  the  overconservative  influence 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


97 


of  scientific  and  disciplinary  aims  which  dominated  previous  decades. 
The  newer  methods  of  teaching  have  kept  the  best  of  the  old  move- 
ments. The  work  is  still  scientific  in  that  it  is  accurate;  it  is  still 
disciplinary  in  that  it  trains;  but  the  truth  and  the  training  which 
are  given  are  selected  by  and  associated  with  actual  business  situa- 
tions common  to  everyday  life. 

There  is  evidence  in  the  present  thought  of  teachers  that  a broader 
utility  than  that  of  the  business  world  is  beginning  to  obtain  in  the 
schools.  The  general  increase  in  the  social  consciousness  of  the 
teacher  is  reflected  in  mathematical  instruction.  Everywhere  in 
these  days  the  American  teacher  and  the  educational  writer  speak 
of  the  social  aims  of  education.  The  influence  of  the  social  aim  of 
instruction  upon  mathematical  instruction  is  subtle  but  obvious.  The 
business  man's  opinion  with  reference  to  arithmetical  instruction  is 
not  always  taken  as  gospel.  There  are  other  standards.  “ Why,” 
says  the  schoolmaster,  “ should  I train  people  for  your  special  needs, 
any  more  than  for  the  demands  of  other  trades  that  men  ply?  To 
be  sure,  our  graduates  do  not  fit  perfectly  into  your  shop  at  once. 
But  that  precise  and  local  adjustment  is  the  work  of  the  business 
course  or  of  shop  apprenticeship.  My  function  is  to  train  men  for 
the  situation  common  to  all  men  and  special  to  no  class.  The  elemen- 
tary school  is  a school  for  general  culture  or  social  appreciation,  not 
a business  college  or  a trade  school.”  The  sociologist  usurps  the  place 
of  the  business  man  as  the  school’s  proper  critic. 

The  situation  to-day  as  influenced  by  existing  aims  is  one  of  tran- 
sition in  which  old  and  new  purposes  mingle  with  unequal  force  in 
giving  us  a mixed  process  of  instructing  American  youth  in  arith- 
metic. Old  materials  and  methods  still  persist,  for  logical  and  dis- 
ciplinary ideals  still  hold ; but  the  newer  regimen  ushered  in  by  the 
demands  of  business  utility  and  social  understanding  gains  ground. 
The  obsolete,  the  untrue,  the  wasteful  methods  pass  from  arithmetic 
teaching,  and  the  pressing,  modern,  and  useful  activities  and  under- 
standings enter.  Arithmetic  is  less  abstract  and  formal  as  a subject 
than  it  was;  it  has  become  increasingly  vital  and  concrete  with  real 
interests,  insights,  and  situations.  The  grind  of  sheer  mechanical 
drill  decreases  in  its  teaching,  and  a reasoned  understanding  of 
relations,  in  some  degree,  at  least,  is  substituted.  Artificial  motives 
and  incentives  are  less  frequently  used  to  get  work  done,  and  the 
appeal  of  live  institutions  for  a quantitative  solution  and  under- 
standing increasingly  asserts  itself. 

III.  THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  CHANGING  STATUS  OF  TEACHING  METHOD. 

Teaching  method  in  the  school  is  primarily  a readjustment  of 
forms  of  knowledge  and  experience  so  as  more  effectively  to  stimulate 
and  improve  the  immature  responses  of  children.  Two  important 


98 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


movements  have  been  responsible  for  the  development  of  special 
methods  of  teaching  during  the  past  few  decades — one  is  humanita- 
rian and  the  other  scientific.  On  the  one  hand,  there  has  been  a 
growth  in  reverence  and  sympathy  for  childhood.  As  yet  it  has 
scarcely  expressed  itself  with  fullness.  The  wide  acceptance  of  the 
“ doctrine  of  interest  ” in  teaching ; the  enrichment  of  the  curricu- 
lum; specialized  schools  for  truants  and  defectives;  individual  in- 
struction— these  are  the  schoolmaster’s  recognition  of  the  modern 
attitude  toward  childhood.  Under  such  conditions  teaching:  becomes 
less  and  less  a ruthless  external  imposition  of  adult  views,  and  more 
a means  of  sympathetic  ministry  to  those  inner  needs  of  child  life 
which  make  for  desirable  qualities  of  character.  While  it  is  true 
that  teaching  method  is  a condescension  to  childhood,  it  is  a socially 
profitable  condescension  in  that  it  is  a guarantee  of  more  effective 
and  enduring  mastery  of  the  life  that  is  revealed  at  school.  Since 
the  child’s  acquisition  tends  the  more  to  be  part  and  parcel  of  his  own 
life  under  such  sympathetic  teaching,  the  products  of  such  instruc- 
tion are  enduring. 

Such  a humanitarian  movement  naturally  called  for  knowledge  of 
the  child.  The  wisdom  of  common  sense  soon  exhausts  itself  and 
more  scientific  data  is  demanded.  Thus  the  “ child  study  movement  ” 
came  into  existence.  Since  then,  a saner  psychological  foundation 
has  been  laid  for  educational  procedure,  one  which  is  criticising  and 
reconstructing  teaching  method  at  every  turn.  Hitherto  teaching 
methods  had  been  improved  fitfully  through  a crude  empiricism. 
Now  a body  of  general  psychological  knowledge,  rich  in  its  criticism 
of  oid  methods  and  in  its  suggestion  of  new  means  of  procedure,  gives 
a scientific  basis  to  teaching  method. 

The  public  elementary  school  teacher  is  conservative  indeed  who 
will  deny  that  there  is  anything  worthy  in  the  notion  of  “ method ! ” 
As  a class,  teachers  have  faith  in  the  special  professional  technique 
which  is  included  under  the  term.  They  are  critical  of  the  many 
abuses  which  have  been  committed  in  the  name  of  method.  Method 
can  not  be  a substitute  for  scholarship.  It  can  not  be  a u cut-and- 
dried  ” procedure  indiscriminately  or  uniformly  applied  to  class- 
room instruction.  Like  every  other  technical  means,  teaching  method 
is  subject  to  its  own  limitations  and  strengthens  a fad  which  the  aver- 
age teacher  recognizes. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  majority  of  elementary  teachers  keep 
reasonably  sane  on  the  problem  of  method  in  teaching,  it  must  be 
admitted  that  a considerable  proportion  of  teachers  are  inclined  to 
be  attracted  by  systems  of  method  that  greatly  overemphasize  a single 
element  of  procedure.  The  hold  which  the  “ Grube  method  ” with 
its  unnatural  logical  thoroughness  and  progression  gained  in  this 
country  two  or  three  decades  ago  is  scarcely  explicable  to-day. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


99 


Scarcely  less  baffling  is  the  very  large  appeal  made  by  a series  of  text- 
books which  laid  the  stress  upon  the  acquisition  of  arithmetic  through 
the  idea  of  ratio  and  by  means  of  measuring.  Manual  work  as  the 
source  of  arithmetical  experiences  is  another  special  emphasis,  which, 
like  the  others,  has  had  its  enthusiastic  adherents.  Again,  it  is 
“ arithmetic  without  a pencil  ” or  some  other  overextension  of  a 
legitimate  local  method  into  a “ panacea  ” or  “ cure-all  ” which  con- 
fronts us.  The  promulgation  and  acceptance  of  such  unversatile  and 
one-sided  systems  of  teaching  method  are  indicative  of  two  defects 
in  the  professional  equipment  of  teachers:  (1)  The  lack  of  a clear, 
scientific  notion  as  to  the  nature  and  function  of  teaching  method, 
and  (2)  a lack  of  psychological  insight  into  the  varied  nature  of 
classroom  situations.  Untrained  teachers  we  still  have  among  us, 
and  others,  too,  to  whom  a little  knowledge  is  a dangerous  thing. 
These  are  frequently  carried  away  by  the  enthusiastic  appeals  of  the 
reformer  with  a system  far  too  simple  to  meet  the  complex  needs  of 
human  nature.  Our  experiences  seem  to  have  sobered  us  somewhat, 
the  increase  of  supervision  has  made  responsible  officers  cautious,  and 
increased  professional  intelligence  has  put  a wholesome  damper  upon 
naive  and  futile  proposals  to  make  teaching  eas}^. 

A more  serious  evil  than  that  just  mentioned  is  the  tendency  of  the 
supervising  staff  to  overprescribe  specific  methods  for  classroom 
teachers.  Recently  there  has  developed,  more  particularly  in  large 
city  systems,  a tendency  to  demand  a uniform  mode  of  teaching  the 
same  school  subject  throughout  the  city.  This  has  been  brought 
about  by  the  prevalent  tendencies  of  large  school  systems  to  centralize 
their  authority  and  demand  uniformity  of  procedure.  The  prime 
causes  of  this  tendency  are  to  be  found  (1)  in  the  specialization  of 
grade  teaching,  and  the  interdependence  of  one  teacher  on  another; 
(2)  in  the  mobility  of  the  school  population  which  involves  consider- 
able lost  energy  if  teachers  do  not  operate  along  similar  lines. 

The  result  of  such  imposed  uniformity  is  a reduction  of  sponta- 
neity in  teaching.  The  process  of  instruction  proceeds  in  a more  or 
less  mechanical  fashion,  the  teacher  working  for  bulk  results  by  a 
persistent  and  general  application  of  the  methods  laid  down.  That 
teaching,  which  at  every  moment  tends  to  adjust  itself  skillfully  to 
the  changes  of  human  doubt  and  interest,  difficulty  and  success,  dis- 
couragement and  insight,  now  taking  care  of  a whole  group  at  once, 
now  aiding  an  individual  straggler,  now  resolutely  following  a pre- 
scribed lead,  now  pursuing  a line  of  least  resistance  previously  unsus- 
pected, can  not  thrive  under  such  conditions.  It  stifles  teaching  as 
a fine  art  and  makes  of  it  a mechanical  business.  Under  these  con- 
ditions only  those  activities  which  fit  the  machine  routine  can  go  on. 
Thus  it  happens  that  we  memorize,  cram,  drill,  and  review,  and  soon 
the  subtler  processes  of  thinking  and  evaluating,  which  are  the  best 
fruit  of  education,  cease  to  exist. 


100  MATHEMATICS  TN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

Fortunately  the  one-method  system  of  teaching  will  soon  belong 
to  the  past,  and  the  imposition  of  uniform  methods  is  beginning  to 
lose  ground  even  in  our  cities.  For  the  most  part,  the  common  sense 
of  teachers  and  the  positive  statements  of  our  better  theorists  keep 
teaching  methods  in  a position  of  useful  status.  Teaching  methods 
should  be  infinitely  variable  as  the  conditions  calling  for  their  use  are 
endlessly  changeable.  Not  one  method  but  many  are  necessary,  for 
their  function  is  supplementary  rather  than  computive.  No  one 
method  should  be  used  with  a preestablished  rigidity ; each  must  be 
flexible  in  its  uses,  so  as  to  accomplish  the  varied  work  to  be  done. 
The  teacher  directly  facing  the  intellectual  and  emotional  crises  of 
childhood  is  the  best  interpreter  of  conditions  and  the  best  chooser 
of  the  tools  of  workmanship.  The  supervisor  may  advise  and  may 
point  out  certain  fundamental  laws  of  growth  and  procedure;  but 
the  concrete  method  which  is  the  application  of  these  must  be  of  the 
teacher’s  making. 

Arithmetical  teaching,  like  the  instruction  in  other  subjects,  has 
suffered  from  these  widespread  ventures  of  teaching  method.  In  this 
respect  it  has  shared  the  common  professional  lot.  But  in  addi- 
tion it  has  had  special  difficulties  and  adventures  of  its  own.  We 
have  now  to  note  those  special  phases  of  teaching  method  which  are 
peculiar  and  local  to  mathematical  instruction. 

IV.  METHOD  AS  AFFECTED  BY  THE  DISTRIBUTION  AND  ARRANGEMENT  OF 
ARITHMETICAL  WORK. 

THE  TENDENCY  TOWARD  SHORTENING  THE  TIME  DISTRIBUTION. 

Several  decades  ago  arithmetic,  as  a formal  subject,  was  begun  in 
the  first  school  year  and  continued  throughout  the  grades  to  the  last 
school  year.  This  is  no  longer  a characteristic  condition,  much  less 
a uniform  one.  There  have  been  forces  operating  to  complete  the 
subject  of  arithmetic  prior  to  the  eighth  year,  and  to  delay  its  first 
systematic  presentation  in  the  primary  grades  for  a period  varying 
from  six  months  to  two  years. 

The  attempt  to  shorten  the  period  of  formal  instruction  in  arith- 
metic has  had  its  effects  upon  the  methods  of  teaching  as  well  as 
upon  the  arrangement  of  the  course  of  study.  The  presence  of  a 
large  number  of  children  who  leave  school  by  the  seventh  year,  the 
example  of  a varied  European  practice,  the  overcrowded  curricu- 
lum— all  these  have  combined  to  suggest  a shortened  treatment  of 
arithmetic.  Hence  economy,  through  the  elimination  of  obsolete  and 
unimportant  topics  in  the  course  of  study  and  through  better  methods 
of  instruction,  has  become  a pressing  matter.  Its  influence  on  method 
is  obvious. 

It  has  focused  attention  upon  “ teaching  method  ” and  given  it  an 
increasing  importance  in  the  eyes  of  mathematical  teachers.  Specifi- 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


101 


cally,  it  has  tended  to  reduce  the  amount  of  objective  work,  to  elimi- 
nate the  explanation  or  rationalization  of  processes  which  in  life 
are  done  automatically ; it  has  made  teachers  satisfied  with  teaching 
one  manner  of  solution  where  before  two  or  three  were  given ; it  has 
laid  the  emphasis  upon  utilizing  old  knowledge  in  new  places,  rather 
than  on  acquiring  neAv  means. 

The  by-product  of  this  belief  is  that  any  arithmetic  taught  during 
these  first  few  years  should  be  taught  “ incidentally,”  as  a chance 
accompaniment  of  their  other  studies.  Only  after  one  or  two  years 
of  incidental  work  should  the  formal  arithmetic  instruction  be  given. 
This  “ incidental  ” method  of  teaching  beginners  is  difficult  to  esti- 
mate. It  has  been  so  variously  treated  that*  a comparative  measure 
of  its  worth  is  difficult  to  obtain.  The  contention  that  children  who 
are  taught  incidentally  for  two  years  and  systematically  for  two 
years  more  have  at  the  end  of  four  years  of  school  life  as  good  a 
command  of  arithmetic  as  those  who  have  had  a systematic  course 
through  four  school  years  is  difficult  to  substantiate  or  deny  on  scien- 
tific grounds.  Sometimes  “ incidental  ” teaching  required  by  the 
course  of  study  becomes  “ systematic  ” in  the  hands  of  the  teacher. 
Sometimes  the  two  years  of  “ systematic  ” teaching  that  follows  the 
incidental  teaching  means  more  than  two  years,  since  the  teachers, 
in  order  to  catch  up,  give  more  time  and  emphasis  to  the  subjects 
than  the  relative  time  allotment  of  any  general  schedule  would  seem 
to  warrant.  Such  have  been  the  facts  frequently  revealed  by  a class- 
room inspection  that  penetrates  beyond  the  course  of  study,  the  time 
schedule,  and  the  regulations  of  the  school  board. 

In  the  lack  of  specific  comparative  measures  of  the  worth  of  such 
methods  of  instruction,  there  is  a growing  conviction  (1)  that  begin- 
ning school  children  are  mature  enough  for  the  systematic  study  , of 
all  the  arithmetic  that  the  modern  course  of  study  would  assign  to 
these  grades;  (2)  that  considering  the  quantity  and  quality  of  their 
experiences  they  can  think  or  reason-  quite  as  well  as  memorize ; and 
(3)  that  what  the  school  requires  of  the  child  can  be  better  done  in 
a responsible,  systematic  manner  than  by  any  haphazard  system  of 
incidental  instruction. 

These  reactionary  attitudes  by  no  means  imply  a return  to  sys- 
tematic teaching  of  arithmetic  in  the  first  two  school  years,  nor  to 
such  forma]  methods  as  had  previously  been  employed.  Other 
grounds  forbid.  The  crude,  uninteresting  memoriter  methods  of  the 
past  have  gone  for  good.  Objective  work,  plays,  games,  manual  ac- 
tivities make  arithmetical  study  easier  and  more  efficient.  Indeed, 
these  newer  methods  have  been  a large  factor  in  convincing  teachers 
that  children  have  the  ability  to  master  the  first  steps  in  arithmetic 
during  the  first  two  years. 


102 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE.  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


There  are  other  problems  of  method  that  are  not  so  much  con- 
cerned with  the  beginning  of  the  study  of  arithmetic,  or  with  the 
span  of  school  life  that  the  subject  is  supposed  to  cover.  These  deal 
with  the  arrangement  of  subtopics,  within  the  course  of  study,  or 
with  the  manner  of  progression  from  one  aspect  of  arithmetical 
experience  to  another. 

The  methods  that  have  been  employed  in  the  United  States  for 
the  arrangement  or  ordering  of  topics  within  the  course  of  study 
have  varied  considerably  from  time  to  time,  but  all  these  variations 
may  be  grouped  around  two  types:  (1)  The  “logical”  types  of  ar- 
rangement and  (2)  the  “psychological”  types  of  arrangement.  If 
the  course  of  study  proceeds  primarily  by  units  that  are  characteristic 
of  the  mathematics  of  a mature  adult  mind,  the  type  may  be  said 
to  be  “ logical.”  If  the  course  of  study  proceeds  primarily  by  units 
that  are  characteristic  of  the  manner  in  which  an  immature  child’s 
mind  approaches  the  subject,  then  the  type  may  be  said  to  be 
“psychological.” 

The  older  “ logical  ” plans  are  thorough  and  definite  in  their  de- 
mands; the  teacher  always  knows  just  what  he  is  about.  But  such 
a system  of  procedure  is  unnatural  and  remote  from  the  child;  it 
lacks  appeal  and  motive.  The  child  pursues  the  subject  as  a task 
laid  down  for  him,  not  as  an  answer  to  his  own  curiosities  or  necessi- 
ties. The  newer  psychological  plans  meet  the  different  levels  of 
child  maturity  effectively;  they  are  nearer  the  natural  order  of  ac- 
quiring knowledge.  But  it  is  not  easy  for  the  teachers  to  keep 
account  of  the  work  of  their  own,  previous,  or  subsequent  grades. 
Nor  does  the  supervising  official  find  it  easy  to  locate  responsibility 
for  definite  arithmetical  subtopics.  As  an  order  of  teaching  it  is 
psychologically  natural  but  administratively  ineffective. 

The  result  is  that  to-day  the  two  types  of  arrangement  are  modi- 
fying each  other  and  giving  a mixed  method,  partly  logical  and 
partly  psychological.  That  line  of  least  resistance  in  which  the  chil- 
dren study  arithmetical  facts  and  processes  with  greatest  success  is 
modified  by  definite  demands  that  topics,  e.  g.,  addition,  be  mastered 
thoroughly  “ then  and  there.”  The  method  is  partly  “ topical  ” and 
partly  “spiral.”  The  child  in  the  second  grade  may  have  a little 
of  all  the  fundamental  processes,  a few  simple  fractions,  and  United 
States  money,  but  just  there  he  will  be  held  definitely  responsible 
for  a very  considerable  number  of  the  addition  combinations.  The 
pupil  may  have  had  fractions  in  every  grade,  but  the  fifth  grade  will 
be  responsible  for  a thorough  and  systematic  mastery  of  the  same. 
Such  is  the  mixed  method  of  arrangement  which  is  to-day  prevalent 
in  American  schools. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


103 


V.  OBJECTIVE  TEACHING. 

The  use  of  objects  in  teaching  arithmetic  is  current  in  the  ele- 
mentary school.  Particularly  is  this  true  in  the  lowest  grades  of  the 
school,  in  primary  work.  It  may  be  said  that  there  is  a very  large 
quantity  of  objective  teaching  in  the  first  year  of  school  and  that  it 
decreases  more  or  less  gradually  as  the  higher  grades  are  approached. 
By  the  time  the  highest  grammar  grades  are  reached  the  use  of 
objects  has  reached  its  minimum,  the  underlying  assumption  being 
that  the  use  of  objects  has  a teaching  value  that  decreases  as  the 
maturity  of  the  pupils  increases.  Current  practice  does  not  proceed 
far  beyond  the  application  of  the  simple  and  somewhat  crude 
psychological  statement  that  the  youngest  children  must  have  much 
objective  teaching,  the  older  less,  the  oldest  least  of  all. 

Reform  in  the  direction  of  a more  refined  and  exact  use  of  object 
teaching  has  already  suggested  itself  in  the  treatment  of  fractions  and 
mensuration,  where,  regardless  of  the  increased  maturity  of  the 
children  studying  these  topics,  a large  amount  of  objective  method 
is  utilized.  This  is  a considerable  departure  from  the  slight  objective 
treatment  of  other  arithmetical  topics  taught  in  the  same  grades. 
Such  exceptional  practices  suggest  that  the  novelty  of  an  arithmetical 
topic  is  the  condition  calling  for  objective  work  in  instruction.  It 
is  immaturity  in  a special  subject  or  situation  which  determines  the 
amount  of  basal  objective  work.  The  correlation  is  not  with  the  age 
of  the  pupil  but  with  his  experience  with  the  special  problem  or  sub- 
ject in  hand.  It  is,  of  course,  true  that  the  less  experienced  the 
student  is  the  greater  the  likelihood  that  any  subject  presented  will 
be  novel  and  strange.  Only  in  this  indirect  manner  does  the  novelty 
of  subject  matter  coincide  with  mere  youth  as  an  essential  principle 
in  determining  the  need  of  objective  presentation.  The  naive  as- 
sumption of  the  older  enthusiastic  reformers  that  objective  work  is 
a good  thing  psychologically,  one  of  which  the  pupil  can  not  have 
too  much,  is  by  no  means  the  accepted  view  of  the  new  reformer. 
With  the  latter,  objective  presentation  is  an  excellent  method  at  a 
given  stage  of  immaturity  in  the  special  topic  involved,  but  it  may 
be  uneconomical,  even  an  obstacle  to  efficiency,  if  pushed  beyond. 

There  is  then  a certain  coincidence  of  the  scientific  criticism  of 
the  psychologist  and  of  the  common-sense  criticism  of  the  con- 
servative teachers  who  look  suspiciously  upon  a highly  extended 
object  teaching.  The  teachers,  on  grounds  of  experience,  say  that  too 
much  objective  teaching  is  confusing  and  delays  teaching.  The 
psychological  critics  say  it  is  unnecessary  and  wasteful.  The  result 
is  that,  in  these  later  days,  the  distribution  of  objective  work  has 
changed  somewhat.  More  subjects  are  developed  in  the  higher  grades 
through  objective  instruction  than  before.  Perhaps  no  fewer  subjects 


104 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


in  the  lower  grades  are  presented  objectively,  but  the  extent  of 
objective  treatment  of  each  of  these  has  undergone  considerable 
curtailment. 

The  existing  defects  in  objective  teaching  are  not  restricted  to  a 
false  placing  or  distribution.  The  quality  of  teaching  with  the  aid  of 
objects  is  likewise  open  to  serious  criticism.  Object  teaching  is  a 
device,  so  successful  as  against  prior  nonobjective  teaching  that  it 
has  come  to  be  a standard  of  instruction  as  well  as  a means.  As  long 
as  objects — any  convenient  objects — are  used,  the  teaching  is  regarded 
as  good.  Given  such  a sanction,  the  inevitable  result  is  an  indis- 
criminating  use  of  objects.  The  process  of  objectifying  tends  not 
to  be  regulated  by  the  needs  of  the  child’s  thinking  life;  it  is  de- 
termined by  the  enthusiasm  of  the  teacher  and  materials  convenient 
for  school  use. 

The  first  fact  which,  asserts  itself  in  observing  objective  teaching 
is  the  artificiality  of  the  materials  employed.  Primary  children 
count,  add,  etc.,  with  things  they  will  never  be  concerned  with  in 
life.  Lentils,  sticks,  tablets  and  the  like  are  the  stock  objective  stuff 
of  the  schools,  and  to  a considerable  degree  this  will  always  be  the 
case.  Cheap  and  convenient  material  suitable  for  individual  ma- 
nipulation on  the  top  of  a school  desk  is  not  plentiful.  But  instances 
where  better  and  more  normal  material  has  been  used  are  frequent 
enough  in  the  better  schools  to  warrant  the  belief  that  more  could  be 
done  in  this  direction  in  the  average  classroom.  The  “playing  at 
store”,  the  use  of  actual  applications  of  the  tables  of  weight  and 
measures  are  cases  that  might  be  cited. 

The  materials  used  are  not  only  more  artificial  than  they  need  be, 
but  they  are  too  restricted  in  range.  More  forms  of  even  the  artificial 
material  should  be  used,  thus  minimizing  the  danger  of  monotony. 

Even  the  narrow  range  of  materials  in  general  use  might  be  better 
employed  than  it  is.  There  is,  of  course,  a distinct  tendency  to  vary 
the  objects,  merely  because  a child  gets  tired  of  it  as  a material.  It 
is  too  frequently  the  case  that  the  teacher  will  treat  the  fundamental 
addition  combinations  with  one  set  of  objects,  e.  g.,  lentils.  In  all 
the  child’s  objective  experience  within  that  field  there  are  two  per- 
sistent associations — “ lentils  ” and  “ the  relation  of  addition.”  The 
accidental  element  has  been  emphasized  as  frequently  as  the  essential 
one,  and  being  concrete  has  had  even  a better  chance  to  impress  itself. 

The  nature  of  the  materials  proper  to  objective  teaching  has  likewise 
been  too  narrowly  interpreted.  Objective  teaching  has  meant  almost 
exclusively  instructing  or  developing  through  three-dimensional 
representation,  whereas  another  form  has  been  neglected,  which  for 
all  the  psychological  purposes  of  education  has  as  much  worth  as 
so-called  objects,  namely,  use  of  such  material  as  pictures.  Such 
quasi-objective  material  has  been  little  used  by  teachers  save  as  it 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


105 


appears  in  textbooks.  There  are,  of  course,  obvious  disadvantages 
to  pictures  and  diagrams.  The  things  represented  in  and  by  them 
are  not  capable  of  personal  manipulation  by  the  child  in  the  ordinary 
sense.  But  they  have  a superiority  all  their  own.  They  offer  a 
wider,  more  aatural,  and  more  interesting  range  of  concrete 
experiences. 

There  are  other  curious  phases  of  narrowness  in  the  current  peda- 
gogical interpretation  as  to  what  constitutes  a concrete  or  objective 
experience.  It  will  be  noted  that  visual  objects  are  the  ones  gen- 
erally employed  and  that  they  are  generally  inanimate  objects.  Of 
late  there  has  been  some  tendency  to  use  hearing  and  touch  in  giving 
a concrete  basis  to  teaching.  Advantage  is  taken  of  the  social  plays 
of  children  and  their  games  with  things.  Here  the  children  them- 
selves and  their  relations  and  acts  are  the  experiences  from  which  the 
numerical  units  are  obtained.  With  some  of  the  best  teachers  in  the 
lowest  grades  it  is  no  longer  unusual  to  see  children  moving  about  in 
all  sorts  of  play  designed  to  add  reality  to  and  increase  interest  in 
number  facts. 

Inductive  teaching  has  been  one  of  several  movements  affecting 
objective  teaching.  The  effort  of  teachers  to  escape  the  slavishness  of 
mere  memoriter  methods  and  to  approximate  real  thinking  led  to  the 
introduction  of  inductive  teaching.  Necessarily  objective  teaching 
became  more  or  less  identified  with  the  new  movement  and  was  in- 
fluenced by  it.  So,  it  has  been  said  of  objective  work  in  arithmetic, 
as  it  has  been  said  of  laboratory  work  in  the  sciences,  that  such  in- 
struction is  a method  of  “ discovery  ” or  “ rediscovery.”  Such  an 
alliance  has  had  its  beneficial  effects  upon  objective  teaching;  it  has 
redeemed  it  from  the  aimless  “ observational  work  ” of  an  earlier 
“ objective  study.”  But  in  the  teaching  of  arithmetic,  at  any  rate, 
it  confused  an  objective  mode  of  presentation  with  a scientific  method 
of  learning  truth,  two  activities  having  a common  logical  basis,  but 
not  at  all  the  same.  Under  the  assumption  that  the  developmental 
method  is  one  of  rediscovery,  the  tendency  is  to  give  the  child  as 
complete  a range  of  concrete  evidences  as  would  be  necessary  on  the 
part  of  the  scientist  in  substantiating  a new  fact.  The  result  is,  that 
long  after  the  child  is  convinced  of  the  truth,  say  that  4 and  2 are  6, 
the  teacher  persists  in  giving  further  objective  illustrations  of  the 
fact.  The  child  loses  interest  in  the  somewhat  monotonous  contin- 
uance of  objective  manipulations,  and  the  teacher  has  naturally 
wasted  time  and  energy. 

Another  modern  movement  in  teaching  method  which  has  had  a 
conspicuous  effect  on  objective  teaching  is  the  movement  toward 
“ self-activity  ” on  the  part  of  the  child.  The  recent  favor  enjoyed 
by  manual  training,  nature  study,  self-government,  and  other  active 
phases  of  school  life  is  an  index  of  the  general  movement  in  mind. 


106  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

Its  influence  has  not  only  forced  the  introduction  of  new  subjects; 
it  has  changed  the  manner  of  presenting  the  older  subjects  of  the 
elementary  curriculum.  Arithmetic  has  responded  along  with  the 
other  subjects  and  an  active  use  of  objects  by  the  children  themselves 
is  found  in  increased  degree. 

VI.  THE  USE  OF  METHODS  OF  RATIONALIZATION. 

It  is  perfectly  natural  that,  in  shifting  the  teacher’s  attention  from 
her  own  activities  to  those  of  the  children,  the  interest  of  the  child 
should  be  considered  in  increasing  degree.  If  the  child  is  to  learn 
directly,  with  a maximum  use  of  his  initiative,  it  is  absolutely 
essential  that  the  teacher  should  provide  some  motive.  This  implies 
that  the  child  is  to  be  interested  in  some  fundamental  way  in  the 
activities  in  which  he  is  to  engage.  Instead  of  thumbing  the  funda- 
mental facts  with  his  memory,  in  an  artificial  and  effortful  manner, 
“ singsonging  ” the  tables  rhythmically,  so  as  to  make  dull  business 
less  dull,  the  teacher  begins  at  once  to  use  the  child’s  own  life  as  the 
basis  for  instruction.  The  number  story,  the  arithmetical  game, 
playing  at  adult  activities,  constructive  work,  measuring,  and  other 
vital  interests  of  the  child  and  community  life  become  increasingly 
the  basis  of  instruction  in  number.  Such  is  the  pronounced  tendency 
wherever  the  movement  is  away  from  the  traditional  rote-learning 
or  drill. 

Of  course  there  is  the  slight  tendency  in  American  elementary 
schools  where  a soft  and  false  interpretation  of  the  doctrine  of  in- 
terest is  gospel  to  teach  only  those  things  which  can  be  taught  in 
an  interesting  fashion.  But  this  tendency  is  less  operative  in  arith- 
metic than  in  other  subjects.  Here  the  logical  interdependence  of 
one  arithmetical  skill  on  another  has  quickly  pointed  the  failure  of 
such  a haphazard  mode  of  instruction. 

There  is,  however,  in  “advanced”,  as  well  as  in  reactionary 
quarters,  a revolt  against  the  tendency  to  objectify,  explain,  or 
rationalize  everything  taught  in  arithmetic.  On  the  wThole  it  is  a 
discriminating  movement,  for  this  opposition  to  “ rationalization  ” in 
arithmetical  teaching,  and  in  favor  of  “ memorization  ” or  “ habitua- 
tion,” bases  its  plea  on  rational  grounds,  mainly  derived  from  the 
facts  of  modern  psychology. 

It  is  specifically  opposed  to  explaining  why  “ carrying  ” in  addition, 
and  “ borrowing  ” in  subtraction  are  right  modes  of  procedure.  These 
acts  are  to  be  taught  as  memory  or  habit,  inasmuch  as  they  are  to  be 
performed  by  that  method  forever  after.  To  develop  such  processes 
rationally  or  to  demand  a reason  for  the  procedure  once  it  is  acquired, 
is  merely  to  stir  up  unnecesary  trouble,  trouble  unprompted  by  any 
demands  of  actual  efficiency. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


107 


A study  of  the  actual  arithmetical  facts  upon  which  this  opposition 
expresses  itself  suggests  the  four  following  general  principles  as  to 
the  use  of  “rationalization  ” and  “habituation  ” as  methods  of  mas- 
tery: (1)  Any  fact  or  process  which  always  recurs  in  the  same 
identical  manner,  and  occurs  with  sufficient  frequency  to  be  remem- 
bered, ought  not  to  be  “ rationalized  ” for  the  pupil,  but  “ habit- 
uated.” The  correct  placing  of  partial  products  in  the  multiplication 
of  two  numbers  of  two  or  more  figures  is  a specific  case.  (2)  If  a 
process  does  recur  in  the  same  manner,  but  is  so  little  used  in 
after  life  that  any  formal  method  of  solution  would  be  forgotten, 
then  the  teacher  should  “ rationalize  ” it.  The  process  of  finding  the 
square  root  of  a number  illustrates  this  series  of  facts.  (3)  If  the 
process  always  does  occur  in  the  same  manner,  but  with  the  frequency 
of  its  recurrence  in  doubt,  the  teacher  should  both  “ habituate  ” and 
“ rationalize.”  The  division  of  a fraction  by  a fraction  is  frequently 
taught  both  “ mechanically  ” and  “ by  thinking  it  out.”  (4)  When  a 
process  or  relation  is  likely  to  be  expressed  in  a variable  form,  then 
the  child  must  be  taught  to  think  through  the  relations  involved,  and 
should  not  be  permitted  to  treat  it  mechanically  through  a mere  act 
of  habit  or  memory.  All  applied  examples  are  to  be  dealt  with  in 
this  manner,  for  such  problems  are  of  many  types,  and  no  two  of  the 
same  type  are  ever  quite  alike.  These  laws  will,  of  course,  not  be 
interpreted  to  mean  that  no  reason  is  to  be  given  a child  in  a process 
like  “ carrying  ” in  addition.  The  reason  is  not  essential  to  efficient 
mastery,  but  it  may  be  given  to  add  interest  or  to  satisfy  the  specially 
curious. 

VII.  SPECIAL  METHODS  FOR  OBTAINING  ACCURACY,  INDEPENDENCE,  AND  SPEED. 

It  is  not  alone  the  first  stages  in  the  acquisition  of  an  arithmetical 
process  which  have  received  attention  in  the  reorganization  of  teach- 
ing methods,  though,  to  be  sure,  the  problem  of  first  presentations 
has  in  recent  decades  been  given  the  most  attention.  More  and  more 
the  American  tendency  is  to  watch  every  step  in  the  learning  process, 
to  provide  for  all  necessary  transitions,  and  to  safeguard  against 
avoidable  confusions.  It  might  be  suggested  that  constant  inter- 
mediation of  the  teacher  in  the  child’s  work  at  every  step  might 
destroy  the  pupil’s  initiative  and  independence.  Apparently,  how- 
ever, those  who  are  so  deeply  interested  that  the  child  should  not  be 
permitted  to  fall  into  the  errors  which  unsupervised  drill  would  con- 
vert into  habit,  are  fully  as  cautious  to  provide  steps  for  forcing  the 
child  to  assume,  an  increasing  responsibility  for  his  own  work.  The 
distinction  made  is  that  an  over-early  independence  is  as  fatal  to 
accurate  and  rapid  mathematical  work  as  an  over-delayed  dependence. 

One  of  the  specific  controversies  much  argued  in  the  primary 
school  concerns  the  medium  through  which  arithmetical  examples  and 


108  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

problems  shall  be  transmitted  to  young  children.  There  are  three 
typical  ways  in  which  a situation  demanding  arithmetical  solution 
may  be  brought  to  the  child’s  mind:  (1)  The  situation  when  visible 
may  be  presented  through  itself;  that  is,  objectively;  (2)  the  situa- 
tion may  be  described  through  the  medium  of  spoken  language,  the 
teacher  usually  giving  the  dictation;  (8)  the  situation  may  be  con- 
veyed through  written  language,  as  when  the  child  reads  from  black- 
board or  text.  Inasmuch  as  objects  are  a universal  language,  no 
difficulty  arises  through  this  basic  method  of  presentation.  It  is 
when  a language  description  of  a situation  is  substituted  for  the  situ- 
ation itself  that  difficulty  arises.  The  child  might  be  able  to  solve  the 
problem  if  he  really  understood  the  situation  the  language  was  meant 
to  convey.  Owing  to  the  difficulty  that  primary  children  have  in 
getting  the  thought  out  of  language,  it  has  been  urged  that  problems 
in  any  unfamiliar  field  should  be  presented  in  the  following  order: 
(1)  Objectively  or  graphically;  (2)  when  the  fundamental  idea  is 
grasped,  through  spoken  language  ; and  (3)  after  the  type  of  situa- 
tion is  fairly  familiar,  through  written  or  printed  language.  It  is 
seriously  urged  by  some  teachers  that  no  written  presentation  should 
be  used  in  the  first  four  grades.  Such  an  extreme  tendency  would 
practically  abolish  the  use  of  primary  textbooks.  There  are  many 
exceptional  teachers  who  do  not  put  a primary  text  in  the  hands  of 
children  at  all.  Such  a tendency  is  increasing.  Particularly  is  this 
true  among  primary  teachers  in  the  schools  of  the  foreign  quarters 
of  large  cities.  Accurate  communication  through  the  English  lan- 
guage is  always  more  difficult  here.  Hence,  the  period  of  objective 
teaching  is  necessarily  prolonged,  dependence  on  the  “ number 
stories  ” told  by  the  teacher  increased,  and  the  solution  of  written 
problems  much  longer  delayed  than  elsewhere. 

The  situation  is  somewhat  different,  almost  the  opposite  in  fact, 
when  “ examples  ” rather  than  “ problems  ” are  presented,  meaning 
by  “ example  ” a “ problem  ” expressed  through  the  use  of  mathe- 
matical signs.  It  is  easier  to  present  “ examples  ” in  written  form 
on  blackboard  or  in  text  than  it  is  to  dictate  them  orally.  This 
obviates  the  necessity  of  holding  the  examples  in  mind  during  solu- 
tion. The  permanence  of  the  visual  presentation  saves  the  restate- 
ment frequently  necessary  in  oral  presentation.  Hence  it  is  a common 
practice  to  supply  the  youngest  children  with  mimeographed  or 
written  sheets  of  “ examples.”  It  is  with  older  children  or  with 
younger  children  at  a latter  stage  in  the  mastery  of  a typical  difficulty, 
that  oral  presentation  of  examples  is  stressed.  Then  we  have  that 
type  of  work  which  is  called  “ mental  ” or  “ silent  ” arithmetic. 

There  is  some  tendency  toward  the  provision  of  better  transitions 
from  the  objective  presentation  of  applied  problems  to  the  symbolic 
presentation  of  abstract  examples.  The  nature  of  such  a transition 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  G. 


109 


is  scarcely  reasoned  out  as  so  much  psychological  science,  but  is  the 
accompaniment  of  a widening  professional  movement  for  the  en- 
larged use  of  pictures,  diagrams,  number  stories,  and  the  like.  A 
critical  examination  of  the  various  means  of  presenting  arithmetical 
situations  would  order  them  as  follows  in  making  the  transition 
from  objective  concreteness  to  symbolic  abstractions:  (1)  Objects, 
(2)  pictures,  (3)  graphs,  (4)  the  concrete  imagery  of  words,  (3)  more 
abstract  verbal  presentations,  (6)  presentations  through  mathe- 
matical symbols.  No  such  minuteness  of  adjustment  is  apparent 
in  existing  methods,  though  it  might  seem  desirable  in  teaching  young 
children.  There  are  four  typical  ways  in  which  the  child  does  his 
work,  the  names  of  which  are  derived  from  the  differentiating  ele- 
ment: (1)  The  “silent”  method,  otherwise  spoken  of  as  “mental 
arithmetic,”  “ arithmetic  without  a pencil,”  etc.  (2)  The  “ oral  ” 
method,  where  the  child  works  aloud — that  is,  expresses  his  procedure 
step  by  step  in  speech.  (3)  The  “ written  ” method,  where  the  child 
writes  out  in  full  his  analysis  and  calculations.  (4)  The  “ mixed  ” 
method,  where  the  child  uses  all  three  of  the  previously  mentioned 
methods,  in  alternation,  as  necessary  for  ease  and  efficienc}^. 

The  worth  of  these  four  methods  of  work  is  necessarily  variable. 
The  rapidity  of  the  “ silent  method  ” with  simple  figures  is  obvious. 
The  “ silent  method  ” and  the  “ mixed  method  ” (which  is  more  slow 
but  more  manageable  with  complex  processes  and  calculations)  are 
the  two  methods  normally  employed  in  social  and  business  life.  The 
purely  “ oral  ” and  “ written  ” methods,  with  their  tendency  toward 
analysis  and  calculation  fully  expressed  in  oral  or  written  language, 
are  highly  artificial.  They  are  valuable  as  school  devices  for  reveal- 
ing the  action  of  the  child’s  mind  to  the  teacher  so  that  the  same 
may  be  corrected,  guided,  and  generally  controlled.  The  present 
tendency  is  toward  an  over-use  of  these  methods  and  toward  an  under- 
use of  the  other  two,  more  particularly  the  “ mixed  ” method.  It 
would  seem  that  there  is  little  conscious  attempt  to  make  certain 
that  the  child  moves  from  full  oral  or  written  statements  to  the 
judicious  application  of  the  more  natural  “silent”  and  “mixed” 
methods.  It  may  be  that  full  oral  and  written  statements  of  work 
have  seriously  hampered  the  right  use  of  the  more  natural  methods 
of  statement. 

It  is  well  to  recall  that  in  all  these  efforts  to  control  the  child’s 
activity  there  is  a tendency  to  leave  the  child  overdependent  upon 
the  teacher.  It  is  vitally  important  that  a child  should  be  kept  free 
of  any  error  which  unsupervised  drill  would  fix  into  the  stubbornness 
of  habit,  but  it  is  likewise  important  that  the  child  should  acquire 
some  self-reliance.  While  not  always  clearly  defined,  there  is  a dis- 
tinct tendency  in  the  direction  of  releasing  the  teacher’s  control  of 
the  child.  A characteristic  practice  would  be  one  in  which  the 


110  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

teacher’s  work  with  the  child  would  pass  through  various  stages, 
each  one  of  which  would  mark  a decrease  in  the  control  of  the  process 
by  the  teacher  and  an  increase  in  the  freedom  of  the  child  to  do  his 
example,  or  problem,  by  himself. 

One  characteristic  series  of  stages  quite  frequently  used  in  the 
presentation  of  a single  topic  in  arithmetic,  say  “carrying”  in  addi- 
tion, is  the  following:  (1)  The  teacher  performs  the  process  on  the 

blackboard  in  the  presence  of  the  class,  the  children  not  being  allowed 
to  attempt  the  process  by  themselves  until  after  the  process  is  clearly 
understood  from  the  teacher’s  development.  (2)  The  children  are 
then  allowed  to  perform  the  process  upon  the  blackboard,  where  it 
is  exceedingly  easy  for  the  teacher  to  keep  the  work  of  every  child 
under  her  eye.  An  error  is  caught  by  a quick  glance  at  the  board 
and  immediately  corrected  before  the  child  can  reiterate  a false  im- 
pression. (3)  More  of  the  same  type  of  example,  or  problem,  are  as- 
signed to  the  children  at  their  seats,  where  they  work  upon  paper, 
still  under  the  supervision  of  the  teacher;  a supervision  which  is 
less  adequate,  however.  (4)  The  same  difficulty,  after  the  careful 
safeguarding  of  the  previous  stages,  is  then  assigned  for  “home 
work,”  where  the  child  relies  almost  completely  upon  himself.  Once 
more  it  is  necesary  to  suggest  that  these  stages  are  merely  roughly 
implied  in  the  variations  of  existing  practice. 

Most  of  the  methods  discussed  in  this  chapter  have  had  as  their 
sanction  the  attainment  of  accuracy  in  thinking  and  calculating. 
Some  efforts  to  insure  independent  power  on  the  part  of  the  child 
have  already  been  noted.  But  nothing  has  been  said  of  the  effort  to 
add  speed  to  accuracy  in  getting  efficient  results.  Such  special  efforts 
have  been  made.  These  efforts  may  be  classified  into  two  groups: 
(1)  Those  aiming  to  quicken  the  rate  of  mental  response.  (2)  Those 
aiming  at  short-cut  processes  of  calculation. 

Typical  of  the  first  are  (a)  the  use  of  an  established  rhythm  as 
the  child  attacks  a column  of  additions;  (Z>)  the  device  of  having 
children  race  for  quick  answers,  having  them  raise  their  hands  or 
stand  when  they  have  gotten  the  answer;  ( c ) the  assignment  of  a 
series  of  problems  for  written  work  under  the  pressure  of  a re- 
stricted time  allotment  for  the  performance  of  each.  These  and 
similar  devices  are  much  used  in  the  schools.  They  are  open  to  the 
objection  that  they  quicken  the  rate  of  the  better  students,  but  foster 
confusion,  error,  and  discouragement  among  the  less  able  children, 
not  infrequently,  actually  retarding  speed. 

The  various  shorter  methods  which  represent  the  effort  to  reduce 
the  number  of  mental  processes  required  are  usually  not  of  general 
applicability,  and  consequently  have  not  attained  any  general  cur- 
rency in  the  elementary  schools,  where  the  object  is  to  teach  one  gen- 
erally available  and  effective  method,  even  though  it  requires  more 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


Ill 


time,  special  expertness  being  left  to  later  development  in  the  special 
school  of  business  which  requires  it. 

It  has  come  to  be  quite  a common  recognition  of  teachers  that  the 
fundamental  element  in  rapid  arithmetical  work  is  certain  and  accu- 
rate work.  If  pupils  know  their  tables  of  combinations  and  are  sure 
of  each  detail  of  calculation,  there  is  no  confusion  or  hesitancy; 
speed  then  follows  as  a matter  of  course.  This  belief,  as  much  as 
anything  else,  explains  why  the  lower  schools  have  developed  few 
special  means  for  attaining  speed  apart  from  those  already  men- 
tioned. 

VIII.  THE  USE  OF  SPECIAL  ALGORISMS,  ORAL  FORMS,  AND  WRITTEN 

ARRANGEMENTS. 

The  methods  of  teaching  arithmetic  are  influenced  not  only  by 
the  aims  of  such  instruction,  but  by  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  matter 
taught.  The  use  of  special  algorisms,  temporary  algoristic  aids  or 
teaching  “ crutches,”  oral  and  written  forms  of  analysis  are  of  con- 
siderable moment  in  determining  the  difficulties  and  therefore  the 
methods  of  teaching.  Their  condition  and  influence  will  need  to  be 
given  some  slight  notice. 

The  use  of  special  and  temporary  algoristic  aids  or  learning 
“ crutches  ” in  mathematical  calculation  is  one  of  the  problems  of 
method  under  constant  controversy.  Teachers  seem  fairly  evenly 
divided  upon  the  question.  Typical  situations  in  which  such 
“ crutches  ” are  used  may  be  noted  as  follows : Changing  the  figures 
of  the  upper  number  in  “ borrowing  ” in  subtraction ; rewriting 
figures  in  adding  and  subtracting  fractions,  in  the  broad  sense  any 
algorism  which  is  used  during  the  teaching  or  learning  process  tem- 
porarily, to  be  abandoned  completely  later,  is  an  “ accessory  algor- 
ism ” or  “ crutch.”  The  objections  to  their  use  lie  in  the  fact 
(1)  that  skill  in  manipulation  is  learned  in  connection  with  stages 
and  forms  not  characteristic  of  final  practical  use;  (2)  that  this  im- 
plies, psychologically  at  any  rate,  the  waste  of  learning  two  forms 
or  usages  instead  of  one;  and  (3)  that  it  decreases  the  speed  with 
which  mathematical  calculation  is  done.  If  there  is  a drift  in  any 
direction,  it  is  probably  toward  the  abandonment  of  “ crutches.” 

The  division  of  opinion,  which  exists  in  connection  with  the  tem- 
porary use  of  special  algorisms  or  “ crutches,”  likewise  exists  with’ 
reference  to  the  use  of  “ full  forms  ” and  “ short  forms  ” of  manip- 
ulation and  statement.  The  temporary  use  of  a “ full  form,”  in  a 
case  where  a “ short  form  ” will  finally  be  used,  is  similar  to  the 
emplo^yment  of  a “ crutch.”  There  is  one  important  difference,  how- 
ever, which  explains  the  relatively  larger  presence  of  temporary 
“ full  forms  ” than  of  “ crutches.”  The  “ full  form  ” is  an  accurate 
form  which  is  used  somewhere,  in  a more  complex  stage  of  the  same 
1442°— 11 8 


112 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


process  or  in  some  other  process ; the  “ crutch  ” is  not.  Thus,  a “ full 
form,”  in  column  addition  (with  partial  totals  and  a final  total  of 
partial  totals)  will  be  utilized  in  column  multiplication;  the  “long- 
division  form  ” of  doing  “ short  division  ” (that  is  the  fully  expressed 
form  of  dividing  by  a number  of  one  figure)  will  be  utilized  in  divi- 
sion by  numbers  of  more  than  one  figure. 

The  problem  of  form  applies  not  alone  to  the  algorism  or  special 
method  of  computation,  but  it  likewise  applies  to  the  special  methods 
of  reasoning  used  in  determining  the  specific  series  of  steps  to  be 
taken  in  achieving  the  answer.  In  every  problem  the  child  solves 
he  must  not  only  decide  what  is  to  be  done  (reason),  but  he  must  do 
it  (calculate).  There  are  forms  of  reasoning  as  there  are  forms  of 
calculation.  As  any  calculation  may  have  several  algorisms  the 
solution  of  a problem  may  be  expressed  in  several  forms.  It  is  the 
latter  difficulty  which  appears  in  the  teacher’s  demands  for  “ formal 
analysis  ” of  problems.  The  analysis  is  usually  required  in  full 
statement. 

A conservative  protest  against  the  old  formal  expression  of  rea- 
soned steps  is  found  in  omitting  for  the  most  part  the  linguistic  state- 
ments dealing  with  the  logic  of  the  problem  and  merely  “ labeling  ” 
the  numbers  that  occur  in  the  calculation.  This  is  a more  restricted 
form  of  statement,  much  more  used  at  the  present  time  than  hitherto. 
But  it  is  still  open  to  psychological  objections  that  make  the  more 
scientific  critics  protest.  There  are  many  stages  in  a calculation 
where  there  is  no  association  whatever  with  the  concrete  problem  in 
hand.  The  concrete  problem  is  studied,  the  decision  is  made  that  all 
the  factors  named  are  to  be  added.  They  are  added,  purely  abstractly, 
and  a number  is  given  as  the  total.  The  result  is  then  thought  of  in 
terms  of  the  concrete  problem  in  hand.  A disposition  to  label  each 
item  in  the  addition  may  be  necessary  in  the  rendering  of  a bill,  but 
it  is  a false  and  obstructing  activity  in  the  actual  solving  of  the 
problem.  The  same  situation  exists  where  there  are  two  or  three  proc- 
esses to  be  utilized  in  series.  Once  the  child  has  grasped  his  con- 
crete situation  and  reasoned  what  to  do  he  may  proceed  to  mechanical 
manipulation,  never  thinking  of  the  concrete  applications  till  he  is 
done. 

The  same  tendency  which  is  making  for  a reduction  of  verbal  forms 
is  increasing  the  use  of  mathematical  symbols.  As  logical  relations 
are  less  frequently  written  out,  a simple  sign  such  as  -f-  or  is  used. 
The  algebraic  x is  supplied  in  place  of  a whole  roundabout  series  of 
awkward  preliminary  statements  or  assumptions.  With  it,  of  course, 
come  changed  methods  of  manipulation,  as  in  the  use  of  the  algebraic 
equation. 

It  is  doubtless  true  that  the  rigidity  of  full  logical  forms  is  giving 
way  to  a more  flexible  and  natural  mode  of  expressing  the  child’s 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  G. 


113 


thoughts.  Fixed  oral  and  written  forms  of  exposition  may  assist  the 
child,  much  as  the  acquisition  of  a definite  symbol  fixes  an  abstract 
meaning,  which  remains  unwieldly  until  it  attaches  itself  to  a word 
by  which  it  is  to  be  recalled.  But  increasing  care  is  manifested  that 
children  shall  use  only  those  forms  that  will  conform  to  practical 
need  upon  the  one  hand,  and  to  natural,  efficient,  and  economy  mas- 
tery on  the  other. 


IX.  EXAMPLES  AND  PROBLEMS. 

The  teaching  of  arithmetic  is  usually  classified  under  two  aspects, 
formal  work  and  applied  work.  The  formal  work  deals  mainly 
with  the  memorization  of  fundamental  facts,  processes,  and  other 
details  of  manipulation.  The  applied  work,  as  the  name  implies,  is 
the  formal  work  utilized  in  the  setting  of  a concrete  situation  de- 
manding a solution.  These  two  aspects  of  arithmetical  instruction 
are  very  frequently  sharply  separated,  the  child  working  alternately 
with  one  or  the  other.  The  characteristic  practice  is  to  deal  with 
them  without  relating  them  as  closely  as  the  highest  efficiency  would 
demand. 

Formal  exercises  in  arithmetic  are  usually  presented  through  the 
44  example ; ” the  exercises  in  application  through  the  44  problem ; ” 
the  distinction  being  that  one  is  an  abstract  and  symbolical  state- 
ment of  numerical  facts  and  the  other  a concrete  and  descriptive 
statement. 1 In  the  first  case  the  mathematical  sign  tells  the  child 
what  to  do,  whether  to  add,  subtract,  multiply,  or  divide ; the  example 
being  a kind  of  prereasoned  problem,  the  child  has  only  to  manipu- 
late according  to  the  sign,  his  whole  attention  throughout  being 
focused  on  the  formal  calculation.  In  the  second  case  the  child  has 
two  distinct  functions:  He  must,  from  the  description  of  the  situa- 
tion presented,  decide,  through  the  process  of  reasoning,  what  he  is 
to  do  (add,  subtract,  divide  or  multiply),  and,  having  rendered  his 
judgment,  he  must  proceed  through  the  formal  calculation. 

As  the  problem  involves  two  types  of  mental  processes  in  a single 
exercise,  and  the  example  but  one,  the  usual  procedure  in  arithmetic 
is  to  take  up  the  formal  side  through  examples  first  and,  later  on, 
the  applied  side  through  the  use  of  problems.  This  means  that  the 
first  emphasis  is  on  formal  and  abstract  wTork  rather  than  on  a 
treatment  of  natural,  concrete  situations,  an  emphasis  not  wholly 
sanctioned  by  modern  psychology  and  the  better  teaching  procedure 
of  other  subjects. 

1 While  this  distinction  is  not  general,  it  has  sufficient  currency  to  warrant  its  use  here 
for  the  convenience  of  discussion.  The  expression  “ clothed  problem  ” (from  the  Ger- 
man) is  occasionally  used  to  mean  what  is  here  designated  as  “ problem,”  and  “ abstract 
problem  ” is  used  to  mean  what  is  here  designated,  as  “ example.” 


114 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


The  reform  tendency  is  found  mainly  in  the  primary  grades  where 
the  beginnings  of  new  processes  are  made  through  objective  pres- 
entations of  the  problem.  But  the  transition  from  objectified 
problems  to  formal  work  is  not  immediate.  The  children  pass  from 
objectified  situations  to  “ number  stories,”  which  are  only  descriptions 
or  narratives  of  a situation.  This  is  the  interesting  primary-school 
equivalent  of  that  more  businesslike  language  description  found  in 
the  higher  grades — the  arithmetical  problem.  But  it  precedes  formal 
work  and  succeeds  it,  the  formal  drill  being  a mere  intermediate 
drill.  Here  concrete  presentations  and  formal  work  are  more  closely 
related  and  more  naturally  ordered. 

This  reform  tendency,  which  began  in  the  primary  school,  is  ex- 
tending to  the  higher  grades,  where  it  is  no  longer  rare  to  find  the 
attack  upon  a process  preceded  by  careful  studies  of  the  concrete  cir- 
cumstances in  which  the  process  is  utilized.  In  the  case  of  interest, 
several  days  might  be  utilized  in  studying  the  institution  of  bank- 
ing in  all  its  more  important  facts  and  relations.  Such  an  approach 
not  only  provides  motive  for  the  formal  and  mechanical  work,  but 
it  gives  a necessary  logical  basis  in  facts.  Hence,  the  understanding 
of  practical  business  life  makes  accurate  reasoning  possible  for  the 
child  when  he  is  called  upon  to  solve  actual  problems  in  application 
of  the  formal  work. 

It  is  perfectly  natural  under  the  general  traditional  practice  of 
putting  the  first  emphasis  on  mastery  of  the  formal  work  that  the 
largest  amount  of  attention  should  be  given  to  the  mechanical  and 
technical  side  of  arithmetic,  and  that  the  concrete  uses  and  applica- 
tions should  be  slighted,  and  this  is  generally  true  of  the  practice  of 
American  teachers.  Much  more  ingenuity  has  been  used  in  the  care- 
ful training  of  the  child  on  the  formal  side  than  in  teaching  him  to 
think  out  his  problems.  There  is  no  such  careful  arranging  and 
ordering  of  types  in  teaching  a child  to  reason,  as  there  is  in  teaching 
him  to  calculate. 

Here  and  there  a few  thoroughly  systematic  attempts  are  made 
to  carry  the  pupil  through  the  simple  types  of  one-step  reasoning,  to 
two-step  and  three-step  problems  with  their  possible  variations.  Just 
as  the  example  isolates  the  difficulties  of  calculation,  by  letting  the 
sign  of  -f-  or  — stand  for  the  logic  of  the  situation,  there  is  a tend- 
ency to  give  problems  without  requiring  the  calculations.  This 
affords  a means  of  isolating  and  treating  the  special  difficulties  of 
reasoning.  The  child  is  merely  required  to  tell  what  he  would  do, 
without  doing  it;  the  answer  being  checked  by  the  gross  facts.  A 
little  later,  as  a transition,  he  is  permitted  to  give  a rapid,  rough 
approximation  of  what  the  answer  is  likely  to  be.  With  further  com- 
mand he  tells  what  he  would  do  and  does  it  accurately.  But  such  a 
program  of  teaching  is  still  rare  among  teachers. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


115 


The  care  of  the  child’s  reasoning  is  largely  restricted  to  testing  his 
comprehension  of  the  problem  (1)  by  having  him  restate  the  problem 
to  be  sure  he  understands  it,  or  (2)  by  having  him  give  a formal  oral 
or  written  analysis  of  the  way  in  which  he  solves  the  problem.  The 
first  requirement  may  not  be  thoroughgoing,  as  the  child  may  give 
a verbal  repetition  of  the  problem  without  really  knowing  its  mean- 
ing. The  second  is  a formal  analysis  of  the  finished  result  and  does 
not  represent  the  genetic  method  of  the  child’s  thinking.  Conse- 
quently its  formulas  do  not  in  any  considerable  degree  assist  him  in 
his  actual  struggle  with  the  complex  of  facts. 

This  lack  of  a systematic  teaching  of  the  technique  of  reasoning  is 
manifest  in  the  unreliability  of  children’s  thinking.  When  a child 
fails  in  a problem  assigned  from  the  textbook,  the  source  of  the  error 
may  be  in  one  or  more  of  three  phases:  (1)  In  failing  to  get  the 
meaning  of  the  language  used  to  describe  the  details  of  the  situation ; 
(2)  in  failing  to  reason  out  what  needs  to  be  done  to  solve  the  situ- 
ation; (3)  in  failing  to  make  an  accurate  calculation.  The  first  is  a 
matter  of  language;  the  second,  one  of  reasoning;  the  third,  of  mem- 
orization. The  elimination  of  errors,  due  to  the  first  and  third 
sources,  leaves  a considerable  proportion  to  be  accounted  for  by  the 
second.  Such  informal  investigations  as  have  been  made  seem  to 
show  that  the  children  who  fail  in  reasoning  do  not  make  any  real 
effort  to  penetrate  into  the  essential  relations  of  the  situation.  They 
depend  on  their  association  of  processes  with  specific  words  of  rela- 
tion used  in  the  description  of  the  problem,  an  association  deter- 
mined, of  course,  by  their  past  experiences.  As  long  as  these  familiar 
“ cue  ” words  are  used,  they  succeed.  Let  unfamiliar  words  or  phrases 
be  utilized  in  their  stead  or  let  the  relation  be  implied,  and,  like  as 
not,  the  children  will  fail  to  do  the  right  thing.  Practical  school 
people  are  familiar  with  the  fact  that  children  solve  the  problems 
given  in  the  language  of  their  own  teachers  and  fail  when  the  prob- 
lems are  set  by  principals  or  superintendents,  whose  language  is 
strange  to  them. 

A greater  use  of  varied  objects  in  the  objective  presentation  of 
problems,  and  a more  constantly  varied  use  of  language  in  the 
descriptive  presentation  of  problems  would  prevent  the  child  making 
such  superficial  and  unthought  ful  associations,  and  force  him  to 
think  out  connections  between  what  is  essential  in  a typical  problem 
and  the  appropriate  process  of  manipulating  it.  But  such  a de- 
liberate application  of  modern  psychology  is  far  from  being  a con- 
spicuous minority  movement.  The  subject  matter  of  the  problems 
given  to  children  has,  however,  improved  greatly.  Obsolete,  puzzling, 
and  unreal  situations  which  only  hinder  the  child’s  attempt  to  reason 
are  less  and  less  used  in  problem  work. 


116 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


Daily  it  becomes  recognized  with  greater  clearness  that  right 
reasoning  depends  upon  a comprehension  of  the  facts  of  the  case, 
and  the  facts  of  the  case  in  point  must  be  within  the  experience  of 
the  child.  This  is  the  only  way  in  which  a problem  can  be  real  and 
concrete  to  him. 

The  recent  effort  on  the  part  of  textbook  writers  and  teachers  to 
make  arithmetical  problems  “ real  ” and  “ concrete  ” has  not  always 
recognized  the  above-mentioned  psychological  principle.  The  terms 
“ real  ” and  “ concrete  ” have  been  interpreted  in  many  ways,  besides 
in  terms  of  the  child’s  consciousness.  With  some,  “ real  ” has  meant 
“ material,”  and  the  problems,  more  particularly  with  primary  chil- 
dren, have,  in  increasing  degree,  been  presented  by  objects  or  words 
connoting  very  vivid  images.  Others  have  defined  these  qualities  in 
terms  of  actual  existence  or  use  in  the  larger  social  world.  If  these 
problems  actually  occur  at  the  grocer’s,  the  banker’s,  or  the  whole- 
saler’s, it  is  said  that  they  “ are  indeed  concrete.”  And  much  effort 
has  been  expended  in  carrying  these  current  problems  into  the  class- 
room, in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  may  be  neither  comprehensible 
nor  interesting  to  the  pupil. 

There  is  another  social  world,  nearer  home  to  the  child,  from 
which  a more  vital  borrowing  can  be  made.  There  is  an  opportunity 
to  use  the  child’s  life  in  its  quantitative  aspects,  to  take  his  plays, 
games,  and  occupations,  and  introduce  their  situations  into  his 
mathematical  teaching.  As  his  world  expands  from  year  to  year  he 
will  be  carried  by  degrees  from  personal  and  local  situations  to  those 
of  general  interest.  The  teacher  can  provide  this  progression  without 
devitalizing  the  facts  presented. 

There  is  another  error  into  which  both  the  socially  minded  radical 
and  the  specialist  in  child  study  fall.  In  their  eagerness  to  improve 
the  arithmetic  problem,  they  assume  that  problems  taken  from  the 
larger  social  world  or  from  the  child’s  experience  are  necessarily 
superior  to  hypothetical,  imaginative,  or  “ made-up  ” problems.  The 
psychological  fact  that  needs  to  be  forced  upon  the  attention  of  the 
reformers  is  that,  with  proper  artfulness,  an  imagined  problem  may 
be  even  more  vital  and  real  to  the  child  than  one  taken  from  life — as 
a situation  in  a drama  may  be  more  appealing  and  real  to  a child 
than  one  on  the  street.  This  has  some  recognition,  but  not  enough. 
Those  who  stand  upon  the  side  of  the  “ made-up  ” problems  are  more 
likely  to  be  reactionaries  who  tolerate  the  traditional  type  of  problem 
even  though  its  stupid  artificiality  is  obvious  to  both  the  teacher  and 
the  child.  They  might  better  be  dealing  with  dull  problems  borrowed 
from  real  life  than  with  specially  invented  dullness. 

Of  course  there  is  another  argument  for  the  use  of  actual  social 
materials.  The  child  must  ultimately  come  into  command  of  pre- 
cisely these  facts,  since  their  mastery  will  be  demanded  by  the  busi- 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  (j. 


117 


ness  world.  But  must  a primary  school  child  study  his  arithmetic 
through  problems  taken  from  the  dreary  statistics  of  imports  and 
7 exports  merely  because  tariff  reform  is  a political  issue  which  every 
citizen  ought  finally  to  comprehend?  There  is  a time  for  this,  and, 
as  is  the  case  with  most  of  such  borrowed  business  problems,  the  time 
is  later.  In  so  far  as  these  are  current  situations  within  the  contacts 
of  child  life,  let  them  enter.  A quantitative  revelation  of  life  is  im- 
portant, and  it  is  good  teaching  economy  to  gain  knowledge  by  the 
way,  provided  it  does  not  distract  attention  from  whatever  main 
business  is  at  hand. 

The  socializing  of  arithmetical  problems  has  one  other  additional 
good  effect.  It  has  tended  to  bring  some  topical  unity  into  the  prob- 
lems constituting  the  assignment  for  a given  lesson  or  group  of  les- 
sons. Hitherto  a series  of  problems  was  almost  always  composed  of 
a heterogeneous  lot  of  situations.  There  was  no  unity  save  that  some 
one  process  was  involved  in  each.  The  movement  is  now  in  the  di- 
rection of  attaining  a more  approximate  unity  within  the  subject 
matter  of  the  problems  themselves.  The  difficulties  of  attainment 
have  restricted  this  movement  to  more  progressive  circles. 

The  eclectic  source  of  arithmetic  problems  is  apparent  from  the 
foregoing  discussion.  It  would  seem  that  some  better  texts  would 
naturally  be  evolved  through  the  implied  criticism  of  each  movement 
upon  the  other.  Such  is  the  case.  Problems  from  child  life  empha- 
size the  beginning  condition  to  which  adjustment  must  be  made  in 
all  good  teaching.  Those  from  the  greater  world  suggest  the  final 
goals  of  instruction.  Those  “ made  up  ” by  the  teacher  call  attention 
to  what  is  too  often  forgotten,  that  the  educative  process  in  school 
may  be  artful  without  becoming  artificial.  Teaching  is  art,  and  when 
well  done  is  not  less  effective  for  the  fact. 

X.  CHARACTERISTIC  MODES  OF  PROGRESS  IN  TEACHING  METHODS. 

The  existing  methods  of  teaching  arithmetic  in  the  American  ele- 
mentary schools  are  exceedingly  varied.  This  is  due  to  many  causes. 
The  democratic  system  of  local  control,  as  opposed  to  a centralized 
supervision  of  schools,  has  increased  both  the  possibility  and  the 
probability  of  variation.  Even  within  the  units  of  supervision 
(State,  county,  and  municipal)  the  opportunity  for  reducing  varia- 
tion in  the  direction  of  a more  efficient  uniformity  is  lost.  This  is 
partly  due  to  the  lack  of  a thoroughly  trained  staff  of  supervisors 
of  the  teaching  process.  Uniformity  beyond  the  legal  units  of  super- 
vision has  been  restricted  by  the  lack  of  organized  professional  means 
for  investigation  of  and  experimentation  in  controversial  matters. 
Even  such  crude  experiments  as  are  being  tried  in  more  than  one 
classroom,  school,  or  system  are  unknown,  unreported,  unestimated, 
because  no  competent  professional  body  gathers,  evaluates,  and  dif- 


118 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE.  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


fuses  such  knowledge.  In  this  respect  the  teaching  profession  is  far 
below  the  efficient  organization  of  the  legal  and  medical  professions. 

It  is  exceedingly  difficult,  therefore,  to  analyze  the  characteristic 
aspects  of  teaching  method  except  as  these  are  interpreted  in  move- 
ments of  general  significance.  These  may  be  actual  or  potential, 
traditional  or  reformatory,  general  or  local,  in  present  acceptance. 
The  situation  is  one  wherein  tradition  is  mixed  with  radicalism,  and 
radicalism  modified  by  reaction.  In  this  medley  of  movements  there 
are  dominant  tendencies  both  traditional  and  progressive. 

It  is  quite  impossible  to  indicate  the  progressive  tendencies  with 
clearness  save  in  connection  with  the  discussions  of  concrete  difficul- 
ties in  mathematical  teaching.  The  forces  that  are  behind  these 
tendencies  may,  however,  be  summarized  here.  For  convenience 
they  may  be  classified  into  eight  types  of  influence,  extending  from 
more  or  less  vague  and  general  movements  to  very  particular  scien- 
tific contributions.  No  attempt  is  made  to  indicate  the  achievement 
of  each;  the  form  of  each  influence  is  only  roughly  defined  and 
illustrative  movements  or  studies  suggested. 

1.  It  is  obvious  that  any  general  pedagogical  movement  which  influ- 
ences the  professional  attitude  of  teachers  will  influence  the  special 
methods  of  mathematical  teaching.  The  appearance  of  the  doctrine 
of  interest  made  mathematical  instruction  less  formal.  The  growing 
enthusiasm  for  objective  work  enlarged  the  use  of  objects  in  the 
arithmetic  period.  The  child-study  movement  laid  emphasis  upon 
the  child’s  own  plays  and  games  as  a source  of  problems  and 
examples. 

2.  Certain  special  movements  in  methods  of  teaching,  local  to  the 
subject  of  mathematics,  have  also  been  effective.  Here  one  has  only 
to  recall  the  “ Grube  ” method,  with  its  influence  on  the  order  and 
thoroughness  with  which  the  elements  of  arithmetic  are  taught. 

3.  The  tendency  of  every  teacher  who  is  at  all  sensitive  to  the 
defects  of  his  methods  is  to  vary  his  daily  practice.  Constant  trial, 
with  error  eliminating  and  success  justifying  a departure,  is  thus  a 
source  of  progress.  The  new  devices  of  one  teacher  are  taken  up 
by  the  eager  professional  witness  and  innovation  is  thus  diffused.  We 
have  no  ability  to  measure  how  much  professional  progress  is  due  to 
individual  variation  in  teaching  and  its  conscious  and  unconscious 
imitation.  The  disposition  of  school  systems  to  send  their  teachers  on 
tours  of  visitation  without  loss  of  salary  is  a recognition  of  the 
value  of  this  method  of  advance. 

4.  A far  more  efficient  and  radical  source  of  change  than  that  just 
mentioned  is  the  deliberate,  conscious,  experimental  teaching  of 
progressive  individuals.  Some  new  idea  or  device  occurs  to  the 
reader  of  original  mind,  and  it  is  tried  out  with  a fair  proportion  of 
resulting  successes.  An  illustration  of  such  a contribution  is  found  in 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


119 


one  conspicuous  effort  to  get  more  rapid  column  addition.  The  first 
columns  to  be  added  were  allowed  to  determine  the  selection  and 
order  of  addition  combinations  learned.  Thus,  if  6+7+9+6+7=35, 
is  the  first  column  to  be  used,  then  the  first  combinations  mastered 
will  be  6+7=13,  3+9=12,  2+6=8,  8+7=15.  Arising  as  a fruitful 
idea  and  seeming  to  give  a measure  of  success,  it  has  been  carried,  in 
the  particular  locality  in  mind,  from  school  to  school,  and  from  sys- 
tem to  system. 

5.  A prolific  source  of  radical  change  is  found  in  the  critical  ap- 
plication of  modern  psychology  to  teaching  methods.  Algorisms, 
types  of  difficulty,  the  order  and  gradation  of  these,  as  wTell  as  many 
other  factors  in  method  have  been  radically  reorganized  on  psycho- 
logical grounds.  Examples  of  such  psychological  modifications  of 
method  are  found  in  the  “ Courses  of  study  for  the  day  elementary 
schools  of  the  city  of  San  Francisco.”  Still  more  extensive  critical 
applications  are  found  in  the  “ Exercises  in  arithmetic  ” devised  by 
Dr.  E.  L.  Thorndike,  professor  of  educational  psychology  in  the 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

6.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  inquire  into  the  special  psychology 
of  arithmetical  processes  through  careful  experimentation  and  con- 
trol. They  have  not  been  numerous,  nor  have  they  been  influential 
on  current  practice.  Such  a field  needs  development.  A typical 
attempt  to  investigate  and  formulate  the  special  psychology  of  num- 
ber is  found  in  a Clark  University  study  of  “ Number  and  its  applica- 
tion psychologically  considered.” 1 

7.  Educational  investigations  as  to  the  efficiency  of  existing  arith- 
metical teaching  among  school  systems,  sufficiently  varied  to  be  rep- 
resentative of  American  practice,  have  also  been  conducted.  These 
have  usually  gone  beyond  the  field  of  the  special  methods  of  presen- 
tation employed  in  the  classroom,  and  have  inquired  into  the  condi- 
tions of  administration  and  supervision,  the  arrangement  of  the 
courses  of  study,  and  other  similar  factors.  Dr.  J.  M.  Rice’s  studies 
into  “ The  causes  of  success  and  failure  in  arithmetic  ” 2 investigated 
such  specific  factors  as : The  environment  from  which  children  come, 
their  age,  time  allotment  of  the  subject,  period  of  school  day  given  to 
arithmetic,  arrangement  of  home  work,  standards,  examinations,  etc. 
A subsequent  study  of  similar  type,  but  employing  more  refined 
methods  is  that  of  Dr.  C.  W.  Stone  on  “Arithmetical  abilities  and 
some  factors  determining  them.”  3 The  main  problem  of  this  study 
was  to  find  the  correlation  between  types  of  arithmetical  ability  and 

1 Phillips,  D.  E.  Number  and  its  application  psychologically  considered.  Pedagogical 
Seminary,  vol.  5 : 221-281,  1897-98. 

2 Rice,  J.  M.  Educational  research ; Causes  of  success  and  failure  in  schools.  Forum, 
34  : 281-297,  437-452,  1902-3. 

3 Stone,  C.  W.  Arithmetical  abilities  ad  some  factors  determining  them.  Columbia 
University  contributions  to  education,  Teachers  College,  New  York  City,  1908,  pp.  101. 


120  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

different  time  expenditures  and  courses  of  study.  These  two  studies 
have  probably  attracted  more  general  notice  than  any  other  studies 
of  arithmetical  instruction.  While  they  have  largely  dealt  with  ad- 
ministrative conditions  that  limit  teaching  method,  rather  than  with 
the  details  of  teaching  method  itself,  they  have  stimulated  the  im- 
pulse to  investigate  conditions  and  practices  of  every  type. 

8.  The  latest  source  of  progress  in  teaching  method  is  found  in  the 
movement  for  comparative  experimental  teaching  under  normal  but 
carefully  controlled  conditions.  Several  such  experiments  are  being 
conducted  in  the  Horace  Mann  Elementary  School  of  Teachers  Col- 
lege, Columbia  University,  under  the  direction  of  Principal  Henry 
C.  Pearson,  with  the  cooperation  of  the  staff  of  Teachers  College. 
The  experimental  work  conducted  by  the  instructors  and  students  of 
the  Teachers  College  is  primarily  designed  to  determine  the  relative 
value  of  competing  methods  in  actual  use  throughout  the  country, 
the  assumption  being  that  every  substantial  difference  in  practice 
implies  a difference  of  theory  and  consequently  a controversy  that 
can  be  resolved  only  on  the  basis  of  careful  comparative  tests.  Two 
parallel  series  of  classes  of  about  the  same  age,  ability,  teacher  equip- 
ment, etc.,  are  selected  for  this  work.  One  series  is  taught  by  one 
method ; the  other  series  by  the  other  method.  The  abilities  of  these 
children  is  measured  both  before  and  after  the  teaching,  and  the 
growth  compared.  The  standards  and  methods  of  this  type  of  com- 
parative experimentation,  together  with  a list  of  current  competitive 
methods  requiring  investigation,  is  given  in  Dr.  David  Eugene 
Smith’s  monograph  on  44  The  teaching  of  arithmetic.”  1 


SUBCOMMITTEE  4.  PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  FOR 
GRADES  ONE  TO  SIX. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  fact  that  mathematical  instruction  in  elementary  schools  is  so 
universally  given  by  teachers  who  teach  most  of  the  other  elementary 
school  subjects  also,  makes  it  difficult  to  isolate  many  of  the  specific 
elements  of  preparation  entering  into  training  for  mathematics 
teaching.  Departmental  instruction  below  the  seventh  grade  in 
mathematics  is  so  rare  as  to  be  exceptional.  The  general  preparation 
for  mathematics  teaching  in  the  first  six  grades  of  the  elementary 
school  is  therefore  very  largely  included  in  that  general  foundation 
work  which  includes  courses  in  psychology,  the  principles  of  teach- 
ing, and  the  principles  and  history  of  education,  together  with  obser- 
vation and  teaching  under  supervision  and  criticism  in  a training  or 


1 Smith,  D.  E.  The  teaching  of  arithmetic.  Chap.  XVI,  Teachers  College,  January,  1909. 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  GRADES  1 TO  G. 


121 


practice  school.  Besides  this  general  type  of  pedagogical  prepara- 
tion, most  normal  schools  and  other  training  schools  for  teachers 
usually  offer  courses  in  “ special  methods  ” in  teaching  elementary 
mathematics,  these  courses  furnishing  practically  all  of  that  training 
which  may  be  regarded  as  specific  for  the  subject.  The  “ special 
methods  ” course  is  usually  given  by  an  instructor  who  also  teaches 
classes  in  secondary  mathematics — advanced  arithmetic,  algebra, 
geometr}^,  and  occasionally  trigonometry,  or  even  more  advanced 
courses  which  are  offered  as  electives  in  a very  few  normal  schools. 
In  the  larger  schools,  the  head  of  the  department  may  be  assisted  in 
this  instruction,  but  he,  himself,  usually  gives  the  work  in  “ methods.” 
The  character  of  this  work  and  the  professional  attitude  of  the  in- 
structors vary  in  a degree  that  makes  generalizations  relative  to  them 
almost  impossible.  The  instructor  may  regard  the  “ methods  course  ” 
as  simply  a means  for  reviewing  subject  matter  and  the  training 
school  work  as  a sort  of  nuisance  or  as  having  no  relation  to  his  de- 
partment, or  he  may  give  the  course  over  almost  wholly  to  questions 
of  the  psychology  and  pedagogy  of  mathematics  teaching,  using  the 
training  school  constantly  as  a laboratory  for  instruction,  demon- 
stration, and  experimentation. 

Until  the  rapid  development  of  normal  schools  within  the  last 
quarter  of  a century,  in  common  with  all  other  elementary  school 
subjects,  the  only  preparation  required  for  teaching  mathematics  in 
the  elementary  school  was  such  a course  in  elementary  arithmetic  as 
would  enable  the  candidate  to  pass  a relatively  simple  examination 
set  by  a county  or  city  superintendent  or  a board  of  school  directors. 
Even  to-day,  in  most  of  the  rural  and  village  communities  of  this 
country,  this  is  the  method  of  providing  teachers.  These  teachers 
have  no  academic  preparation  beyond  the  subject  matter  which  they 
expect  to  teach,  and  no  professional  training  at  all.  However,  the 
rapid  development  of  State  normal  schools  and  of  city  training 
schools  has  brought  about  a standard  for  teachers,  adopted  as  fast 
as  the  supply  will  permit,  of  much  higher  academic  preparation  to- 
gether with  a minimum  approximating  two  years  of  professional 
training.  In  this  general  advance  of  standards,  mathematics  has  re- 
ceived a share  of  attention,  although  perhaps  tradition  has  offered  a 
handicap  which  has  not  been  felt  by  the  newer  subjects  in  such  a 
large  degree.  But  within  the  last  decade  the  whole  subject  of  the 
teaching  of  mathematics  has  come  to  receive  the  attention  which  it 
justly  deserves.  Yet,  with  all  of  the  discussion  which  has  developed, 
there  is  very  little  literature  that  deals  specifically  with  the  problem 
of  present-day  theory  and  practice  in  the  preparation  of  teachers  for 
the  elementary  school.  The  committee  secured  data  for  its  conclu- 
sions by  direct  inquiry  of  typically  representative  normal  schools 
and  city  training  schools.  By  geographical  distribution,  19.5  per 


122 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE,  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


cent  of  these  schools  are  in  the  Atlantic  States,  21.9  per  cent  in  the 
Pacific  and  Mountain  States,  and  58.5  per  cent  in  the  States  lying 
between  these  groups.  The  inquiry  concerned  itself  specifically  with 
the  amount  required  of  prospective  teachers  in  the  subject  matter  of 
mathematics,  the  amount  and  kind  of  professional  study,  the  rela- 
tion of  the  department  of  mathematics  to  the  training  or  practice 
school,  and  suggestions  of  constructive  improvemnt  or  reform. 

SUBJECT-MATTER  COURSES. 

For  normal  schools  regarded  as  standard,  as  well  as  for  city  train- 
ing schools,  high-school  graduation  seems  almost  a fixed  norm  for 
the  whole  country  as  an  entrance  requirement.  In  mathematics  it  is 
usually  assumed  that  students  have  had  a high-school  course  in  arith- 
metic of  one  term  or  semester,  one  year  -or  more  of  algebra,  and  one 
year  of  geometry,  usually  plane.  In  some  normal  schools  arith- 
metic is  required  of  students  “ found  wanting  ” in  its  subject  matter. 
In  many  schools  solid  geometry,  advanced  arithmetic,  advanced  al- 
gebra, and  trigonometry  are  offered  as  electives. 

It  is  thus  apparent  that  the  teacher  of  mathematics  in  the  first 
six  grades  has  a knowledge  of  subject  matter  in  formal  mathematics 
far  beyond  any  of  the  actual  needs  arising  within  these  grades.  That 
this  knowledge  of  subjects  beyond  elementary  arithmetic  functions 
in  the  teaching  of  the  arithmetic  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  show. 
The  formal  and  isolated  character  of  the  work  in  algebra  and 
geometry,  as  they  are  usually  taught,  leaves  them  barren  of  any 
content  values  having  a bearing  upon  anything  which  appears  in 
the  usual  work  of  the  first  six  grades.  Even  in  the  best  normal 
schools  there  is  little  evidence  that  the  work  in  algebra  and  geometry 
is  any  less  academic  than  in  the  classical  high  schools.  In  the  nor- 
mal school  “ humanistic”  values  should  certainly  most  fully  reveal 
themselves. 

PROFESSIONAL  COURSES. 

The  professional  courses  and  work  include  a course  in  arithmetic 
“ methods  ” or  in  arithmetic  with  some  attention  to  methods  in  all 
normal  schools,  observation  and  practice  teaching  in  some  form  in 
most  of  them,  and  a course  in  the  history  of  mathematics  in  4.8  per 
cent  of  them. 

The  course  in  arithmetic  “ methods  ” is  given  during  one  semester 
in  73  per  cent  of  the  schools.  In  a few,  not  more  than  10  per  cent,  it  is 
given  during  but  half  a semester — from  six  to  nine  weeks.  The  char- 
acter of  this  work  differs  markedly.  In  27  per  cent  of  the  schools  the 
work  is  largely  a review  of  the  subject  matter  of  arithmetic,  method 
being  merely  incidental.  Over  14  per  cent  give  practically  the  whole 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


123 


time  to  method.  With  others  it  varies  from  one-tenth  to  one-half  of 
the  time. 

In  the  methods  work  itself  41  per  cent  of  the  schools  require  the 
organization  of  definite  units  of  subject  matter  for  presentation  in 
the  grades  and  the  writing  of  specific  lesson  plans  as  a part  of  the 
work.  In  a like  number  definite  study  is  made  of  the  elementary 
course  of  study  as  a whole.  Games  and  recreational  devices  for  mo- 
tivation and  drill  are  considered  in  53  per  cent  of  the  schools.  Forty- 
one  per  cent  of  the  schools  make  some  use  of  current  literature  on  the 
teaching  of  mathematics,  although  one  instructor  replies  that  he  does 
not,  as  “ there  is  little  in  it  that  is  useful.”  Other  instructors  indi- 
cate that  they  value  the  periodical  literature  as  growing  increasingly 
helpful  and  suggestive  for  their  own  work.  Some  form  of  mathe- 
matical museum  is  found  in  34  per  cent  of  the  schools.  This  varies 
from  “ a small  private  collection  ” to  rather  pretentious  collections  of 
textbooks,  periodical  essays  and  addresses,  illustrative  apparatus  and 
models,  and  standards  of  weights  and  measures  of  various  kinds. 

Observation  of  schoolroom  teaching  as  a part  of  the  work  in 
methods  is  found  in  46  per  cent  of  the  schools.  The  time  devoted  to 
observation  varies  from  “ three  or  four  lessons  a term  ” to  “ one-third 
of  the  course.”  In  T per  cent  of  the  schools  all  observation  work  is  in 
connection  with  practice  teaching.  The  place  and  value  of  systematic, 
purposeful  observation  seem  to  vary  greatly  in  the  minds  of  instruc- 
tors. That  the  lessons  observed  should  be  well  taught,  model  les- 
sons, is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  in  47.3  per  cent  of  the  schools  defi- 
nitely using  observation  the  lessons  are  taught  by  critic  teachers  and 
in  36.8  per  cent  by  the  special  mathematics  teacher.  The  training 
school  is  used  as  a laboratory  in  the  methods  courses  in  39  per  cent  of 
the  schools.  As  schools  of  education  which  tend  to  furnish  an  in- 
creasing number  of  teachers  prepared  for  normal-school  instruction 
in  mathematics  develop  possibilities  of  the  training  schools  as  labora- 
tories, this  phase  of  work  in  the  preparation  of  the  elementary-school 
teacher  will  doubtless  increase. 

Practice  teaching  in  arithmetic  is  required  of  all  students  who 
graduate  from  39  per  cent  of  these  schools.  In  one  school  it  is  re- 
quired in  at  least  two  grades.  In  most  other  schools  students  do 
practice  wTork  in  but  two  or  three  subjects  and  may  be  graduated 
without  any  practice  teaching  in  mathematics. 

The  somewhat  isolated  condition  of  the  department  of  mathematics 
from  the  training  school  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  only  39  per 
cent  of  the  schools  does  the  teacher  of  mathematics  aid  in  the  super- 
vision of  the  subject  in  the  training  school  and  that  in  only  27  per 
cent  does  the  department  of  mathematics  make  or  partly  make  the 
course  of  study  for  the  training  school.  Cooperation  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  course  of  study  and  in  the  supervision  of  the  teaching 


124 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


of  mathematics  in  the  training  school  has  been  found  to  be  of  very 
high  value  in  developing  a professional  attitude  in  the  minds  of  pros- 
pective teachers  through  the  multitude  of  live  problems  always  before 
them  and  in  whose  solution  they  may  participate. 

More  than  95  per  cent  of  the  schools  discourage  departmental  work 
below  the  seventh  grade.  One  school  definitely  advocates  it  from  the 
fourth  grade  upward.  A special  type  of  training  for  primary  teach- 
ers is  provided  in  24  per  cent  of  the  schools.  Number  work  receives 
its  proportion  of  attention  in  these  primary  methods  courses  when 
they  are  general  in  character.  In  12  per  cent  of  the  schools  there 
are  specific  courses  in  primary  methods  in  number  work. 

From  the  suggestions  for  reform  received  from  instructors,  the  fol- 
lowing summary  indicates  the  several  types : “A  better  knowledge  of 
subject  matter.”  “ Teaching  to  make  subject  matter  vital.”  “ Make 
the  work  closer  to  the  children;  more  connection  of  the  work  with 
life.”  “Use  more  concrete  examples;  use  more  objective  work.” 
“ Develop  a more  definite  knowledge  of  practical  applications.”  “ De- 
velop more  work  in  the  fundamental  pedagogy  of  processes.” 
“ Develop  a more  definite  idea  of  the  relation  of  the  work  of  each 
grade  to  the  whole  arithmetic  course.”  “ Develop  a better  knowledge 
of  method.”  “ The  development  of  a good  textbook  in  simple 
method.”  “ Require  successful  practice  teaching  in  arithmetic  for  at 
least  10  weeks.”  “ Make  more  of  observation ; observe  more  skilled 
teachers.”  “A  general  course  for  all,  followed  by  a more  intensive 
course  for  the  particular  grades  in  which  the  teacher  is  to  work.” 

SUMMARY  OF  DATA. 

From  the  foregoing  data,  it  is  evident  that  great  differences  in 
ideals  and  practice  exist  with  reference  to  the  following  points: 
There  is  variation  from  method  as  a mere  incident  to  subject  matter 
to  the  use  of  full  time  for  method  in  “ methods  ” courses ; from  no  use 
whatever  of  current  literature  on  the  teaching  of  mathematics  to 
“ very  extensive  ” use  of  such  literature ; from  no  consideration  of 
games  and  recreational  devices  to  very  careful  consideration  and 
testing  of  these ; from  no  consideration  of  the  course  of  study  in  arith- 
metic for  the  grades  to  the  full  development  of  such  a course  and  the 
organization  for  presentation  of  certain  of  its  units;  from  no  men- 
tion at  all  of  the  history  of  the  development  and  teaching  of  mathe- 
matics to  the  establishment  of  well-organized  courses  in  this  subject; 
from  no  observation  of  lessons  in  arithmetic  in  the  grades  in  connec- 
tion with  methods  courses  to  one  observation  lesson  each  week  during 
the  course ; from  no  practice  teaching  at  all  required  in  mathematics 
to  practice  work  in  arithmetic  for  all  in  at  least  two  grades;  from 
no  supervision  of  practice  work  and  the  teaching  of  mathematics  in 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  GRADES  1 TO  6. 


125 


the  training  school  by  the  teacher  of  mathematics  to  close,  jointly 
responsible  supervision  with  the  grade  supervisors ; from  positive  dis- 
couraging of  departmental  teaching  of  mathematics  in  the  grades  to 
positive  advocating  of  it  in  middle  and  upper  grades;  and  from  no 
differentiation  in  training  for  the  grades  to  courses  in  detailed  special 
methods  for  primary  grades. 

There  are  also  evident  the  following  points  of  general  uniformity : 
Entrance  requirements  to  methods  courses  in  arithmetic  are  quite  uni- 
formly high-school  courses  of  about  one-half  year’s  work  in  arith- 
metic, one  year  in  algebra,  and  one-half  year  or  one  year  in  plane 
geometry.  Some  kind  of  methods  or  teacher’s  course  in  mathematics 
is  found  in  all.  Some  form  of  observation  work  either  in  connection 
with  the  course  in  arithmetic  methods  or  with  general  method  or  prac- 
tice teaching  is  advocated  by  all.  In  general,  departmental  work 
below  the  seventh  is  discouraged.  No  school  is  fully  satisfied  with  its 
present  practice. 

Suggestions  for  reform  are  of  four  types:  Greater  knowledge  of 
subject  matter;  a reorganization  of  arithmetic  material,  giving  it  more 
vital  relationship  to  the  child’s  life  and  to  social  life;  a more  intelli- 
gent knowledge  of  the  pedagogy  of  arithmetic;  and  a closer,  more 
vital  relationship  between  the  department  of  mathematics  and  the 
teaching  of  arithmetic  in  the  training  school.  Three  ways  are  sug- 
gested for  bringing  about  this  last  relationship : By  more  systematic 
observation  of  work  in  the  grades,  by  more  responsibility  for  the 
course  of  study  and  the  methods  of  teaching  in  the  grades,  and  by 
closer  supervision  of  practice  teaching  in  arithmetic  by  the  depart- 
ment of  mathematics. 

CONSTRUCTIVE  SUGGESTIONS. 

From  inferences  based  upon  the  foregoing,  and  from  reflection 
upon  the  general  problem,  the  committee  believe  that  the  best  theory 
and  practice  of  to-day  point  to  the  following  conclusions:  That  a 
foundation  in  subject  matter  as  a basis  for  the  professional  study  of 
mathematics  for  teaching  the  subject  in  the  first  six  grades  of  the 
elementary  school  should  include  a minimum  of  one-half  year  in  high 
school  arithmetic,  one  year  of  algebra,  and  one  year  of  geometery; 
that,  exclusive  of  all  courses  in  psychology,  pedagogy,  principles  of 
teaching,  general  method,  or  history  of  education,  a minimum  of 
one-half  year’s  professional  study  of  arithmetic  should  be  required 
to  include  the  following : A course  in  “ special  method,”  the  teaching 
of  elementary  mathematics  which  should  consider  the  more  ele- 
mentary phases  of  the  psychology  of  number;  principles  of  general 
method  in  their  application  to  arithmetic;  educational  values  of 
arithmetic  and  the  place  of  arithmetic  in  the  general  educational 


126 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE.  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


scheme;  the  organization  of  the  elementary  school  curriculum  in 
arithmetic;  the  organization  of  typical  units  of  subject  matter  for 
presentation  to  appropriate  grades;  the  development  and  writing  of 
typical  plans  for  teaching;  the  utilization  of  local  and  general  eco- 
nomic studies  for  number  application;  the  observation  and  discus- 
sion of  typical  lessons  in  the  grades  showing  concrete  applications 
of  principles  developed;  the  place  of  games  and  other  recreational 
devices  in  lower  grade  work  in  number,  and  the  historical  develop- 
ment of  the  teaching  of  arithmetic,  showing  the  place  and  value  of 
certain  “ methods,”  as  the  Grube,  Speer,  etc. 

The  committee  believe,  further,  that  every  school  engaged  in  the 
preparation  of  teachers  of  mathematics  should  develop  a museum 
or  teaching  collection  of  materials — apparatus,  books,  pamphlets, 
papers,  etc. — which  will  aid  in  interpreting  the  historic  development 
of  the  subject,  present  day  practice,  textbooks,  etc. ; that  the  head  of 
the  department  of  mathematics  should  be  largely  responsible  for  the 
organization  of  the  course  of  study  in  mathematics  in  the  training 
school  in  cooperation  with  the  department  of  education  and  the 
supervisors  in  the  training  school ; that  the  head  of  the  department  of 
mathematics  should  aid  in  the  supervision  of  the  teaching  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  training  school ; and  that  he,  as  well  as  the  supervisors 
or  critic  teachers,  should  be  able  to  give  demonstration  lessons  in 
the  training  school  illustrative  of  principles  of  teaching  developed 
in  the  “methods”  class,  and  that  the  points  of  emphasis  in  all  ob- 
servations, discussions,  plans,  and  criticisms  should  be  upon  the 
basis  of  fundamental  principles  rather  than  upon  petty  details. 

The  aim  in  the  whole  professional  consideration  of  mathematics 
for  teachers  of  these  grades  is,  broadly,  to  give  acquaintance  with 
the  fundamental  principles  of  teaching  arithmetic,  of  the  organiza- 
tion of  its  subject  matter,  of  its  place  in  the  educational  scheme,  and  of 
its  historic  development.  The  teacher  should  be  given  the  pedagogi- 
cal outlook  and  perspective  of  arithmetic,  as  well  as  the  ways  and 
means  of  teaching  its  details.  He  should  know  enough  of  the 
psychology  of  number  to  enable  him  to  secure  healthy  interest  and 
adequate  drill  and  to  sacrifice  neither  at  the  expense  of  the  other. 

The  greatest  problem  of  all  at  the  present  time  would  seem  to  be 
to  find  teachers  for  departments  of  mathematics  in  normal  schools 
who  themselves  have  the  wide  pedagogical  outlook  desired  for  such 
work.  When  teachers  can  be  found  who  have  its  larger  perspective 
and  who  will  regard  the  training  school  as  the  laboratory  for  de- 
veloping insight,  intelligence,  and  a minimum  of  skill  in  the  teacher 
to  be  sent  out  into  the  field  at  large,  this  vital,  daily  union  of  theory 
and  practice  will  do  much  to  increase  the  efficiency  of  the  prospective 
teacher  in  elementary  mathematics. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  7 AND  8. 


127 


SUBCOMMITTEE  5.  MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  SEVEN 

AND  EIGHT  OF  THE  PUBLIC  AND  PAROCHIAL  SCHOOLS. 

SCOPE  OF  THIS  REPORT. 

It  was  desired  that  this  subcommittee  make  a special  study  of  the 
following  topics  for  grades  seven  and  eight  in  public  schools  and  in 
parochial  schools:  (a)  The  organization  of  the  schools,  (b)  The 

mathematical  curriculum  in  each  type  of  school,  (c)  The  question 
of  examinations  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  schools,  (d)  The 
methods  employed  in  the  teaching  of  mathematics.  ( e ) The  parochial 
schools. 

It  was  desired  that  the  report  present  both  present  conditions  and 
tendencies. 

SOURCES  OF  INFORMATION. 

In  addition  to  general  knowledge  of  the  ground  covered  by  this 
report,  use  has  been  made  of  the  following  sources  of  information : 
(a)  The  teaching  of  elementary  mathematics.  Prof.  David  Eugene 
Smith,  Macmillan  Co.  (b)  The  teaching  of  arithmetic.  Prof.  David 
Eugene  Smith,  Teachers  College  Press.  ( c ) The  teaching  of  mathe- 
matics. Prof.  J.  W.  A.  Young,  Longmans,  Green  & Co.  ( d ) Courses 
of  study  of  leading  cities.  ( e ) Responses  to  a questionnaire  sent  to 
leading  cities. 

DEFINITIONS  OF  TERMS. 

The  term  elementary  education  is  probably  not  as  well  defined  as 
it  might  be.  In  general  it  is  that  education  which  by  common 
practice  is  deemed  desirable  and  necessary  for  preparation  for  the 
duties  and  rights  of  citizenship.  It  is  made  compulsory  as  a rule 
by  the  laws  of  the  various  States  for  children  between  the  ages  of 
6 and  14  years.  The  term  public  as  applied  to  schools  is  used  to 
denote  those  schools  which  are  conducted  at  the  expense  of  and  under 
the  control  of  the  various  State  and  local  political  units;  tuition  in 
these  schools  is  without  expense.  For  a more  complete  discussion  of 
the  units  see  the  report  of  the  general  committee  number  one.  The 
term  “ grade  ” is  used  to  denote  each  of  certain  divisions  into  which 
the  work  of  the  elementary  schools  is  divided.  As  a rule  there  are 
eight  such  divisions.  One  school  year  of  from  35  to  40  weeks  is 
required  for  a pupil  to  complete  the  work  of  one  grade,  excepting 
that  bright  pupils  are  permitted  to  do  the  work  in  less  time.  In 
larger  cities  a year  or  two  of  preliminary  (kindergarten)  work  for 
children  between  the  ages  4 and  6 is  sometimes  given.  The  eight 
main  divisions  are  called  respectively  the  first  grade,  second  grade, 
etc.  In  some  parts  of  this  country,  notably  New  England,  there  is 
a slightly  different  division  of  the  course.  The  function  of  this 
committee  is  to  study  the  mathematical  work  in  the  last  two  grades 
of  the  elementary  course. 

1442°— 11 9 


128 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


SPECIAL  INTEREST  IN  THESE  GRADES. 

There  are  several  reasons  for  special  interest  in  the  work  of 
these  grades.  The  mathematical  function  of  the  first  six  grades  is 
to  give  the  pupils  control  over  the  mechanics  of  arithmetic,  over 
the  fundamental  number,  facts  and  processses.  The  function  of  the 
upper  grades  has  not  been  as  well  defined.  There  are  several  in- 
fluences at  work  affecting  the  whole  curriculum  of  these  two  grades, 
and  especially  the  mathematical  course.  The  results  of  certain 
psychological  studies  are  especially  applicable  here ; these  two  grades 
comprise  the  last  part  of  the  compulsory  education  of  the  children; 
they  precede  the  high  school;  they  correspond  with  certain  sections 
of  the  school  course  of  European  schools,  which  are  included  in 
the  secondary  curriculum. 

INFLUENCE  OF  PSYCHOLOGICAL  STUDIES. 

No  effort  will  be  made  to  go  into  great  detail  on  this  point;  at- 
tention will  be  directed  briefly  to  certain  conclusions  reached  by 
psychologists,  which  are  especially  effective  in  modifying  the  mathe- 
matical work. 

The  doctrine  of  formal  discipline  is  accepted  now  in  only  a modi- 
fied form  so  that  it  is  no  longer  deemed  sufficient  to  claim  for  any 
subject  that  it  has  great  disciplinary  value.  The  educational  value 
of  all  subjects,  including  mathematics,  has  been  and  is  being  sub- 
jected to  close  scrutiny  with  the  result  that  subjects  and  subject 
matter  long  retained  in  the  curriculum,  through  regard  for  tradition, 
are  being  displaced  by  new  material,  equally  valuable  as  means  of 
training,  but  more  representative  of  current  life.  When  this  is  not 
the  result,  old  material  is  frequently  dropped  without  any  such 
substitution,  on  the  ground  that  it  neither  has  valuable  content  nor 
is  necessary  as  means  of  training.  As  in  all  reforms,  there  is  a tend- 
ency to  go  to  extremes  in  this,  especially  with  regard  to  mathematics. 
The  willingness  of  the  mathematicians  to  subject  their  science  to 
the  test  of  the  new  doctrine  has  invited  the  less  sympathetic  scrutiny 
of  others  who  are  not  interested  in  the  subject.  The  result  is  a tend- 
ency to  demand  more  of  mathematics  in  this  respect  than  of  other 
subjects. 

The  doctrine  of  interest  as  essential  in  training  the  will  is  generally 
accepted  as  valid.  Systematic  efforts  to  study  child  life  and  needs 
have  served  to  call  attention  to  the  special  interests  of  children  be- 
tween the  ages  of  12  and  15  years,  who  are  just  entering  the  adoles- 
cent period  of  life.  The  importance  of  safeguarding  nervous  energy 
at  this  time  is  generally  recognized;  the  need  of  training  the  hand 
and  the  eye  along  with  the  mind,  the  necessity  of  vital  contact  with 
new  material  rather  than  theoretical  study  as  a basis  of  real  interest 
and  comprehension  are  among  the  results  of  this  movement. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  7 AND  8. 


129 


INFLUENCE  OF  COMPLETION  OF  ELEMENTARY  COURSE. 

A large  majority  of  the  pupils  of  the  schools  do  not  go  on  to  high 
school  after  completing  the  eighth  grade.  There  are  many  reasons 
for  this.  The  laws  of  most  States  do  not  permit  the  employment  of 
children  under  14  who  have  failed  to  complete  the  eighth  grade.  Many 
who  are  kept  in  school  thereby  avail  themselves  of  the  opportunity 
to  seek  employment  as  soon  as  they  have  completed  the  grade.  In 
many  cases  the  need  of  getting  employment  is  urgent ; in  others,  the 
opportunity  to  do  so,  the  fact  that  the  organization  of  the  schools 
makes  completion  of  the  eighth  grade  a definite  scholastic  achieve- 
ment, and  the  interests  of  pupils  at  this  age  lead  many  children  to 
leave,  even  when  their  parents  are  in  financial  position  to  send  them 
to  high  school.  Many  parents  and  pupils  feel  that  the  next  stage  of 
education  is  dominated  too  much  by  cultural  ideals  of  education  of  so 
general  a nature  that  the  pupils  are  not  trained  for  any  form  of  re- 
munerative employment.  As  evidence  of  this  belief  one  may  point 
to  the  large  number  of  pupils  who  have  graduated  from  the  eighth 
grade  who  attend  private  schools  where  tuition  is  charged,  called 
commercial  schools,  and  to  the  fact  that  new  forms  of  secondary  edu- 
cation which  have  been  provided  in  some  localities  seem  to  meet  a real 
demand  without  in  any  way  decreasing  the  demand  for  the  custom- 
ary forms  of  secondary  education.  For  these  various  reasons  there 
is  a large  shrinkage  in  the  school  population  in  the  passage  from  the 
eighth  grade  to  the  high  school. 

Those  in  control  of  the  educational  work  of  the  country  are  more 
and  more  allowing  this  fact  to  influence  the  course  of  study  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades.  There  is  increasing  emphasis  on  such 
training  as  will  definitely  equip  the  graduates  for  their  future  lives 
as  individuals  and  as  citizens  of  the  community.  Forms  of  manual 
training  are  provided  and  commonly,  when  it  is  impossible  to  fur- 
nish the  equipment  for  all  of  the  grades,  provision  is  made  for  the 
pupils  of  the  two  upper  grades.  Owing  to  the  realization  that  this 
vocational  training  is  inadequate,  there  is  at  present  a growing  in- 
terest in  industrial  training.  This  movement  which  is  destined  to 
spread  is  certain  to  have  its  effect  upon  the  mathematical  work  of  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades. 

INFLUENCE  OF  PREPARATION  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

It  has  been  mentioned  that  many  pupils  who  are  ready  for  the 
high  school  fail  to  enter.  It  has  been  felt  that  some  pupils  might  be 
led  to  go  on  to  the  high  school  if  they  could  have  in  the  eighth  grade 
the  beginnings  of  some  of  the  high  school  subjects.  For  this  reason, 
Latin,  algebra,  and  a modified  English  course  are  urged  as  desirable 


130 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


eighth  grade  work  in  the  hope  that  pupils  will  be  unwilling  to  dis- 
continue these  subjects  after  they  have  once  started  them.  In  more 
recent  years  there  is  a reaction  against  this  plan  on  the  ground  that 
these  subjects  are  not  properly  within  the  scope  of  elementary  edu- 
cation as  defined.  At  the  present  time  there  are  the  beginnings  of  a 
new  administrative  policy  to  accomplish  the  same  end.  Schools  are 
being  provided  in  some  of  the  systems  which  are  designed  for  pupils 
who  do  plan  to  go  on  to  high  school  or  whose  parents  wish  them  to 
have  this  relatively  more  academic  training.  In  these  schools  algebra 
will  easily  find  a place.  It  is  likely  that  the  future  will  see  a growth 
of  this  idea. 

Again,  for  various  reasons,  the  pupils  who  enter  the  high  school 
find  the  work  of  the  first  year  unusually  difficult,  so  that  many  of 
them  leave  school  during  this  period.  It  has  become  customary  on 
this  account  to  speak  of  the  “ gap  ” between  the  eighth  grade  and 
the  high  school,  and  it  is  generally  admitted  that  better  articulation 
is  necessary  there.  The  efforts  to  “ bridge  the  gap  ” have  included 
attempts  to  modify  the  work  both  in  first  year  high  school  and  in  the 
eighth  grade.  In  the  eighth  grade  there  has  been  an  effort  to  con- 
centrate upon  essentials  of  arithmetic  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the 
other  to  prepare  the  pupils  for  high-school  work  by  introducing  the 
beginnings  of  algebra  into  the  eighth  grade  work.  There  are  two 
tendencies  to-day  which  are  likely  to  lessen  the  influence  of  prepara- 
tion for  high  school  as  a modifying  force  in  the  eighth  grade;  first, 
there  is  the  spirit  of  independence  which  characterizes  the  efforts  of 
each  of  the  larger  units  of  the  educational  system,  as  an  evidence  of 
which  in  the  elementary  school  is  the  belief  that  their  main  function 
is  not  that  of  serving  as  a feeder  for  the  high  school;  and  second, 
the  spirit  of  responsibility  on  the  part  of  each  unit  to  take  up  its  work 
where  the  previous  unit  has  left  off.  This  latter  tendency  is  much 
more  noticeable  among  secondary  mathematics  teachers  than  for- 
merly. 

INFLUENCE  OF  EUROPEAN  CURRICULA. 

The  object  lesson  of  European  schools  which  provide  under  one 
administrative  unit  educational  facilities  for  children  from  the  age 
of  9 or  10  to  19  or  20,  inclusive,  has  furnished  considerable  support 
for  the  idea  that  the  essentials  of  elementary  school  work  should  be 
completed  in  a shorter  time  so  that  pupils  may  be  started  upon  their 
secondary  education  at  an  earlier  age.  This  has  been  urged,  especially 
in  mathematics,  where  it  means  a change  particularly  in  the  upper 
grades.  This  idea  received  the  support  of  the  committee  of  fifteen 
and  the  committee  of  ten  of  the  National  Education  Association. 

While  four  influences  have  been  enumerated,  it  is  clear  that  each 
affects  the  others,  so  that  they  are  not  independent.  In  particular 
this  last  is  intimately  associated  with  the  preceding  one.  These  two 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 AND  8. 


131 


in  a sense  are  antagonistic  to  the  other  two  since  these  place  the 
emphasis  upon  secondary  education,  while  the  others  throw  emphasis 
upon  the  elementary  phase  of  education.  The  last  two  are  still  in 
favor  among  the  schoolmen  especially,  as  in  the  past,  whereas  the 
former  are  supported  equally  by  public  opinion. 

RURAL  AND  PRIVATE  SCHOOLS. 

The  schools  of  the  rural  districts  do  not  feel  all  of  these  influences 
as  strongly  as  do  the  urban  schools.  There  is  a growing  effort  to 
adapt  the  rural  schools  to  the  needs  of  the  community,  a movement 
identical  with  that  noted  in  connection  with  urban  schools.  There 
is  strong  feeling  of  the  importance  of  directing  attention  to  the 
advantages  of  agricultural  life.  This  influence  will  increasingly 
affect  the  work  of  the  upper  grades. 

In  private  nonparochial  schools  the  influences  mentioned  in  para- 
graphs 7 and  8 are  especially  potent.  The  pupils  of  these  schools 
usually  go  to  the  high  school  and  college.  In  parochial  schools, there 
is  usually  reflected  some  of  the  educational  policy  of  the  public 
schools,  in  addition  to  the  special  educational  policy  of  the  parochial 
school.  In  the  eighth  grade  of  parochial  schools  the  special  function 
of  these  schools  reaches  its  consummation  in  the  specific  training  of 
the  pupils  in  such  sectarian  studies  as  enable  them  to  enter  the  church 
with  which  the  school  is  connected. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  THE  GRADES. 

In  organization  there  is  nothing  particularly  distinctive  about  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades.  In  their  relation  to  the  grades  below 
they  come  under  the  general  school  administration  which  controls  the 
first  eight  grades.  For  a discussion  of  this  organization  see  the 
report  of  the  committee  on  general  elementary  schools.  In  their 
relation  to  the  schools  above  there  is  some  difference.  At  the  close 
of  the  eighth  grade  the  pupils  are  usually  given  a diploma  as  a sign 
of  having  completed  a definite  stage  of  their  education.  This  diploma 
as  a rule  entitles  the  holder  to  admission  to  the  high  school  of  the 
same  system  and  usually  of  any  other  school  system.  The  diploma  is 
obtained  after  compliance  with  the  ordinary  requirements  for  pro- 
motion. Promotion  is  determined  by  the  teacher  of  the  class  with 
certain  requirements  in  the  way  of  examination,  which  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  a later  paragraph.  In  some  cases  a special  examination 
is  required  before  a pupil  is  promoted  to  the  high  school. 

THE  MATHEMATICS  CURRICULUM. 

There  is  a lack  of  uniformity  in  the  curricula  in  these  two  grades 
greater  than  in  the  lower  grades.  Two  classes  of  curricula  must  be 
considered:  (a)  Those  which  do  not  provide  any  work  in  algebra  and 
geometry;  (b)  those  which  do  provide  such  work. 


132 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE,  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


For  those  schools  which  do  not  provide  any  algebra  in  the  eighth 
grade  (and  in  the  country  at  large  these  schools  are  in  the  majority), 
the  mathematics  course  may  be  arranged  on  the  topical  plan,  the 
spiral  plan,  or  a combination  of  the  two.  By  a topical  plan  is  meant 
one  in  which  the  subject  matter  is  divided  according  to  mathe- 
matical topics;  numeration,  notation,  and  the  four  fundamental 
operations  are  discussed  in  order  for  integers,  then  the  same  topics 
for  fractions  in  the  common  form ; then  for  fractions  in  the  decimal 
form ; then  percentage ; then  the  applications  of  percentage  to  business 
life.  By  a spiral  plan  is  meant  one  in  which  within  a given  range 
of  numbers,  say  one  to  one  hundred,  notation,  numeration,  and  cer- 
tain processes  are  considered ; later  the  range  of  numbers,  the  kind 
of  numbers,  the  processes,  and  the  difficulty  of  the  applications  are 
extended  repeatedly.  By  a combination  of  the  two  plans  is  meant  a 
course  in  which,  while  the  spiral  plan  is  adopted  in  spirit,  at  various 
stages  of  the  course  certain  mathematical  ideas  are  stressed  so  that 
thereafter  they  may  be  counted  on  as  part  of  the  working  knowledge 
of  the  class,  subject  to  recall  after  only  slight  review. 

In  the  past  the  topical  plan  has  been  especially  in  vogue;  at  the 
present  time  more  progressive  courses  of  study  are  modeled  after  the 
third  plan;  the  second  plan  has  had  some  support,  but  has  never  had 
very  general  favor.  It  is  probably  true  that  the  topical  plan  in  its 
extreme  form  or  in  a modified  form  is  the  common  plan  in  the  ma- 
jority of  the  schools  of  the  country.  By  a modified  form  is  meant 
that  typified  by  a series  of  texts  consisting  of  two  or  three  books  de- 
signed to  furnish  together  the  necessary  material  for  an  eight  years’ 
course.  Each  text  usually  covers  the  fundamental  operations  for 
integers,  fractions,  and  decimals,  with  additional  topics  in  each  book. 
One  book  is  to  be  used  for  from  two  to  four  years. 

Usually  the  mathematics  course  is  guided  by  such  a text.  In  this 
event  the  pupils  learn  in  the  first  six  grades  the  fundamental  proc- 
esses for  integers,  fractions,  and  decimals,  and  denominate  numbers. 
The  work  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  consists  of  the  following : 
A review  of  this  foundation  work;  special  attention  to  percentage 
and  its  most  common  application,  simple  interest ; other  business  ap- 
plication of  percentage;  mensuration  of  plane  and  solid  figures.  The 
list  of  applications  of  percentage  includes  such  topics  as  bank  ac- 
counts, partial  payments,  commercial  and  bank  discount,  partnership, 
insurance,  taxes,  stocks  and  bonds,  exchange,  and  interest.  In  men- 
suration is  included  the  discussion  of  the  area  and  the  volume  of  the 
common  plane  and  solid  figures,  square,  and  cube  root.  Besides  these 
topics,  the  metric  system,  longitude  and  time,  ratio,  and  proportion 
are  commonly  included  in  the  texts.  On  account  of  the  influences 
noted  in  former  paragraphs,  the  tendency  in  the  better  schools  of 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 AND  8. 


133 


the  country  is  to  work  for  thoroughness  and  utility  by  omitting 
such  topics  as  partial  payments,  partnership,  exchange,  bank  dis- 
count on  interest-bearing  notes,  the  more  difficult  work  in  stocks  and 
bonds,  longitude  and  time,  some  portions  of  the  mensuration  of 
solids,  cube  root,  and  the  metric  system.  In  short,  there  is  great  free- 
dom in  omitting  such  topics  as  are  not  in  harmony  with  modern  life 
or  as  have  been  found  unnecessarily  confusing  for  the  pupils.  The 
time  thus  gained  is  devoted  to  the  remaining  topics  and  to  addi- 
tional drill  on  the  essentials. 

The  problem  material  is  contained  as  a rule  in  the  book  which  each 
pupil  possesses.  These  texts  are  written  for  the  country  at  large, 
not  to  suit  local  conditions.  The  problems  are  designed  to  illustrate 
the  particular  mathematical  idea  or  application  under  discussion; 
they  are  usually  miscellaneous  in  character.  The  influences  noted  in 
former  paragraphs  are  responsible  for  a new  attitude  toward  the 
problem  material.  An  effort  is  now  made  to  have  one  set  of  ideas 
running  through  a particular  set  of  problems.  For  example,  the 
arithmetical  idea  being  discussed  may  be  percentage ; instead  of  giv- 
ing as  problems  a miscellaneous  lot  of  applications  of  the  percentage 
idea,  the  problems  may  all  be  based  upon  information  about  the 
population  of  the  country  for  a period  of  years.  In  other  words,  the 
problem  material  possesses  a certain  unity,  as  a result  of  which  in- 
formation is  conveyed  to  the  pupils  on  the  subject  from  which  the 
material  is  drawn.  A second  characteristic  of  the  problems  now 
coming  into  use  is  that  they  are  selected  so  as  to  give  the  children 
some  insight  into  industrial,  business,  and  social  conditions  of  the 
city,  the  State,  and  the  country.  Thus  there  are  groups  of  problems 
about  the  railroad,  the  mining,  the  agricultural,  the  manufacturing 
interests ; about  the  population,  area,  and  the  wealth  of  the  city,  the 
State,  the  Nation;  problems  drawn  from  the  local  newspaper;  prob- 
lems involving  the  local  tax  rate,  local  real  estate  values,  local  inter- 
est, discount  and  commission  rates,  the  stocks  and  bonds  of  local  cor- 
porations. This  material  the  teachers  must  place  before  the  pupils 
either  orally  or  on  the  blackboard,  although  some  school  boards  are 
issuing  pamphlets  containing  these  supplementary  problems  for  use  in 
their  own  schools.  This  is  a serious  attempt  to  socialize  arithmetic. 
It  makes  the  course  consist  less  of  figuring  and  more  of  discussion. 
Under  banking  for  example,  the  nature,  function,  and  conduct  of  a 
bank  is  discussed;  under  stocks  and  bonds,  effort  is  made  to  show 
again  the  kinds,  purpose,  value,  and  manner  of  sale  of  bonds  and 
stocks;  under  taxes,  the  various  purposes  for  which  taxes  are  col- 
lected and  the  sources  from  which  they  are  obtained.  The  content  of 
the  problems  is  considered  quite  as  important  as  the  solution  of  the 
problems. 


134  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

COURSES  CONTAINING  ALGEBRA. 

The  other  type  of  course  in  mathematics  includes  some  work  in 
algebra,  and  sometimes  in  geometry.  These  courses  vary  even  more 
than  those  discussed  previously,  because  the  work  is  relatively 
new.  In  some  places  the  arithmetic  work  of  these  two  grades  is  cur- 
tailed and  condensed  so  as  to  be  completed  entirely  by  the  end  of  the 
seventh  grade  or  by  the  end  of  the  first  half  of  the  eighth  grade,  the 
latter  being  the  more  common  plan;  the  remaining  time  is  then  de- 
voted to  algebra.  In  other  places,  work  in  algebra  is  introduced  into 
the  seventh  and  eighth  or  the  eighth  grade  without  dropping  the 
arithmetic ; there  is  in  this  case  little  effort  to  bring  about  any  vital 
connection  between  the  two  subjects;  the  time  is  merely  distributed 
so  as  to  cover  the  two  subjects.  Again,  in  a few  places,  an  effort  is 
made  to  introduce  the  algebra  into  the  arithmetic  course  in  a natural 
way. 

When  algebra  is  taught  in  either  of  the  first  two  ways,  the  work 
is  guided  by  a text.  This  text  is  in  some  cases  a brief  elementary 
algebra  written  for  the  eighth  grade  classes,  or  consists  of  a few 
chapters  added  on  to  the  arithmetic  text.  As  a rule,  the  sequence  of 
topics  covered  is  that  of  the  usual  high-school  text.  When  the  al- 
gebra is  introduced  in  the  third  form,  it  is  presented  through  the 
regular  arithmetic  text,  where  it  is  introduced  as  opportunity  per- 
mits. For  example,  preceding  the  work  in  percentage,  the  first  no- 
tions of  literal  numbers  are  introduced;  then  the  percentage  law  is 
expressed  as  a formula,  p — hr.  Thereafter  this  formula  is  used  in 
the  solution  of  problems,  for  example,  such  as  require  the  determina- 
tion of  the  rate  when  the  base  and  the  percentage  are  given.  Later 
this  literal  arithmetic  may  be  extended,  although  it  is  quite  clear  that 
no  very  extended  amount  of  algebra  can  be  introduced  in  this  natural 
manner. 

So  far  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  present  briefly  the  various 
forms  in  which  algebra  is  taught  in  the  grades.  No  definite  statis- 
tics are  available  to  form  the  basis  of  a definite  statement  as  to  the 
prevalence  of  the  teaching  of  algebra.  One  investigation  showed 
that  about  30  to  35  per  cent  of  the  schools  of  a certain  class  taught 
algebra  and  these  were  schools  of  the  larger  cities ; taking  the  coun- 
try at  large,  it  is  unlikely  that  more  than  this  percentage  of  them 
teach  the  subject. 

PURPOSE  OF  ALGEBRA  IN  THE  GRADES. 

Algebra  was  introduced  into  and  is  retained  in  the  grades  for  a 
number  of  reasons.  Some  hoped  thereby  to  interest  some  pupils  in 
the  subject  to  such  an  extent  that  they  would  be  led  to  enter  high 
school  to  complete  it;  others  hoped  that  thereby  the  pupils  who  did 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  1 AND  8. 


135 


enter  high  school  would  have  a more  successful  time  in  their  mathe- 
matics work — in  other  words,  it  was  a device  for  “ bridging  the  gap.” 
With  others,  there  was  the  desire  to  “ abridge  and  enrich  ” the  arith- 
metic course;  after  abridging  it,  they  felt  that  the  natural  means 
for  maintaining  the  mathematical  element  in  the  curriculum  was  to 
introduce  the  next  higher  mathematical  subject,  which  happened  to 
be  algebra.  It  was  hoped  by  some  that  the  use  of  the  literal  number 
and  of  the  equation  would  eliminate  some  of  the  difficulties  the  pupils 
experienced  in  analyzing  and  solving  some  of  the  arithmetic  problems 
in  the  eighth  grade  course.  Those  interested  in  the  mathematical 
element  in  education  desired  to  carry  to  another  stage  of  their  logical 
generalization  certain  arithmetical  ideas. 

Two  tendencies  in  regard  to  the  position  of  algebra  are  to  be 
noted.  With  the  public  at  large,  the  subject  has  never  appeared  as 
one  of  any  “ practical  ” value.  With  the  current  tendency  to  exalt  in 
the  schools  those  subjects  which  appear  to  have  “ practical  ” value 
is  coming  a feeling  that  algebra  does  not  have  a place  in  the  eighth 
grade,  especially  in  the  form  in  which  it  has  been  taught.  One  of 
the  largest  cities  of  the  country  has  recently  entirely  dropped  it  from 
the  course,  replacing  it  by  the  study  of  certain  phases  of  local  history 
and  local  business  and  industrial  conditions.  Another  city,  some- 
what smaller  in  size  but  recognized  as  progressive  in  educational  ef- 
forts has  introduced  about  the  same  idea  into  its  course,  although 
there  the  next  tendency  to  be  mentioned  has  been  recognized.  These 
efforts,  entirely  independent,  are  typical  of  the  feeling  in  some  of  our 
school  systems. 

The  other  tendency  is  toward  an  extension  of  the  third  plan  of 
teaching  algebra.  There  is  in  this  country  a growing  belief  that  in 
the  past  too  sharp  lines  of  demarkation  have  existed  between  arith- 
metic, algebra,  and  geometry  and  there  are  efforts  being  made  to 
bring  the  three  into  closer  relation.  In  the  elementary  school,  as 
early  as  the  sixth  grade,  certainly  no  later  than  the  seventh,  certain 
elements  of  generalized  arithmetic  should  be  introduced  and  should 
be  carried  along  with  the  arithmetic  until  the  pupils  become  familiar 
with  literal  notation  and  the  equation.  This  work  is  not  properly 
called  algebra  as  the  number  field  would  not  necessarily  be  extended 
to  include  negative  as  well  as  positive  numbers.  This  form  of  literal 
arithmetic  presents  all  that  is  practical  of  algebra  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses. So  much  of  it  is  decidedly  of  utilitarian  value  since  the 
mechanics  of  to-day  who  wish  to  read  trade  journals  need  to  be 
familiar  with  it.  This  form  of  literal  arithmetic  has  in  its  favor  most 
if  not  all  that  can  be  said  for  algebra  as  an  eighth-grade  subject. 

It  seems  probable  at  the  present  time  that  these  two  tendencies 
will  become  more  pronounced,  i.  e.,  there  is  almost  certain  to  be  more 
dissatisfaction  with  the  extreme  form  of  algebra  brought  down  from 


136 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE,  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


the  high  school,  and  as  teachers  are  trained  for  the  work,  there  is  to 
be,  it  is  hoped,  greater  interest  in  the  form  of  generalized  arithmetic 
outlined. 

GEOMETRY  IN  THE  GRADES. 

The  mensuration  of  certain  geometric  figures  has  always  been  in- 
cluded in  American  arithmetics.  In  recent  years,  as  has  been  said, 
there  has  been  a decrease  in  the  extent  of  this  work.  It  was  formerly 
the  practice  to  have  this  work  consist  mainly  of  definitions,  formulas, 
and  problems.  This  has  been  changed  by  giving  experimental  and 
intuitive  verifications  of  the  formulas.  It  has  been  uncommon  to  have 
any  other  form  of  geometry,  except  in  isolated  places  where  some 
form  of  constructional,  inventional,  or  concrete  geometry  has  been 
introduced.  The  motive  has  been  to  teach  certain  elementary  ideas 
of  geometric  forms,  to  train  the  hand  in  the  use  of  customary  drawing 
tools,  to  train  the  eye  in  its  judgment  of  geometric  forms  and 
relations,  and  to  train  the  mind  in  such  general  functions  as  obser- 
vation and  generalization  as  pertaining  to  geometric  data.  This 
work  has  been  attempted  usually  under  the  guidance  of  a pamphlet 
prepared  for  some  specific  school  by  those  interested  in  such  work. 

The  movement  has  not  spread  much.  Possibly  one  reason  for  the 
slowness  of  the  introduction  of  this  work  has  been  the  custom  of  in- 
cluding in  the  art  course  usually  given  in  American  schools  some 
“ mechanical  ” drawing — constructions  with  the  straightedge  and 
compasses.  This  custom  has  been  unfortunate,  at  least  from  the 
mathematical  standpoint,  as,  in  the  drawing  course,  the  emphasis  has 
been  upon  the  results;  the  possible  cultivation  of  desirable  habits  of 
geometric  study,  and  the  possible  training  of  the  powers  of  observa- 
tion and  generalization  have  been  largely  neglected.  A further 
reason  for  the  lack  of  such  is  the  scarcity  of  teachers  acquainted 
with  and  prepared  to  teach  geometry  inductively.  The  majority 
have  studied  geometry  only  in  the  Euclidean  form. 

EXAMINATIONS. 

Examinations  given  in  the  schools  are  of  three  kinds:  (a)  Those 
given  by  the  teachers  themselves;  (b)  those  given  by  the  supervisory 
officers  of  the  schools;  ( c ) those  given  by  a school  to  determine  the 
qualifications  of  pupils  who  wish  to  enter  the  school. 

The  examinations  given  by  the  teachers  are  of  two  kinds:  The 
ordinary  written  recitation  and  the  stated  examinations  which  may 
be  required  by  the  school  regulations.  The  first  should  not  be  called 
examinations  in  one  sense  of  the  word,  since  they  cover  usually  only 
a short  interval  of  previous  instruction  and  are  given  as  a means  of 
affording  the  same  sort  of  drill  for  all  of  the  class  or  as  a means  of 
detecting  weaknesses  as  a basis  for  further  teaching.  Such  written 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  7 AND  8. 


137 


lessons  are  left  entirely  to  the  teacher,  although  it  is  advised  that 
they  be  given  frequently.  Such  “ examinations  ” are  in  every  respect 
desirable. 

The  other  form  of  examination  given  by  teachers  is  more  formida- 
ble. Most  school  systems  provide  that  the  standing  of  a pupil  in  a 
class  shall  be  determined  in  part  by  examinations  given  at  stated 
times.  The  examinations  may  occur  monthly,  quarterly,  semiannu- 
ally, or  annually.  They  count  from  one-half  down  in  determining  a 
pupil’s  standing.  When  the  questions  are  prepared  by  the  teacher, 
the  questions  and  the  papers  are  at  the  disposal  of  the  principal  or 
other  supervisors.  The  teacher  has  an  opportunity  to  adapt  the 
examination  to  the  capabilities  of  the  class,  and  can  allow  for  the 
individuality  of  the  pupils.  Under  this  plan  a sympathetic  influence 
is  likely  to  pervade  the  examination.  As  a means  of  administration 
this  form  of  examination  depends  for  its  success  upon  the  teachers 
and  the  opportunity  of  inspection.  As  an  educational  practice  it  is 
to  be  commended  as  compared  with  those  examinations  which  are 
not  prepared  with  the  same  sympathetic  recognition  of  the  pupils’ 
interests,  which  the  teachers  are  likely  to  display. 

As  a rule  uniform  tests  are  given  in  most  school  systems  for  ad- 
ministrative purposes.  The  questions  are  prepared  either  by  the 
superintendent  or  by  a committee  of  principals  or  teachers — usually 
principals — working  under  the  direction  of  the  superintendent.  In 
few  cases  do  the  teachers  have  any  choice  concerning  the  questions 
which  they  submit  to  their  classes.  The  teachers  grade  the  papers 
and  then  submit  them  to  the  principals.  These  examinations  are 
given  to  set  standards  of  work,  to  interpret  the  course  of  study,  to 
promote  uniformity  throughout  the  system,  to  bring  out  the  weak 
points  in  the  teaching,  and  to  point  out  conditions  in  the  school. 
In  some  cases  it  is  urged  that  these  examinations  train  the  pupils  to 
prepare  their  thoughts  on  a subject  in  good  order  in  a limited  time. 
In  general  the  interests  of  the  pupils  are  served  only  indirectly  by 
these  examinations  as  the  emphasis  is  upon  the  administrative  ad- 
vantages. The  results  are  sometimes  used  in  determining  a pupil’s 
fitness  for  promotion,  although  it  is  seldom  that  failure  in  these 
examinations  is  allowed  to  retard  a pupil’s  progress. 

These  examinations  are  an  effective  administrative  device.  Their 
success  depends  upon  the  experience,  the  wisdom,  and  the  ideals  of 
the  supervisory  staff.  As  a rule,  these  examinations  do  not  meet 
with  favor  among  the  teachers.  There  is  a feeling  that  the  test  is 
one  of  themselves  rather  than  of  their  pupils.  From  what  has  been 
said  this  appears  to  be  true,  although  it  depends  upon  the  purposes 
of  the  supervisors.  The  better  teachers  recognize  the  advantages  to 
be  gained,  and,  having  the  proper  professional  spirit,  they  are  willing 
to  have  their  work  compared  with  that  of  their  colleagues  in  other 


138 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


schools.  The  examinations  are  opposed  also  because  of  their  effect 
upon  the  pupils.  It  is  contended  that  the  pupils  are  subjected  to  a 
severe  nervous  strain  so  that  they  do  not  do  themselves  or  their 
teachers  justice.  This  is  possibly  true.  The  evil  results,  however, 
may  be  minimized  under  wise  supervision.  If  the  teachers  adequately 
prepare  the  pupils  for  the  tests  by  reviews,  and  if  the  tests  are 
adapted  to  the  possible  ability  of  the  pupils,  the  evil  results  men- 
tioned are  not  necessary.  In  the  larger  cities  the  difficulty  of  con- 
ducting these  examinations  is  great,  owing  to  the  wide  diversity  in 
the  population  in  various  parts  of  the  city.  Another  objection  raised 
to  such  examinations  is  that  thereby  the  teachers  are  hampered  in 
their  work,  with  the  result  that  there  is  little  progress  from  year  to 
year.  This  again  may  or  may  not  be  true,  dependent  upon  the  super- 
vision. As  a rule,  the  supervisors  of  the  schools  will  see  that  the 
tests  promote  rather  than  retard  progress. 

Another  form  of  examination  proposed  at  the  present  time  is  that 
designated  as  the  “ standardized  ” test.  F or  a complete  discussion 
of  the  nature  of  these  tests,  see  the  report  by  Dr.  C.  W.  Stone,  in  the 
report  of  subcommittee  No.  2 of  this  general  committee.  As  to  cur- 
rent practice,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  little  work  of  this  nature  is  done 
in  the  schools.  As  to  tendencies,  there  is  little  evidence  upon  which 
to  base  a statement  one  way  or  another.  It  would  seem  well  for 
those  in  charge  of  the  general  tests  just  discussed  to  introduce  into 
them  such  of  the  elements  of  these  standardized  tests  as  seem  appli- 
cable to  their  needs  and  purposes. 

In  the  eighth  grade  tests  are  sometimes  given  to  determine  the 
fitness  of  pupils  for  promotion  to  high  school.  This  is  not  a common 
practice,  however. 

METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

It  is  possible  to  speak  only  in  a general  way  of  methods  of  instruc- 
tion as  these  vary  with  schools  and  with  teachers.  Much  that  can  be 
said  on  this  topic  for  the  two  upper  grades  would  apply  equally  well 
for  the  other  grades. 

CLASS  INSTRUCTION. 

In  all  of  the  schools  instruction  is  given  to  groups  of  pupils  vary- 
ing in  number  from  5 to  30  or  more — groups  called  classes.  The  aver- 
age size  of  classes  is  probably  in  the  neighborhood  of  20  and  a strong 
effort  is  being  made  in  all  cities  to  cut  down  larger  classes  to  this 
number.  This  form  of  instruction  is  called  class  instruction.  There 
have  been  numerous  attempts  to  modify  this  form  of  instruction  by 
various  forms  of  individual  instruction  in  order  to  meet  in  a better 
way  the  needs  of  weak  pupils.  In  some  schools  special  teachers  are 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  7 AND  8. 


139 


employed  to  take  charge  of  any  pupils  from  any  class  who  are  back- 
ward in  their  work.  As  a rule,  however,  the  regular  class  teacher 
does  this  herself  either  before  or  after  regular  school  hours.  An 
effort  is  made  of  course  to  organize  the  classes  so  that  all  pupils  in 
the  class  will  have  as  uniform  ability  as  possible. 

RECITATION  AND  STUDY  TIME. 

In  most  schools  the  arithmetic  class  meets  daily  for  from  20  to  30 
minutes.  This  time  is  known  as  recitation  time.  Besides  this  the 
pupils  of  the  class  usually  have  in  school  another  period  of  equal 
length  for  the  study  of  arithmetic.  This  makes  the  total  time  for 
arithmetic  vary  from  200  to  300  minutes  per  week.  In  most  schools  the 
children  do  no  studying  on  arithmetic  at  home ; in  the  upper  grades 
they  probably  do,  although  the  tendency  to-day  is  to  relieve  pupils 
of  any  home  preparation  in  mathematics  in  the  elementary  schools. 
Each  pupil  possesses  a book.  This  book  is  not  merely  a collection  of 
problems ; it  is  usually  a text  providing  the  necessary  theory  and  such 
explanation  as  seemed  wise  to  the  author.  From  the  terminology 
used  to  denote  the  two  periods,  it  is  obvious  that  at  some  time  the 
pupils  were  expected  to  prepare  themselves  in  the  “ study  ” period 
on  certain  assignments  in  the  text  upon  which  they  later  recited  in 
the  “ recitation  ” period.  This  was  especially  true  in  the  upper 
grades,  and  unfortunately  is  probably  true  in  many  classrooms  to- 
day. In  the  majority  of  schools  this  condition  has  undoubtedly 
changed ; the  recitation  period  should  properly  be  called  the  “ teach- 
ing ” period  and  the  study  period  might  better  be  called  the  “ work  ” 
period.  The  class  time  was  formerly  given  over  often  to  indiscrim- 
inate recitation  on  the  solutions  which  the  pupils  had  performed  out- 
side of  class ; it  is  now  given  over  either  to  carefully  planned  drill  or 
to  instruction  by  the  teacher  on  some  new  topic.  The  study  time  is 
used  to  supplement  the  class  time. 

DIVISION  OF  THE  CLASS  TIME. 

One  of  the  characteristic  features  of  the  teaching  period  is  the  men- 
tal work.  It  is  common  practice  to  direct  the  teachers  to  devote  from 
one-third  to  one-half  of  the  class  time  to  oral-mental  work.  It  is  oral 
in  the  sense  that  the  teacher  gives  the  directions  orally ; it  is  mental 
in  the  sense  that  the  pupils  perform  the  necessary  computations  with- 
out use  of  pencil  and  paper.  The  responses  of  the  pupils  are  given 
either  orally  or  in  writing.  This  work  is  designed  either  to  main- 
tain efficiency  through  wise  drilling  on  topics  previously  taught  or 
to  lead  up  to  and  teach  some  new  topic.  This  must  be  considered  a 
feature  of  current  teaching  method,  since  formerly  much  of  the  class 


140 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


time  was  given  over  to  “ recitation  ” by  the  pupils  on  work  which  they 
placed  upon  the  blackboard. 

There  are  occasions  when  it  is  worth  while  to  have  the  whole  class 
solve  problems  in  writing;  this  is  especially  true  in  the  upper  grades 
where  the  conditions  of  the  problems  become  more  confusing.  As  a 
rule,  however,  written  work  is  done  outside  of  class.  In  the  past 
pupils  have  been  required  to  present  more  or  less  elaborate  analyses 
of  the  solutions  for  their  problems.  The  desire  was  to  have  the  pupil 
set  forth  in  detail  the  process  of  thinking  by  which  the  solution  was 
accomplished.  The  advantage  of  such  solutions  to  the  teacher  is  ob- 
vious; it  is  an  equally  obvious  fact  that  such  formality  is  entirely 
foreign  to  the  natural,  rational  mode  of  presentation  which  an  adult 
would  use  in  ordinary  life.  Such  a requirement  is  subject  to  criticism 
also  because  it  confuses  the  pupils.  The  tendency  now  is  to  ask  the 
pupils  to  give  a clear  presentation  in  good  form ; in  the  upper  grades, 
they  are  encouraged  to  use  any  “ short  cuts  ” of  which  they  know,  and 
to  do  mentally  as  much  of  the  computation  as  they  can.  Another  re- 
form which  has  been  accomplished  is  the  discontinuance  of  elaborate 
forms  of  ruling  on  the  papers,  a practice  which  has  been  altogether 
too  prevalent  in  the  past. 

RAPIDITY  AND  ACCURACY. 

The  teachers  of  the  upper  two  grades  seek  to  develop  in  their  pupils 
skill  in  computing  which  will  enable  them  to  perform  ordinary  cal- 
culations with  rapidity  and  accuracy.  In  the  lower  grades  the  pupils 
are  taught  the  processes  and  the  number  facts;  in  the  upper  grades 
the  emphasis  is  properly  turned  in  this  other  direction. 

The  mental  work  has  this  as  its  aim.  The  pupils  are  frequently 
given  problems  to  solve  in  a limited  amount  of  time;  they  are  en- 
couraged to  compete  with  one  another  by  being  invited  to  rise  when 
they  have  solved  the  problems;  they  are  given  honorable  notice  in 
various  ways  for  achievement  in  these  respects. 

CONCRETE  METHODS. 

On  account  of  the  influences  mentioned  in  former  paragraphs,  the 
teachers  endeavor  to  make  the  instruction  as  concrete  as  they  can 
without  going  to  the  extreme  of  objectifying  relations  which  are 
obvious.  Thus  in  the  discussion  of  commercial  forms,  actual  samples 
are  exhibited;  checks  of  some  real  or  imaginary  bank  are  drawn  in 
class ; account  books  are  kept  by  the  pupils  and  are  balanced  monthly, 
each  child  filling  in  records  of  real  transactions  when  possible; 
interest-bearing  and  noninterest-bearing  notes  are  shown ; banks  are 
visited  or  conducted  in  the  schoolroom ; the  class  resolves  itself  into 
a stockbroker’s  office,  one  member  acting  as  the  broker  and  the 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  7 AND  8. 


141 


remaining  members  of  the  class  acting  as  buyers  or  sellers  of  stocks  or 
bonds.  In  mensuration,  actual  measurements  are  used  when  possible; 
problems  are  sought  in  the  manual  training  department;  formulas 
are  obtained  by  experimental  methods  instead  of  being  taken  on 
faith  and  then  used.  The  teachers  endeavor  to  give  to  their  classes 
clear  impressions  of  a few  things  rather  than  superficial  word  knowl- 
edge of  many  things. 

DEPARTMENTAL  TEACHING. 

One  especially  characteristic  feature  of  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grade  work  is  the  practice  of  having  the  mathematics,  and  some  of  the 
other  subjects,  taught  by  teachers  who  as  a rule  teach  no  other  sub- 
jects. In  the  lower  grades  this  is  not  common.  This  is  known  as  de- 
partmental instruction.  It  is  quite  common  in  the  larger  school 
systems  and  is  being  extended  as  rapidly  as  circumstances  permit. 
The  teachers  in  charge  of  the  departmental  work  are  usually  the  more 
experienced  teachers  of  the  system  and  as  a rule  have  had  special 
training  for  their  work.  In  many  cases  college  graduates  are  obtained 
for  these  positions,  whereas  usually  the  teachers  in  fhe  elementary 
schools  do  not  have  collegiate  training. 

Departmental  instruction  is  favored  because  of  the  obvious  ad- 
vantage of  having  for  this  upper  grade  work  teachers  who  are 
specially  interested  in  and  qualified  to  teach  their  subject.  Depart- 
mental instruction  has  the  disadvantage  of  placing  the  training  of 
young  children  in  the  hands  of  each  of  several  teachers,  working 
independently,  with  the  result  that  often  the  emphasis  is  placed  upon 
teaching  the  subject  rather  than  upon  the  education  of  the  child. 
This  difficulty  is  obviated  by  wise  supervision,  under  which  there  will 
be  cooperation  between  the  various  departmental  teachers  in  any  one 
school. 

INDUCTION  AND  DEDUCTION. 

* 

It  is  very  likely  that  no  conscious  thought  is  given  to  these  two 
types  of  teaching  methods  by  the  majority  of  teachers.  At  the  same 
time  it  may  be  said  that  the  instruction  is  either  by  inductive  methods 
or  by  rule  followed  by  practice.  The  habit  of  proceeding  from  “ the 
known  to  the  unknown,”  from  “the  simple  to  the  complex,”  is  so 
characteristic  of  the  teachers  that  they  approach  new  topics  when- 
ever it  is  possible  by  inductive  means.  For  example,  the  nature  and 
the  meaning  of  “ paying  interest  ” for  the  use  of  money  may  be  ap- 
proached through  the  acquaintance  the  pupils  have  with  the  practice 
of  paying  “rent”  for  the  use  of  a house;  the  nature  and  meaning 
of  shares  of  stock  may  be  approached  through  the  pupils’  experience 
in  contributing  their  share  toward  the  expense  of  a picnic.  On  the 


142 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


other  hand,  when  it  comes  to  a process  such  as  finding  the  square 
root  of  a number,  the  books  as  a rule  develop  the  process  in  the  usual 
way  with  the  aid  of  the  formula  for  the  square  of  a binomial;  but 
the  teachers  are  commonly  advised  to  simply  illustrate  the  process 
and  then  fix  it  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  by  adequate  drill. 

THE  PAROCHIAL  SCHOOLS. 

This  investigation  covers  the  field  embraced  by  Roman  Catholic 
parochial  schools,  which  number  in  the  United  States  4,845,  having  a 
total  registration  of  1,237,250  pupils.  These  schools  outnumber  other 
schools  maintained  by  any  single  church  organization,  and  for  this 
reason  they  are  selected  for  this  investigation.  In  general  they  do 
not  charge  any  tuition,  unless  to  pupils  not  residents  of  the  parish. 
They  are  in  most  cases  supported  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
from  a fund  voluntarily  contributed  by  members  of  the  church.  In 
many  instances,  however,  where  such  a fund  does  not  exist  tuition 
is  charged  at  50  cents  a month  for  the  lower  grades  and  $1  a month 
or  more  in  the  higher  grades. 

The  committee  finds  none  of  them  to  be  endowed  in  any  way  or  to 
receive  any  State  or  municipal  support. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  divides  the  United  States  into  70 
dioceses,  in  each  of  which  a board  of  supervisors  has  charge  of  the 
educational  work  in  the  parish  schools.  It  is  the  business  of  the 
diocesan  board  to  make  out  the  course  of  study  for  the  various  schools, 
select  the  books  to  be  used,  and  to  pass  on  any  matters  pertaining  to 
the  work  of  the  schools. 

The  teachers,  being  generally  members  of  religious  orders,  are 
appointed  by  the  superior  of  the  order  to  which  they  belong,  as  rec- 
ommended by  a committee  acquainted  with  the  attainments  of  the 
candidates.  The  different  religious  orders  have  a community  inspec- 
tor of  schools  who  reports  to  the  superior  on  the  efficiency  of  the 
teaching  staff.  The  following  syllabus  of  mathematics  as  taught  in 
the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  is  selected  as  representative  of  the 
better  class  of  schools  and  is  from  the  Philadelphia  diocese. 

ARITHMETIC— SEVENTH  GRADE. 

(1)  Drill  exercises  for  accuracy  and  speed.  (2)  Miscellaneous  problems  in- 
volving fractions.  (3)  Multiplication,  division,  and  miscellaneous  problems  on 
decimals.  (4)  Denominate  amounts:  (a)  Measurements,  extending  to  circle 
and  cylinder;  (b)  compound  amounts  in  use;  (c)  longitude  and  time.  (5) 
Percentage:  ( a ) Review  and  extension  of  sixth  year’s  work;  (b)  bank  discount. 
(6)  Ratio  and  proportion : (a)  Ratio;  (b)  simple  proportion ; (c)  proportional 
parts. 

ARITHMETIC— EIGHTH  GRADE. 

(1)  Common  and  decimal  fractions;  underlying  principles  considered  and 
applied.  (2)  Denominate  amounts.  (3)  Percentage:  (a)  Review  and  extension 


MATHEMATICS  IN  GRADES  7 AND  8. 


143 


of  seventh  year  work;  (&)  stocks  and  bonds;  (c)  compound  interest;  ( d ) 
drafts  and  exchange;  (e)  partial  payments.  (4)  Proportion  and  partnership. 
(5)  Powers,  roots,  and  mensuration.  (6)  Review  of  practical  measurements: 
(a)  Plane  surfaces;  (&)  triangles,  quadrilaterals,  regular  pyramids,  right  cylin- 
ders, right  cones,  frustums  of  regular  pyramids,  and  cones,  spheres;  (c)  similar 
figures. 

ALGEBRA— SEVENTH  GRADE. 

(1)  Explanation  of  algebraic  terms  to  be  employed  and  illustrations  of  their 
uses.  (2)  Literal  expressions;  their  numerical  value  obtained.  (3)  Compari- 
son of  arithmetical  and  algebraic  solutions  of  simple  problems,  and  solution  by 
algebra  of  many  such  problems.  (4)  Positive  and  negative  quantities  explained 
and  practical  problems  employing  their  uses  considered.  (5)  Addition  and 
subtraction.  (6)  Parentheses.  (7)  Multiplication  and  division. 

ALGEBRA— EIGHTH  GRADE. 

(1)  Review  of  addition,  parentheses,  multiplication,  and  division.  (2)  Com- 
position and  factoring.  (3)  Highest  common  divisor  and  lowest  common  mul- 
tiple. (4)  Fractions.  (5)  Simple  equations. 

The  average  age  of  pupils  entering  the  seventh  grade  is  between 
12  and  13  years,  and  at  leaving  the  eighth  grade  about  14  years.  In 
about  half  the  schools  reporting,  promotion  from  grade  to  grade  is 
determined  by  the  teacher.  In  the  remaining  schools  promotions 
are  recommended  by  the  teacher  and  determined  by  the  principal. 
All  schools  average  the  class  work  and  examination  in  determining 
promotion,  usually  each  counting  50  per  cent,  but  a few  giving  two- 
thirds  credit  for  class  work.  In  the  case  of  seventh  and  eighth  grade 
examinations,  some  schools  give  the  questions  as  made  out  by  the 
city  superintendent  of  public  schools,  and  papers  are  marked  by 
public  school  authorities  for  eighth-grade  examinations.  Where 
Catholic  high  schools  exist  the  principal  and  teachers  make  out  the 
questions,  while  the  examination  is  conducted  by  the  teacher  and  the 
papers  are  inspected  by  higher  authorities.  About  one-fourth  of 
the  schools  permit  of  a choice  of  ten  questions  out  of  eleven,  the 
others  allowing  no  choice. 

Regarding  promotion  after  failure  to  pass  in  a mathematical  sub- 
ject, a wide  diversity  of  practice  exists.  The  question  asked  in  this 
respect  was,  “To  what  extent  does  failure  in  a mathematical  subject 
retard  a pupil’s  progress?  ” Some  answers  received  were  as  follows: 
“ As  a rule,  a mark  below  60  per  cent  in  any  mathematical  class  re- 
quires a repetition  of  the  class  ” ; “ Considerable  deficiency  influences 
a pupil’s  promotion”;  “ Not  kept  longer  than  two  years  in  a class”; 
“ Mathematics  is  one  of  three  studies  on  which  promotion  is  based  ” ; 
“ Conditional  promotion  is  given,  but  is  withdrawn  if  progress  is 
not  made  ” ; “ Must  cover  program  again  ” ; “ Must  stay  in  class  ” ; 
u Those  notably  deficient  are  not  promoted  ” ; “ Debars  pupil  from 
promotion  ” ; “ Passes  to  next  year’s  grade  if  only  failure  is  in 
mathematics.” 

1442°— 11 10 


144 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


Promotions  are  made  annually  or  semiannually  about  equally.  In 
regard  to  the  object  influencing  the  teaching  of  mathematics,  prep- 
aration for  high  school  stands  first,  the  demands  of  the  business 
world  second,  and  about  20  per  cent  report  discipline  and  culture  as 
the  predominating  influence. 

Oral  work  in  class,  which  is  given  in  all  schools,  varies  in  extent 
from  12  minutes  to  half  the  recitation  period  daily,  and  nearly  all 
schools  report  a preliminary  discussion  of  newly  assigned  topics 
until  a sufficient  knowledge  to  proceed  has  been  obtained. 

The  size  of  class  varies  in  different  localities  from  10  to  65,  the 
average  class  for  the  seventh  grade  being  34,  and  for  eighth  grade, 
27.  The  usual  time  spent  in  recitation  per  week  is  200  minutes  with 
150  minutes  per  week  given  to  study  in  school.  There  is  also  some 
home  work  given  that  requires  about  30  minutes  nightly. 

In  the  eighth  grade,  the  time  given  to  recitation  and  study  are 
about  as  shown  for  seventh  grade*  and  some  algebra  is  often  intro- 
duced. 

Reforms  contemplated  are5  “ more  oral  work,”  “ to  apply  the  work 
to  problems  of  personal  interest  to  the  pupil,”  “ to  eliminate  the  non- 
essentials  and  emphasize  the  essentials,”  “ better  work  in  oral  arith- 
metic,” u more  drills  for  thoroughness.” 


SUBCOMMITTEE  6.  PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  FOR 
GRADES  7 AND  8. 

In  preparing  this  report  the  committee  attempted  to  obtain  in- 
formation from  both  public  and  private  elementary  schools  in  ac- 
cordance with  plan  suggested  by  the  American  commissioners. 
Practically  no  response  was  received  from  private  schools  to  which 
blanks  were  sent,  and  hence  the  report  is  limited  to  public  elementary 
schools. 

I.  PRESENT  STATE  OF  ORGANIZATION. 

TEACHERS. 

In  investigating  the  present  state  of  organization,  the  tabulation 
of  elementary  schools  given  by  the  United  States  Commissioner  of 
Education  in  his  report  for  1908,  volume  2,  pages  502-517 ; 596-611, 
was  used.  In  these  tables  are  listed  531  schools  in  cities  of  over 
8,000  population,  and  670  schools  in  cities  of  4,000  to  8,000  population. 
The  first  group  is  known  in  the  report  as  Class  A and  the  second  as 
Class  B. 

Five  hundred  cities,  250  from  each  class,  were  selected  for  the 
purposes  of  the  report,  each  member  of  the  committee  selecting  100 
from  the  section  assigned  to  him,  50  from  each  class.  Only  graded 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  GRADES  1 AND  8. 


145 


schools  were  chosen,  and  each  State  was  considered  in  proportion  to 
the  number  of  its  school  systems. 

In  response  to  a questionnaire  sent  to  the  500  cities,  238  replies 
were  received  as  follows: 


NUMBER  OF  CITIES  REPORTING. 

North  Atlantic 

South  Atlantic 

South  Central 

North  Central 

Western 1 


Class  A.  Class  B. 
___  29  19 

___  13  11 

13  11 

___  64  54 

___  13  11 


The  following  tables  summarize  the  information  received 
the  cities: 


Table  1. — Teachers. 


from 


Number  in  seventh  and  eighth 
grades. 

Preference  of  cities  as  to  sex  of  teachers  for 
seventh  and  eighth  grades. 

A 

B 

A 

B 

Men. 

Women. 

Men. 

Women. 

Men. 

Women. 

No 

prefer- 

ence. 

Men. 

Women. 

No 

prefer- 

ence. 

North  Atlantic 

679 

2,642 

11 

121 

11 

3 

6 

7 

6 

3 

South  Atlantic 

41 

164 

16 

37 

5 

3 

1 

5 

3 

South  Central 

40 

155 

10 

36 

9 

1 

2 

5 

4 

North  Central 

192 

1,602 

55 

294 

28 

17 

9 

31 

7 

8 

Western 

35 

354 

20 

69 

8 

1 

1 

5 

1 

1 

Total 

987 

4,917 

112 

559 

61 

25 

19 

53 

21 

12 

Table  2. — Preparation  of  present  teaching  force  in  grades  7 and  8. 


Actual. 

Preference  by  cities. 

College. 

Normal. 

High 

school. 

College. 

Normal. 

High 

school. 

North  Atlantic: 

A 

895 

316 

953 

13 

15 

B 

9 

90 

126 

3 

16 

South  Atlantic: 

A 

48 

41 

110 

11 

7 

B 

18 

19 

41 

1 

9 

South  Central: 

A 

62 

52 

139 

8 

3 

2 

B 

19 

9 

31 

4 

6 

2 

North  Central: 

A 

115 

953 

1,727 

21 

38 

B 

50 

111 

311 

19 

31 

1 

Western: 

A 

13 

121 

137 

5 

7 

B 

21 

52 

55 

4 

• 4 

2 

Combined: 

A 

1,133 

1,483 

3,066 

58 

70 

2 

B 

117 

281 

564 

31 

66 

5 

Total 

1,250 

1,764 

3,630 

89 

136 

7 

146  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


Table  3. — Present  requirements  of  cities  as  to  preparation  for  teachers  of  grades  7 and  8. 


Academic. 

Professional 

training. 

Certificate. 

| College. 

| Normal. 

High  school. 

a 

o 

| Two  years. 

| One  year. 

Experience. 

None. 

a; 

'o3 

CO 

First  grade. 

Second  grade. 

(A 

3 

None. 

Normal  school 
diploma. 

North  Atlantic: 

A 

3 

12 

11 

5 

15 

1 

7 

4 

5 

1 

5 

14 

2 

B 

5 

8 

4 

10 

3 

5 

4 

10 

2 

South  Atlantic: 

a : 

2 

5 

4 

4 

3 

3 

6 

7 

2 

1 

2 

B 

5 

2 

2 

4 

"i 

6 

1 

South  Central: 

A 

2 

4 

5 

1 

5 

1 

5 

4 

2 

1 

4 

1 

1 

B 

3 

2 

3 

2 

1 

3* 

4 

1 

3 

2 

1 

2 

North  Central: 

A 

3 

16 

39 

11 

27 

5 

14 

13 

4 

21 

13 

13 

7 

12 

B 

1 

11 

22 

16 

18 

6 

12 

13 

6 

18 

14 

2 

6 

10 

Western: 

A 

4 

9 

10 

1 

1 

3 

6 

2 

B 

1 

3 

4 

7 

1 

*2 

2 

2 

4 

1 

Combined: 

A 

10 

41 

68 

21 

60 

7 

25 

28 

14 

33 

21 

24 

25 

17 

B 

5 

26 

39 

22 

38 

6 

23 

24 

14 

29 

20 

3 

19 

13 

Total 

15 

67 

107 

43 

98 

13 

48 

52 

28 

62 

41 

27 

44 

30 

In  New  York  City  the  preparation  required  of  men  teachers  in 
grades  seven  and  eight  is:  (1)  College  course  and  one  to  three  years’ 
experience;  or  (2)  a normal  school  course  and  three  years’  experience. 
In  addition  there  is  required  a promotion  license  based  on,  (1)  three 
years’  experience;  (2)  60  hours’  professional  course;  (3)  examination 
in  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry.  For  women  teachers  the  re- 
quirement is  (1)  normal  school  course  and  one  years’  experience; 
(2)  New  York  State  life  certificate  and  five  years’  experience;  or  (3) 
college  course  and  one  years’  experience. 

In  two  cities  of  Class  A and  three  of  Class  B,  men  are  preferred 
for  the  eighth  grade  and  women  for  the  seventh.  In  New  York  City 
men  are  preferred  for  teaching  boys  and  women  for  teaching  girls. 
In  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  and  seven  other  places  reporting,  the  preference 
is  for  an  equal  division  of  men  and  women  teachers  in  the  grades  in 
question.  There  is  a general  opinion  that  on  the  present  salary  basis 
women  teachers  are  preferable  to  the  men  who  are  willing  to  work 
at  present  rates  of  compensation. 

COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

The  coulee  of  study  in  mathematics  for  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  of  the  public  schools  throughout  the  United  States  is  remark- 
able for  uniformity.  In  the  seventh  grade  the  usual  topics  are  de- 
nominate numbers  and  percentage;  in  the  eighth  grade,  applications 
of  percentage — discount,  insurance,  notes,  stocks  and  bonds,  etc. 
These  topics  are  supplemented  by  review  or  advance  work  as  time 
allows.  For  example,  in  a typical  school  we  find  in  the  seventh 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  GRADES  7 AND  8.  147 

grade  in  addition  to  the  topics  named  above,  analysis  of  problems, 
ratio,  fractions,  decimals;  in  the  eighth  grade,  proportion,  powers 
and  roots,  longitude  and  time. 

The  excellent  course  of  study  in  mathematics  for  the  public  schools 
of  Augusta,  Me.,  says:  “ Up  to  this  time  (seventh  grade)  the  pupil 
has  been,  to  a large  extent,  a mere  reckoner;  he  should  now  become 
something  of  an  arithmetician.  The  mathematical  mind  was  a late 
development  in  the  race,  and  its  growth  in  the  child  should  not  be 
forced.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  this  grade  marks  the  approach 
of  the  time  when  the  pupil  should  pass  from  mere  control  and 
manipulation  to  understanding  and  investigation.  He  may  now  be 
asked  to  define  arithmetic,  or  at  least  attempt  a definition,  and  should 
appreciate  some  of  the  difficulties  of  its  development. 

“ No  discrimination  need  be  made  between  algebra  and  arithmetic, 
nor  between  algebraic  and  arithmetical  solutions.  Pupils  should  not 
feel  abashed  in  the  presence  of  a?,  but  should  regard  it  as  a good 
friend,  employ  it  habitually,  and  if  possible,  unconsciously,  to  repre- 
sent unknown  quantities,  and  solve  the  equations  containing  it  en- 
tirely as  a matter  of  course.” — Course  of  study  in  mathematics  for 
the  elementary  schools,  Augusta,  Me.,  1909 

In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  of  the  238  cities  re- 
porting to  the  committee  11  of  Class  A and  7 of  Class  B teach  alge- 
bra in  the  seventh  grade,  while  47  of  Class  A and  26  of  Class  B teach 
it  in  the  eighth  grade.  Concrete  geometry  is  taught  in  the  seventh 
grade  of  8 Class  A schools  and  of  3 Class  B schools ; it  is  taught  in 
the  eighth  grade  of  10  Class  A schools  and  of  8 Class  B schools. 

In  New  York  City  the  consensus  of  opinion  of  the  large  majority 
of  principals  is  that  the  inventional  geometry  and  algebra  of  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  should  be  entirely  omitted ; that  these  sub- 
jects should  be  relegated  to  the  high  school,  and  that  the  time  gained 
should  be  given  to  pure  arithmetic. 

In  Chicago  the  board  of  education  has  recently  voted  to  drop 
algebra  and  geometry  from  the  seventh  and  eighth  grade  courses. 

A very  few  schools  reported  such  unusual  features  as  the  correlation 
of  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry,  and  the  segregation  of  pupils. 
The  department  plan  is  used  by  103  schools. 

In  Class  A 99  schools  reported^  the  present  course  satisfactory, 
while  30  reported  the  opposite.  In  Class  B 58  schools  reported  course 
satisfactory  and  39  reported  unsatisfactory.  As  causes  of  dissatis- 
faction 83  gave  “ poor  teachers  ” ; 49,  “ course  of  study  ” ; 12,  “ large 
classes  ” ; 10,  “ lack  of  time  ” ; 13,  “ poor  pupils  ” ; 12^  “ textbooks.” 

In  response  to  a question  relative  to  the  attempts  to  “ humanize 
mathematics,”  68  report  “ good  ” ; 30,  “ none  ” ; 27,  “ doubtful.”  The 
effect  of  manual  training  is  considered  “ good  ” by  104.  “ none  ” by  9, 
and  “ doubtful  ” by  35. 


148 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


Among  recent  improvements,  28  report  “ none  ” ; 64,  “ course  of 
study”;  51,  “teachers”;  32,  “texts”;  3,  “salaries”;  9,  “depart- 
ment teaching.” 

II.  THE  TRAINING  OF  SEVENTH  AND  EIGHTH  GRADE  TEACHERS  OF 

MATHEMATICS. 

1.  CITY  TRAINING  SCHOOLS. 

Of  132  Class  A cities  included  in  this  investigation,  29  report  city 
training  schools  with  an  attendance  of  127  men  and  3,222  women. 
Of  this  number,  113  men  and  2,182  women  are  reported  from  the 
three  New  York  City  training  schools. 

The  plan  of  organization  varies  from  the  St.  Louis  five-year  course 
for  high-school  graduates  Jo  that  of  a department  of  the  high  school. 
Local  conditions  govern  in  this  matter.  Theory  and  practice  are 
about  evenly  balanced  in  all  cases.  Academic  instruction  varies 
from  the  first  two  years  of  a university  course,  as  in  Cincinnati,  to 
none  at  all  in  11  schools  reporting. 

Fifteen  of  these  training  schools  give  opportunity  for  practice 
teaching  of  mathematics  in  grades  7 and  8.  The  longest  practice 
period  reported  is  that  of  Cambridge,  Mass.  In  that  school  one  year 
of  practice  teaching  is  offered  and  cadet  teachers  are  paid  $200  to 
$250  per  year. 

Seven  city  training  schools  offer  courses  in  the  history  and  teach- 
ing of  mathematics ; one  mentions  as  a special  feature  a mathematical 
library. 

In  response  to  a question  as  to  the  conditions  which  a rational 
preparation  of  teachers  for  the  grades  in  question  should  fulfill,  re- 
plies were  received  as  follows:  Massachusetts — (a)  normal  or  college 
diploma,  (b)  summer  school  course  at  least  every  third  year,  (c) 
membership  in  local  mathematics  club,  ( d ) membership  in  New  Eng- 
land Mathematical  Association;  Virginia--- (a)  high-school  course, 
(b)  good  normal  course,  with  practice  work;  Georgia — (a)  teaching 
knowledge  of  subject,  (b)  practice  course,  ( c ) rational  course  in 
pedagogy;  Indiana — inexperienced  teachers  should  not  be  allowed 
in  seventh  or  eighth  grade  work;  Iowa — good  knowledge  of  arith- 
metic, algebra,  and  geometry;  Missouri — more  attention  to  subject 
matter,  but  method  not  neglected.  The  remaining  23  cities  offer  no 
suggestions  on  the  question. 

2.  UNIVERSITY  AND  COLLEGE  DEPARTMENTS  OF  EDUCATION. 

Sixty  university  and  college  departments  of  education  reported  as 
follows:  North  Atlantic,  7;  South  Atlantic,  10;  South  Central,  6; 
North  Central,  32;  Western,  5. 

Twenty  of  these  schools  offer  opportunity  for  general  practice 
teaching  in  mathematics  and  15  give  practice  in  grades  7 and  8 of 
their  training  school.  Twenty-two  offer  course  in  the  teaching  of 
mathematics  and  16  in  the  history  of  the  subject.  Research  work  is 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  GRADES  7 AND  8. 


149 


done  in  13  schools.  In  the  rational  preparation  of  teachers,  35  believe 
that  emphasis  should  be  laid  upon  subject  matter,  while  21  would 
stress  method. 

In  all  of  these  schools  students  preparing  to  teach  have  access  to 
the  regular  college  and  university  courses  in  mathematics. 

3.  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

Reports  were  received  from  88  State  normal  schools,  as  follows: 
North  Atlantic,  IT;  South  Atlantic,  5;  South  Central,  8;  North 
Central,  36;  Western,  14. 

Seventy  of  these  schools  require  general  practice  teaching  in 
mathematics,  while  66  require  it  in  grades  7 and  8 of  their  training 
schools.  Courses  in  the  teaching  of  mathematics  are  offered  by  52, 
and  courses  in  the  history  of  mathematics  by  14  schools,  while  5 give 
opportunity  for  research  work. 

The  mathematics  course  in  normal  schools  varies  greatly.  The 
minimum  is  a high-school  course.  About  one- fourth  offer  college 
courses  in  mathematics.  Nearly  all  of  this  group  are  in  the  North 
Central  and  Western  States. 

4.  PRIVATE  NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

Forty-two  private  normal  schools  sent  in  reports.  They  were  dis- 
tributed as  follows:  North  Atlantic,  3;  South  Atlantic,  19;  South 
Central,  8;  North  Central,  11;  Western,  1. 

Of  this  number  28  have  practice  schools,  and  24  give  special 
training  in  teaching  seventh  and  eighth  grade  mathematics. 

Courses  in  the  teaching  of  mathematics  are  offered  by  20;  in  the 
history  of  the  subject  by  4.  Two  of  them  give  opportunity  for  re- 
search. 

In  connection  with  both  public  and  private  normal  schools,  it  is 
a matter  of  special  interest  that,  contrary  to  the  usual  opinion,  the 
majority  lay  emphasis  upon  subject  matter  of  mathematics  in  teacher 
preparation  rather  than  upon  method.  Sixty-one  would  emphasize 
subject  matter,  while  22  would  lay  the  emphasis  upon  method. 

5.  THE  FORWARD  MOVEMENT  IN  NEW  YORK. 

(a)  In  New  York  City  in  April  1911,  the  board  of  education 
took  action  requiring  all  teachers  not  holders  of  a grade  “A”  license 
to  pass  an  examination  before  promotion  to  positions  in  seventh  and 
eight  grades.  For  the  improvement  of  the  teaching  of  mathematics 
in  grades  7 and  8 the  following  steps  have  been  taken : 

1.  Special  attention  to  the  subject  by  many  of  the  district  superin- 
tendents in  principals’  conferences  and  in  holding  tests  for  different 
grades  uniform  throughout  their  respective  districts. 

2.  The  issuance  of  an  important  special  circular  by  the  city  super- 
intendent indicating  the  main  errors  committed  in  teaching  mathe- 
matics in  the  city  schools  and  pointing  the  way  to  remedy  those  errors. 


150 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


3.  The  establishment  of  courses  of  instruction  in  the  history  of 
mathematics  and  in  methods  of  teaching  elementary  mathematics. 
Some  of  these  courses  have  been  given  under  the  independent  auspices 
of  teachers’  associations,  others  have  been  given  in  cooperation  with 
local  universities,  and  others  have  been  given  independently  by  local 
universities. 

4.  The  local  teachers’  and  principals’  associations  of  the  Borough 
of  Brooklyn  have  jointly  prepared  a carefully  devised  general  teach- 
ing plan  in  mathematics  for  the  purpose  of  securing  desirable  uni- 
formity in  the  sequence  of  topics  in  the  schools  of  the  borough. 
This  plan  is  widely  used. 

(b)  In  New  York  State  revisions  of  the  graded-school  course  are 
in  progress,  which  will  very  materially  affect  #the  work  of  the  next 
five  years.  The  following  extract  from  the  1910  report  of  Commis- 
sioner Draper  indicates  the  nature  of  the  revisions : 

A syllabus  covering  the  first  six  grades  is  submitted*  * * * It  has  not 

been  possible  nor  was  it  expected  that  all  of  the  present  work  of  the  seventh 
and  .eighth  grades  could  be  put  in  the  six  years’  course.  * * * The  inter- 

mediate course  covering  such  grades  to  round  out  the  elementary  course  has 
been  prepared.  It  is  in  this  two  years’  (seventh  and  eighth  years)  course  that 
the  elementary  work  will  begin  to  differentiate.  The  regular  course  will  lead 
to  the  present  high-school  course.  It  includes  arithmetic,  history,  English, 
physiology,  modern  languages,  and  other  subjects  which  have  previously  been 
considered  in  academic  work.  * * * This  two  years’  course  also  includes 

work  specially  adapted  to  prepare  pupils  for  commercial  and  industrial  courses 
in  high  schools  and  in  trade  schools. 

6.  GENERAL  OPINIONS  CONCERNING  THE  RATIONAL  PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS 

FOR  GRADES  7 AND  8. 

Some  of  the  general  opinions  concerning  rational  preparation  of 
teachers  are  noted  here.  They  are  fairly  representative  of  the  whole 
group. 

From  a Pennsylvania  normal  school: 

A more  complete  appreciation  of  the  subject  matter,  emphasizing  its  phil- 
osophy and  the  need  of  absolute  accuracy  of  statement  and  of  result.  In  addi- 
tion to  this  must  come  an  appreciation  of  the  mental  activity  to  which  the 
various  phases  of  the  mathematics  make  their  appeal,  why  this  is  so,  and  the 
means  of  making  this  appeal  most  effectively — this  I think  of  as  the  pedagogy 
of  mathematics. 

From  Commissioner  Draper’s  1910  (New  York  State)  report  : 

The  normal  schools  are  charged  with  the  special  duty  of  training  teachers 
for  the  elementary  schools.  * * * The  elementary  work  of  the  seventh 

and  eighth  grades  is  to  be  so  radically  changed  under  the  new  syllabus  that 
special  provision  must  be  made  for  training  teachers  for  these  grades  so  that 
more  men  will  enter  this  field  of  teaching. 

From  a New  York  State  normal  school: 

(1)  It  (rational  preparation)  should  give  a thorough  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject matter  of  arithmetic;  (2)  it  should  emphasize  the  development  of  the 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  GRADES  7 AND  8. 


151 


subject  from  the  beginning,  and  the  methods  of  teaching  the  subject;  (3)  it 
should  include  a discussion  of  modern  movements  and  modern  tendencies,  and 
the  consideration  of  the  different  classes  of  material  with  which  the  teacher 
should  be  provided.  * * * The  average  normal  pupil’s  knowledge  of  algebra 

is  too  limited  to  enable  him  to  follow  any  discussion  of  methods  of  developing 
topics  in  algebra. 

A new  Jersey  State  normal  school : 

Students  who  come  to  us  from  high  schools  which  give  the  best  preparation 
in  mathematics  are  the  best  students  in  methods  of  teaching  arithmetic.  There- 
fore a round  course  of  mathematics  before  methods  of  teaching. 

Southwest  Texas  Normal  School: 

When  the  entrance  requirements  are  low,  nearly  if  not  all  the  time  should  be 
given  to  the  acquisition  of  subject  matter.  As  entrance  requirements  are 
raised,  more  time  should  be  given  to  the  professional  work  of  the  subject. 

University  of  Texas  School  of  Education : 

The  training  of  teachers  of  mathematics  for  grades  7 and  8 should  include 
these  features:  (a)  Scholarship,  including  solid  geometry,  trigonometry,  ad- 
vanced algebra,  and  some  analytics;  (&)  a course  in  general  method;  (c)  a 
course  in  psychology,  including  developmental  psychology;  ( d ) a course  in  the 
history  of  education;  (e)  a course  in  practice  teaching. 

Washington  State  Normal  School: 

I am  inclined  to  think  that  more  attention  should  be  given  to  subject  matter, 
but  not  any  less  to  the  method.  We  have  so  many  “ isms  ” that  mathematics  is 
not  receiving  its  just  share  of  time.  Most  students  coming  from  accredited 
high  schools  are  weak  in  the  subject  matter  of  arithmetic. 

Washington  State  University  department  of  education: 

The  great  weaknesses  of  mathematics  in  the  grammar  grades  are  two: 
(1)  The  absurd  American  plan  of  grinding  out  complex  and  almost  impossible 
arithmetic  before  taking  up  enlightening  and  comparatively  simple  elements  of 
algebra  and  (plane?)  geometry.  This  is  an  intolerable  fault.  Our  actual  curve 
of  difficulty  is  this — 


Alg.  Geom. 


when  it  should  be  of  course — 


Alg. 


(2)  Mathematics  should  be  more  concrete  in  the  grammar  school  (and  I think 
even  in  the  high  school),  and  (a)  more  clearly  related  to  the  boy’s  interest, 
(&)  more  closely  correlated  with  other  subjects. 

Montana  State  Normal  College : 

We  find  that  it  is  very  difficult  in  the  time  we  have  here  to  make  students 
satisfactorily  reliable  in  arithmetical  subject  matter.  High-school  graduates 
seem  to  have  lost  completely  all  the  knowledge  of  arithmetic  presumed  to  have 


152  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

been  acquired  below  the  high  school,  except  the  little  which  they  use  in  higher 
mathematical  subjects,  and  even  in  that  little  they  are  rarely  accurate. 

Iowa  State  Teachers’  College,  President  H.  H.  Seerley : 

Mathematics  has  a proper  place  from  the  fourth  grade  through  the  twelfth 
grade,  provided  it  is  adapted  to  the  age  and  development  of  the  pupil.  All  the 
arithmetic  necessary  to  be  known  can  be  taught  in  less  than  a year  if  given  at 
the  proper  time  of  the  pupil’s  development.  There  is  a great  waste  of  time 
now,  as  children  are  treated  as  if  they  need  adult  knowledge.  A suitable  book 
on  mathematics  should  be  written  for  the  grades  below  the  high  school. 

CONCLUSION. 

The  committee  has  attempted  to  set  forth  the  present  conditions 
relative  to  the  preparation  of  teachers  of  mathematics  for  grades  7 
and  8 of  the  public  elementary  schools  of  the  United  States.  No 
effort  has  been  made  to  draw  conclusion  or  to  formulate  a program 
for  the  future. 

It  is  very  evident  that  in  proportion  to  the  need  there  is  but  little 
specific  preparation  for  the  teaching  of  seventh  and  eighth  grade 
mathematics.  There  is  a failure  to  realize  the  truth  of  the  statement 
previously  noted  that  44  this  (seventh)  grade  marks  the  approach  of 
the  time  when  the  pupil  should  pass  from  mere  control  and  manipu- 
lation to  understanding  and  investigation,”  and  to  provide  the  kind 
of  instruction  needed  to  lead  the  pupil  out  into  the  broader  field  of 
mathematical  knowledge. 

The  failure  of  the  school  authorities  to  grasp  the  real  meaning  of 
algebra  and  concrete  geometry  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  is 
characteristic  of  the  attitude  of  the  American  people  toward  the 
public  schools.  The  fear  that  formal  algebra  and  formal  geometry 
are  going  to  crowd  out  some  more  practical  subjects  is  what  lies  back 
of  such  action  as  that  in  Chicago.  If  the  necessary  general  arithme- 
tic and  concrete  geometry  could  have  been  made  part  of  the  arithme- 
tic course  with  no  comment  upon  the  relation  to  the  more  formal 
courses  of  the  secondary  school,  and  no  introduction  of  the  names 
by  which  the  later  courses  are  known,  possibly  the  progress  toward 
a more  efficient  course  of  study  might  have  been  greatly  hastened. 
Only  38  per  cent  of  the  cities  report  any  algebra  (general  arithme- 
tic) in  grades  7 and  8 and  only  12  per  cent  report  any  concrete 
geometry. 

We  need  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  teachers  who  have  been 
led  to  see  mathematics  as  a part  of  human  progress,  and  who  can 
open  the  eyes  of  their  pupils  to  behold  the  same  vision.  In  the 
words  of  President  Butler: 1 

Mathematics,  therefore,  studies  an  aspect  of  all  knowing,  and  reveals  to  us 
the  universe  as  it  presents  itself,  in  one  form,  to  mind.  To  apprehend  this,  and 
to  be  conversant  with  the  higher  developments  of  mathematical  reasoning  are 
to  have  at  hand  the  means  of  vitalizing  all  teaching  of  elementary  mathematics. 


1 Introduction  to  Smith’s  The  Teaching  of  Elementary  Mathematics,  p.  xi. 


COMMITTEE  NO.  II.  SPECIAL  KINDS  OF  ELEMENTARY 

SCHOOLS. 


GENERAL  REPORT. 

The  investigations  of  the  committee  on  the  teaching  of  mathematics 
in  special  kinds  of  elementary  schools  have  been  confined  to  a dis- 
cussion of  the  work  as  it  is  given  in  trade  and  industrial  schools. 
There  are  other  special  types  of  schools,  notably  those  that  deal  with 
defectives  and  delinquents  that  might  be  considered  under  this  classi- 
fication. It  seemed  best  to  the  committee,  however,  to  confine  their 
attention  to  the  group  mentioned  above.  The  work  done  in  the 
schools  for  defectives  is  a modification  of  that  commonly  done  in 
other  schools  by  means  of  methods  of  instruction  suitable  to  the  type 
of  mind  dealt  with.  In  schools  for  delinquents,  whether  day  truant 
schools,  parental  schools,  or  reformatories,  the  work  is  quite  com- 
monly either  the  ordinary  work  in  mathematics  given  in  elementary 
or  secondary  schools,  or  such  as  is  considered  in  that  part  of  this  re- 
port relating  to  industrial  schools. 

In  the  Bulletin  No.  11  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Industrial  Education  there  is  given  a descriptive  list  of  trade  and 
industrial  schools  in  the  United  States.  This  bulletin  was  issued  in 
August,  1910.  There  were  at  that  time  more  than  140  such  schools 
about  which  the  society  was  able  to  gain  information.  The  classifica- 
tion of  these  schools  is  as  follows : 

1.  Intermediate  industrial,  preparatory  trade,  or  vocational  schools. 

2.  Trade  schools:  Day  courses — (a)  supported  by  public  funds; 
(b)  supported  by  private  funds. 

3.  Technical  schools:  Day  courses — (a)  supported  by  public  funds; 
(b)  supported  by  private  funds. 

4.  Apprenticeship  schools. 

5.  Evening  schools:  (a)  Giving  technical  courses  and  supported 
by  public  funds;  (b)  giving  technical  courses  and  on  private  founda- 
tion; ( c ) courses  given  by  Young  Men’s  Christian  Associations;  ( d ) 
giving  practical  shop  courses  and  supported  by  public  funds;  ( e ) 
giving  practical  shop  courses  and  on  private  foundation. 

6.  Part-time  schools. 


153 


154 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


7.  Trade  schools  for  colored  races. 

8.  Correspondence  schools. 

All  of  these  different  classes  of  schools  can  be  considered  as  special 
kinds  of  elementary  schools  as  contrasted  with  the  ordinary  high 
school.  From  another  point  of  view  they  are  secondary  schools,  since 
in  most  cases  at  least  six  years  of  elementary  school  work  is  required 
for  entrance,  and  since  the  courses  of  instruction  offered  lead  directly 
to  vocational  efficiency.  The  committee  has  concerned  itself  with  all 
of  these  groups  of  schools  in  its  report  even  though  they  may  not 
have  been  specified  in  the  outline  of  work  proposed,  and  may  not  be 
specifically  mentioned  in  the  later  discussion. 

Some  brief  statements  of  the  work  of  these  several  classes  of  schools 
may  not  be  out  of  place  as  a preliminary  to  the  consideration  of  their 
work  in  mathematics.  In  the  statements  which  follow,  the  charac- 
terization of  the  catalogue  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Industrial  Education  mentioned  above  is  followed,  and  in  some 
cases  the  exact  wording  is  quoted. 

INTERMEDIATE  INDUSTRIAL,  PREPARATORY  TRADE,  OR  VOCATIONAL  SCHOOLS. 

These  schools  take  pupils  who  are  14  years  of  age  and  have  com- 
pleted at  least  six  years  of  the  elementary  school  course.  These  chil- 
dren are  too  young  to  be  accepted  as  apprentices  in  the  trades,  and 
yet  have  commonly  left  school  to  enter  upon  occupations  which 
promise  very  little  advancement  even  after  several  years  of  service. 
“ The  intermediate  industrial  school  has  the  double  aim  of  turning 
the  attention  of  its  pupils,  and  of  the  parents  of  pupils,  to  the  superior 
opportunities  for  independence  offered  by  work  in  the  manual  trades, 
and  of  giving  them  such  instruction  as  will  enable  them  after  two  or 
three  years  to  enter  the  trades  with  advantage.  By  this  means  it  is 
designed  to  retain  for  a longer  period  of  time  the  boys  and  girls  who 
otherwise  leave  school.” 

“ In  schools  of  this  class,  the  course  of  study  commonly  combines 
bookwork  and  shopwork  in  almost  equal  proportions.  The  bookwork 
generally  includes  English,  shop  mathematics,  industrial  history,  and 
civics,  together  with  the  elements  of  physics  and  chemistry.  The 
shopwork  is  usuall  confined  to  a limited  choice  of  preparatory  trade 
work  for  each  sex.  Beginning  with  general  industrial  practice  the 
work  is  more  specialized  toward  the  end  of  the  course  and  carries  the 
pupil  to  a point  at  which  he  will  be  able  to  enter  a skilled  trade  or  a 
factory  industry  as  an  apprentice  possessing  a general  knowledge  of 
the  quantities  involved  and  a background  of  scientific  knowledge  that 
will  open  the  way  for  comparatively  rapid  promotion.”  Examples  of 
schools  of  this  type  are  the  following:  Secondary  Industrial  School 
of  Columbus,  Ga. ; New  Bedford  Industrial  School,  New  Bedford, 
Mass. ; Lawrence  Industrial  School,  Lawrence,  Mass. ; Newton  Inde- 


SPECIAL  KINDS  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


155 


pendent  Industrial  School,  Newton,  Mass.;  Albany  Vocational 
School,  Albany,  N.  Y. ; Hudson  Industrial  School,  Hudson,  N.  Y. ; 
New  York  City  Vocational  School  for  Boys,  One  hundred  and  thirty- 
eighth  Street  and  Fifth  Avenue;  Rochester  Factory  School,  Roches- 
ter, N.  Y. ; Rochester  Shop  School,  No.  26,  Rochester,  N.  Y. ; Indus- 
trial School,  Schenectady,  N.  Y. 

TRADE  SCHOOLS. 

Trade  schools  which  offer  day  courses  are  of  two  distinct  types. 
Some  have  very  short  courses  like  the  Baron  de  Hirsch  Trade  School, 
and  the  New  York  Trade  School,  where  very  little  attention  is  given 
to  instruction  in  English,  mathematics,  or  science.  In  these  schools 
the  aim  is  to  prepare  pupils  for  actual  work  in  the  trades  in  the  short- 
est possible  time.  After  a course  of  from  four  to  six  months  the 
student  can  frequently  secure  employment  as  a helper,  and,  because 
of  the  work  done  in  school  and  his  knowledge  of  the  theory  of  the 
trade,  he  can  commonly  advance  rapidly  to  the  grade  of  journeyman. 
The  trade  schools  giving  longer  courses  frequently  give  very  thorough 
instructions  in  English,  mathematics,  and  science.  The  Williamson 
Free  School  of  Trades  and  the  Wilmerding  School  of  Industrial  Arts 
devote  a considerable  proportion  of  time  to  such  instruction. 

The  Manhattan  Trade  School  for  Girls,  recently  established  in 
New  York  City,  and  similar  schools  in  Boston  and  in  certain  other 
cities,  are  especialty  interesting.  AVe  have  long  been  accustomed  to 
the  idea  of  trade  schools  for  boys,  but  have  until  recently  neglected 
to  realize  that  there  is  the  same  necessity  for  training  and  instruc- 
tion for  girls.  The  results  already  achieved  by  girls’  trade  schools 
prove  that,  as  in  the  case  of  boys,  the  trade  school  prepares  for  a type 
of  work  in  which  a living  wage  is  secured  and  in  which  there  is 
opportunity  for  advancement.  The  list  of  trade  schools  given  in  the 
bulletin  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Edu- 
cation follows: 

SUPPORTED  BY  PUBLIC  FUNDS. 

The  Manhattan  Trade  School  for  Girls,  New  York  City;  State  Trade  School, 
New  Britain,  Conn. ; Worcester  Trade  School,  Worcester,  Mass. ; Yonkers  Trade 
School,  Yonkers,  N.  Y. ; Portland  School  of  Trades,  Portland,  Oreg. ; Philadel- 
phia Trades  School,  Twelfth  and  Locust  Streets,  Philadelphia,  Pa. ; Milwaukee 
School  of  Trades  for  Boys,  Milwaukee,  Wis. ; Girls’  Trade  School,  620  Massa- 
chusetts Avenue,  Boston,  Mass. ; New  York  Trade  School  for  Girls,  Syracuse, 
N.  Y. ; Milwaukee  School  of  Trades  for  Girls,  Eighteenth  and  Wells  Streets, 
Milwaukee,  Wis. 

SUPPORTED  BY  PRIVATE  FOUNDATION. 

Wilmerding  School  of  Industrial  Arts  for  Boys,  San  Francisco,  Cal. ; Winona 
Technical  Institute,  Indianapolis,  Ind. ; David  Ranken,  Jr.,  School  of  Mechanical 
Trades,  St.  Louis,  Mo. ; Paterson  Silk  Textile  Institute,  Paterson,  N.  J. ; School 
of  Science  and  Technology  of  Pratt  Institute,  Ryerson  Street,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ; 


156  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

Baron  de  Hirsch  Trade  School,  222  East  Sixty-fourth  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. ; 
New  York  Electrical  Trade  School,  39  West  Seventeenth  Street,  New  York, 
N.  Y. ; New  York  Trade  School,  First  Avenue  between  Sixty-seventh  and  Sixty- 
eighth  Streets,  New  York,  N.  Y. ; Girard  College,  Philadelphia,  Pa. ; Williamson 
Free  School  of  Mechanical  Trades,  Williamson  School,  Delaware  County,  Pa. ; 
Miller  School,  Albemarle  County,  Ya. ; Hebrew  Technical  School  for  Girls, 
Second  Avenue  and  Fifteenth  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. ; Manhattan  Trade 
School  for  Girls,  209-213  East  Twenty-third  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. ; Ezra  F. 
Bowman  Technical  School,  Lancaster,  Pa. ; Omaha  Watch  Repairing,  Engraving 
and  Optical  Institute,  Omaha,  Nebr. ; Horological  Department  of  Bradley  Poly- 
technic Institute,  Peoria,  111. ; College  of  Horology,  Broad  and  Somerset  Streets, 
Philadelphia,  Pa. ; St.  Louis  Watchmaking  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo. ; Waltham 
Horological  School,  Waltham,  Mass. ; Coyne  National  Trade  School,  1701  N. 
Ashland  Avenue,  Chicago,  111. ; Master  Plumbers  Trade  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS:  DAY  COURSES. 

“ The  schools  included  under  this  classification  are  of  secondary 
grade  and  do  not  give  instruction  of  higher  engineering  rank.  The 
courses  are  designed  to  give  the  pupil  such  acquaintance  with  the 
scientific  and  mathematical  principles  underlying  commercial  proc- 
esses as  will  enable  him  to  qualify  in  time  for  the  work  of  foreman, 
master  mechanic,  inspector,  etc.  Special  attention  is  called  to  the 
group  of  textile  schools,  which  are  not  trade  but  technical  schools,  in 
which  both  the  practical  and  the  theoretical  aspects  of  textile  manu- 
facture are  presented.” 

The  following  schools  are  supported  by  public  funds:  Bradford 
Durfee  Textile  School,  Fall  River,  Mass.;  Lowell  Textile  School, 
Lowell,  Mass. ; New  Bedford  Textile  School,  New  Bedford,  Mass. ; 
Technical  High  School,  Cleveland,  Ohio;  Louisiana  Industrial  In- 
stitute, Ruston,  La.  Supported  by  private  funds:  California  School 
of  Mechanical  Arts,  San  Francisco,  Cal.;  Bliss  electrical  School, 
Takoma  Park,  Washington,  D.  C. ; Lewis  Institute,  Madison  and 
Robey  Streets,  Chicago,  111. ; Hebrew  Technical  Institute,  36  Stuyve- 
sant  Street,  New  York,  N.  Y. ; Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ; 
Webb’s  Academy  for  Shipbuilders,  Fordham  Heights,  N.  Y. ; Ohio 
Mechanics’  Institute,  Cincinnati,  Ohio;  Drexel  Institute  of  Art, 
Science,  and  Industry,  Philadelphia,  Pa. ; Philadelphia  Textile 
School,  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Carnegie  Technical  Schools,  Pittsburgh, 
Pa.;  High  Schools  of  Practical  Arts  for  Girls,  Boston,  Mass. 

APPRENTICESHIP  SCHOOLS. 

Apprenticeship  schools  are  provided  by  a number  of  large  in- 
dustrial corporations  for  the  education  of  boys  who  are  learning 
their  trade.  In  these  schools  there  is  a close  correlation  of  the 
theoretical  instruction  and  the  practical  shopwork.  Through  train- 
ing in  mathematics,  drafting,  English,  and  science,  there  are  re- 
cruited from  the  ranks  of  those  who  work  in  the  shops  a group  of 


SPECIAL*  KINDS  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


157 


men  much  more  capable  than  the  ordinary  worker.  Sometimes  from 
this  group  there  are  chosen  those  who  occupy  the  higher  supervisory 
positions.  The  movement  is  an  indication  of  the  desire  of  these  cor- 
porations to  supplement  the  work  ordinarily  done  in  the  shop  during 
the  period  of  apprenticeship  with  a type  of  theoretical  work  which 
will  develop  a more  intelligent  workman.  The  fact  that  in  most  of 
these  schools  shop  time  is  taken  for  the  class  work,  and  that  this  time 
is  paid  for  at  the  regular  rate,  is  an  indication  of  the  value  attached 
to  such  exercises.  The  following  is  a partial  list  of  such  schools: 
Apprenticeship  System  of  the  New  York  Central  lines;  Apprentice- 
ship Schools  of  the  Santa  Fe  Railroad  System;  Apprenticeship 
School  of  the  General  Electric  Co.,  West  Lynn,  Mass. ; Yale  & 
Towne  Manufacturing  Co.’s  Apprentice  School,  Stamford,  Conn.; 
School  for  Apprentices  of  the  Lakeside  Press,  Chicago,  111. ; Solvay 
Process  Co.’s  Apprentice  School,  Syracuse,  N.  Y. ; School  of  Print- 
ing of  the  North  End  Union,  Boston,  Mass. ; Drawing  School  of  the 
American  Steel  & Wire  Co.,  Worcester,  Mass. ; Fore  River  Shipbuild- 
ing Co.’s  Apprentice  System,  Quincy,  Mass. ; Ludlow  Textile  School, 
Ludlow,  Mass.;  Westinghouse  Electric  & Manufacturing  Co.,  East 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.;  John  Wanamaker  Commercial  Institute,  New  York, 
N.  Y.,  and  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

EVENING  SCHOOLS. 

Evening  schools  are  more  closely  related  to  the  apprenticeship 
schools  than  to  any  other  of  those  already  mentioned,  since  the  stu- 
dents are  recruited  almost  wholly  from  among  those  who  work  at  the 
various  trades  during  the  day.  They  are  intended  to  give  a type  of 
education,  both  theoretical  and  practical,  which  will  give  the  worker 
at  the  trade  a better  understanding  of  his  work  and  of  its  relationship 
to  the  industry  toward  which  his  work  contributes.  The  tendency 
of  shopwork  is  to  confine  the  worker  to  one  very  small  part  of  the 
whole  industry  and  hence  to  give  him  very  little  appreciation  of  the 
significance  of  his  labor,  either  in  relation  to  the  other  processes  in 
the  same  industry  or  to  the  industry  in  the  larger  social  group.  These 
evening  schools,  commonly  called  industrial  improvement  schools  or 
continuation  schools,  follow  a course  of  study  not  unlike  the  corre- 
sponding day  schools.  The  following  schools  are  of  this  type  and 
give  technical  courses,  and  are  supported  by  public  funds : The  Even- 
ing Industrial  School,  Boston,  Mass. ; Public  Evening  Trade  School, 
Lowell,  Mass.;  Bradford  Durfee  Textile  School,  Fall  River,  Mass.; 
Lowell  Textile  School,  Lowell,  Mass. ; New  Bedford  Textile  School, 
New  Bedford,  Mass.;  Evening  Industrial  School,  Pittsfield,  Mass.; 
Evening  School,  Little  Falls,  N.  Y. ; Stuyvesant  Evening  Trade 
School,  345  East  Fifteenth  Street,  New  York  City;  Brooklyn  Even- 


158  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

ing  Trade  School,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ; Technical  High  School, 
Cleveland,  Ohio.  Schools  giving  technical  courses  and  on  pri- 
vate foundation  are  as  follows:  Lewis  Institute,  Chicago,  111.; 
Franklin  Union,  Berkeley  and  Appleton  Streets,  Boston,  Mass.; 
Lowell  Institute  School  for  Industrial  Foremen,  Boston,  Mass. ; Tech- 
nical School,  Newark,  N.  J. ; Cooper  Union  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  and  Art,  Astor  Place,  New  York  City;  Mechanics’  Institute, 
20  West  Forty-fourth  Street,  New  York  City;  School  of  Science  and 
Technology  of  Pratt  Institute,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. ; Mechanics’  Institute, 
Rochester,  N.  Y. ; Ohio  Mechanics’  Institute,  Cincinnati,  Ohio ; Casino 
Technical  Night  School,  East  Pitsburgh,  Pa. ; Drexel  Institute,  Phila- 
delphia, Pa.;  Franklin  Institute  Night  School,  Philadelphia,  Pa.; 
Philadelphia  Textile  School,  Philadelphia,  Pa. ; Spring  Garden  Insti- 
tute, Philadelphia,  Pa.;  School  for  Apprentices  and  Journeymen  of 
the  Carnegie  Technical  Schools,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. ; Virginia  Mechanics’ 
Institute,  Richmond,  Va. 

Throughout  the  United  States  the  Young  Men’s  Christian  Associa- 
tions have  entered  the  field  of  industrial  education.  The  work  of 
the  education  department  in  city,  railroad,  and  industrial  Young 
Men’s  Christian  Associations  has  become  one  of  the  most  important 
of  the  activities  of  these  organizations  during  the  past  few  years. 
According  to  the  report  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  Industrial  Education,  there  are  now  “ 2,250  paid  teachers  who  give 
instruction  to  over  50,000  employees,  men  and  boys,  two  nights  per 
week  for  half  the  year,  in  a total  of  110  different  commercial  and 
vocational  subjects.  Included  in  the  above  lines  of  class  work  are 
mechanical,  architectural,  and  freehand  drawing,  design,  shop  mathe- 
matics, physics,  electricity,  chemistry,  shopwork  in  wood  and  metal, 
plumbing,  etc.  This  industrial  work  is  not  designed  to  prepare  for 
the  higher  engineering  lines,  but  on  the  contrary  to  furnish  oppor- 
tunities for  industrial  improvement,  either  by  broadening  the  pupil’s 
knowledge  of  a trade  or  by  instructing  him  in  the  technical  founda- 
tions of  efficient  and  intelligent  trade  work.”  These  associations  are 
scattered  throughout  the  United  States.  There  are  more  than  60 
associations,  enrolling  50  or  more  students  in  trade  and  industrial 
subjects. 

Schools  giving  practical  shop  courses  and  supported  by  public  funds 
are  found  in  the  following  cities:  Cambridge  Evening  Industrial 
School,  Cambridge,  Mass. ; Evening  School,  Chicopee,  Mass. ; Even- 
ing School  of  Trades,  Springfield,  Mass.;  Long  Island  City  Evening 
High  and  Trade  School,  Long  Island  City,  N.  Y. ; New  York  Evening 
High  School  for  Women,  East  Forty-second  Street,  near  Third  Ave- 
nue, New  York  City.;  Stuyvesant  Evening  Trade  School,  New  York, 
N.  Y. ; Philadelphia  Trades  School,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  The  follow- 
ing schools  give  practical  shop  courses  and  on  private  foundation : 


SPECIAL  KINDS  OF  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


159 


Massachusetts  Charitable  Mechanic  Association  Trade  School,  111 
Huntington  Avenue,  Boston,  Mass.;  David  Kanken,  Jr.,  School  of 
Mechanical  Trades,  St.  Louis,  Mo. ; Five  Points  Italian  Trade  School, 
155  Worth  Street,  New  York  City ; Hebrew  Technical  Institute,  New 
York  City;  New  York  Electrical  Trade  School,  39  West  Seventeenth 
Street,  New  York  City;  New  York  Trade  School,  First  Avenue,  be- 
tween Sixty-seventh  and  Sixty-eighth  Streets,  New  York  City ; Man- 
hattan Trade  School  for  Girls,  209-213  East  Twenty-third  Street, 
New  York  City ; School  of  Science  and  Technology  of  Pratt  Institute, 
Brooklyn,  New  York  City;  St.  George’s  Evening  Trade  School,  505 
East  Sixteenth  Street,  New  York  City;  Sixty-third  Street  Evening 
Trade  School  of  the  Children’s  Aid  Society,  New  York  City ; Drexel 
Institue  of  Art,  Science,  and  Industry,  Philadelphia,  Pa.;  Hebrew 
Education  Society,  Tenth  and  Carpenter  Streets,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

PART-TIME  SCHOOLS. 

“ The  part-time  plan,  as  carried  on  at  Fitchburg,  Mass.,  is  an  ar- 
rangement by  which  boys  in  the  high  school  give  half  of  their  time 
to  work  for  wages  in  the  commercial  shops  in  the  city  and  half  to 
school  work.  Such  a plan  is  designed  to  furnish  the  pupil  with  the 
theoretical  training  necessary  to  his  advancement  in  industrial  life, 
while  at  the  same  time  providing  practical  experience  and  wage  return. 
The  school  work  is  under  the  direction  of  the  board  of  education  of 
Fitchburg  and  is  supported  by  public  funds.  The  classroom  instruc- 
tion articulates  with  the  grammar  school,  and  implies  regular  high- 
school  requirements.  For  this  part  of  the  work  the  regular  school 
building  is  used.  For  the  first  year  the  boy  devotes  his  entire  time 
to  school  work,  and  for  the  next  three  years  equal  groups  of  boys 
alternate  weekly  between  shop  and  school,  so  that  one  group  is  always 
at  work  in  the  shops  and  one  in  the  school.  On  Saturday  morning 
of  each  week  the  boy  who  has  been  at  school  for  that  week  goes  to 
the  shop  in  order  to  become  familiar  with  the  work  upon  which  his 
alternate  is  working  so  as  to  be  ready  to  take  it  up  on  Monday  morn- 
ing when  the  shop  boy  returns  to  school.  Boys  are  paid  for  the  work 
done  in  the  shops  at  the  rate  of  10  cents  an  hour  for  the  first  year, 
11  cents  for  the  second  year,  and  12|  cents  for  the  third  year,  or  a total 
of  $552.75  for  the  three  years.”  Other  part-time  schools  are  found 
at  Beverly,  Mass.  (The  Beverly  Industrial  School)  and  at  Cincinnati, 
Ohio  (The  Cincinnati  Continuation  School).  All  of  these  schools 
are  publicly  supported.  Doubtless  other  schools  of  this  type  will  be 
open  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  very  near  future. 

TRADE  SCHOOLS  FOR  THE  COLORED  RACES. 

Some  of  the  best  industrial  work  that  is  done  in  the  United  States 
is  to  be  found  in  schools  for  the  education  of  Indians  and  negroes. 

1442°— 11 11 


160 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


In  all  of  these  schools  the  industrial  work  is  accompanied  by  literary 
instruction.  In  some  of  the  schools  as  much  as  half  of  the  time  is 
devoted  to  industrial  training.  In  some  of  the  schools  the  relation- 
ship between  industrial  and  the  ordinary  academic  work  is  excep- 
tionally well  handled.  This  is  peculiarly  true  in  the  subject  of  mathe- 
matics. The  problems  of  the  shop  and  farm  are  quite  commonly 
treated  in  the  classes  in  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry.  “ Normal 
instruction,  instruction  in  the  domestic  arts  and  sciences,  and  giving 
each  pupil  such  an  understanding  of  a manual  trade  or  agriculture 
as  will  make  him  financially  independent  and  hence  self-respecting — 
all  these  features  together  represent  the  aim  of  such  schools  as  Hamp- 
ton and  Tuskegee  Institutes  and  the  other  institutions  in  the  list.” 
Schools  of  this  class  are  as  follows:  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricul- 
tural Institute,  Hampton,  Ya. ; Tuskegee  Normal  and  Industrial  In- 
stitute, Tuskegee,  Ala.;  United  States  Indian  School,  Carlisle,  Pa.; 
Christiansburg  Industrial  Institute,  Cambria,  Ya. ; Yoorhees  Indus- 
trial School,  Denmark,  S.  C. ; Schofield  Normal  and  Industrial 
School,  Aiken,  S.  C. ; Manassas  Industrial  School,  Manassas,  Ya. ; 
Mayesville  Industrial  Institute,  Mayesville,  S.  C. ; Okolona  Industrial 
College,  Okolona,  Miss.;  Fessenden  Academy  and  Industrial  School, 
Fessenden,  Fla.;  Montgomery  Industrial  School  for  Girls,  Mont- 
gomery, Ala.;  Colored  Industrial  and  Normal  School,  Salisbury, 
Md. ; Manual  Training  and  Industrial  School  for  Colored  Youth, 
Bordentown,  N.  J. 

CORRESPONDENCE  SCHOOLS. 

Many  persons  who  are  regularly  employed  in  the  industries  have 
sought  help  through  the  technical  work  which  is  offered  by  correspond- 
ence schools.  With  the  persevering  student,  they  have  been  able  to 
conduct  courses  in  a very  great  variety  of  technical  subjects,  and  have 
in  this  way  furnished  the  theoretical  background  which  has  made 
possible  a wider  outlook  and  a greater  degree  of  efficiency  for  those 
who  are  regularly  employed.  The  following  schools  are  representa- 
tive of  the  best  type  of  this  class : American  School  of  Correspondence, 
Fifty-eighth  Street  and  Drexel  Avenue,  Chicago,  111. ; International 
Typographical  Union  Course  in  Printing,  130  Sherman  Street,  Chi- 
cago, 111. ; International  Correspondence  Schools,  Scranton,  Pa. 

The  work  of  these  schools  is  considered  in  another  report  to  the 
International  Commission  on  the  Teaching  of  Mathematics. 


SUBCOMMITTEE  1.  INDUSTRIAL  CLASSES  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 

The  subcommittee  reporting  on  industrial  classes  in  public  schools 
included  in  its  inquiry  all  schools  supported  and  controlled  by  the 
municipality  through  its  board  of  education.  There  were  included, 
therefore,  graded  schools  having  a course  of  study  of  from  seven  to 


INDUSTRIAL  CLASSES  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


161 


nine  years  in  length,  the  technical  and  manual-training  high  schools, 
usually  not  coeducational,  and  the  ordinary  coeducational  academic 
high  schools.  Evening  schools  of  either  elementary  or  secondary 
grade,  as  well  as  trade  schools  supported  by  the  municipality  as  a 
part  of  the  public-school  system,  were  also  considered.  The  term 
“ industrial  classes  ” was  interpreted  broadly  to  mean  classes  in 
manual  training,  domestic  art,  domestic  science  in  either  of  the 
grades  or  high  school,  as  well  as  classes  in  high-school  commercial 
courses.  Classes  in  vocational  work  in  any  of  the  schools  named 
above  were  also  included. 

METHOD  OF  COLLECTING  DATA. 

A questionnaire  was  sent  to  150  high-school  principals  and  city 
superintendents  in  the  larger  cities  of  the  United  States,  asking  for 
data  on  the  subject  of  “ Industrial  classes  in  public  schools,”  and  the 
relation  of  the  work  of  these  classes  to  the  work  in  mathematics. 
While  the  response  to  this  questionnaire  was  not  as  general  or  as 
full  as  could  be  desired,  yet  many  superintendents  cheerfully  re- 
sponded. It  is  largely  on  the  basis  of  these  replies  that  this  report 
has  been  prepared. 

KINDS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  GIVEN  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 

Industrial  work  is  given  in  public  schools:  First,  in  classes  in 
manual  training,  domestic  art,  and  domestic  science  throughout  the 
grades  of  city  school  systems ; second,  in  classes  in  manual  training, 
domestic  science,  and  commercial  branches,  conducted  in  the  ordinary 
free  academic  high  schools ; third,  in  technical,  manual-training,  and 
commercial  high  schools;  fourth,  in  evening  schools  of  elementary 
or  secondary  grade ; fifth,  in  vacation  schools ; sixth,  in  trade  schools 
supported  by  the  municipality  and  under  the  control  of  the  board  of 
education.  In  a few  cases  vocational  classes  are  maintained  in  the 
free  academic  high  schools;  and  in  a very  few  instances  in  this 
country  industrial  work  is  given  by  a cooperation  of  public  schools, 
and  shops  and  factories.  In  these  cases  the  boys  work  part  time  in 
the  shop  or  factories  and  part  time  in  the  school. 

CULTURAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK. 

In  all  parts  of  the  United  States  a constantly  increasing  number  of 
public  schools  have  provided  instruction  in  manual  training,  do- 
mestic art,  domestic  science,  and  commercial  branches.  The  manual 
training  consisting  of  whittling  and  bench  work  in  wood  is  usually 
the  first  form  of  industrial  work  to  be  introduced.  The  next  is  sew- 
ing and  dressmaking,  followed  by  cooking.  As  public  sentiment  be- 
comes educated  to  a more  liberal  support  of  this  work,  it  is  extended 


162 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


to  all  grades  below  the  high  school,  and  also  to  each  year  in  the  high 
school. 

In  answer  to  the  question,  “What  kinds  of  industrial  work  are 
given  in  your  school  ?”  the  following  reply  from  one  of  the  large  cities 
in  the  Middle  West  is  typical : “ Strictly  speaking,  we  do  not  give  any 
industrial  work  in  our  public  schools  unless  you  would  call  manual 
training,  domestic  art,  and  domestic  science,  industrial  work,  (a) 
Handwork  is  taught  the  children  in  the  first  four  grades  (primary). 
This  handwork  consists  of  two  kinds — first,  work  to  illustrate  sub- 
jects about  which  they  read;  second,  independent  unrelated  exercises. 
In  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades,  boys  are  taught  knife  work  by  a special 
teacher,  and  girls  sewing.  In  the  fifth  grade  we  give  to  this  work 
one  and  one-half  hours  each  week.  In  the  sixth  grade  two  and  one- 
half  hours  a week.  In  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  boys  are  taught 
joinery  and  cabinetmaking  in  specially  equipped  shops;  girls  are 
taught  cooking.  Half  a day  a week  is  given  to  those  subjects  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades,  (b)  We  are  now  constructing  two  manual 
training  high  schools  which  will  be  ready  for  occupancy  next  fall. 
The  manual  training  in  these  high  schools  will  not  take  the  form  of 
industrial  training,  though  it  may  develop  into  that  later.  At 
present  in  the  high  schools  we  have  a very  complete  commercial  de- 
partment which  fits  pupils  for  business  life  and  for  clerical  work. 
We  also  teach  mechanical  drawing,  free-hand  drawing,  and  applied 
design,  with  some  work  in  the  crafts.” 

From  another  large  city  where  the  high  school  industrial  work 
was  much  more  extensive,  the  following  reply  was  received:  “In  our 
high  schools,  sewing,  millinery,  carpentry,  blacksmithing,  machine- 
shop  practice,  wood  turning,  architectural  drawing,  and  mechanical 
drawing  are  given.” 

For  the  most  part  the  lines  of  industrial  education  named  above 
furnish  the  basis  for  work  in  the  trades  rather  than  direct  instruc- 
tion in  the  trades. 

VOCATIONAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK. 

Besides  the  above  lines  of  work  there  are  in  some  schools  strictly 
vocational  classes.  Many  school  boards  maintain  evening  schools  of 
elementary  and  secondary  grade.  Much  of  the  work  in  these  schools 
is  vocational.  It  includes  one  or  more  of  the  following:  Millinery, 
dressmaking,  flowermaking,  chauffeur’s  work,  wood  turning,  cabinet- 
making, architectural  drawing,  mechanical  drawing,  stenography, 
bookkeeping,  and  other  trades  of  local  interest.  Of  course  the  high 
school  commercial  courses  prepare  directly  for  business  life  and  for 
clerical  positions.  Trade  schools  for  girls,  evening  grammar  schools, 
evening  high  schools,  technical  high  schools,  manual  training  high 


INDUSTRIAL  CLASSES  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


163 


schools  are  forms  of  schools  in  which  industrial  work  is  prominent. 
In  all  of  these  two  kinds  of  industrial  work  are  carried  on — first,  that 
which  furnishes  a basis  for  trade  or  technical  instruction,  but  which 
is  itself  not  directly  trade  instruction ; second,  strictly  vocational 
work. 

COOPERATIVE  INDUSTRIAL  WORK. 

A very  interesting  experiment  is  being  tried  in  a few  cities  in  this 
country — the  so-called  cooperative  industrial  work.  Under  this  plan 
boys  work  one  week  in  the  shops  or  factories  and  the  next  week  in 
the  public  schools.  The  work  in  school  is  such  as  will  directly  affect 
their  efficiency  in  the  shop.  This  plan  gives  boys  their  industrial 
work  in  the  shops  and  their  academic  work  in  school.  The  academic 
work  is  correlated  with  the  shopwork.  A number  of  other  cities  are 
planning  to  try  this  experiment. 

PUBLIC  SCHOOL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  AND  LOCAL  INDUSTRIES. 

Of  the  cities  from  which  answers  to  the  questionnaire  were  received 
very  few  stated  that  the  work  offered  in  manual  training  and  domes- 
tic science  is,  in  any  special  way,  modified  to  fit  the  local  industries, 
while  several  stated  that  no  such  relation  exists.  The  following  re- 
ply is  from  one  of  the  large  cities  of  the  East : “ No  special  attempt 
has  been  made  * * * in  public  school  work  to  fit  pupils  espe- 

cially for  local  industries.  We  have  such  a variety  of  local  industries 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  train  especially  for  certain  ones  and 
not  for  others.” 

Where  evening  and  trade  schools  are  maintained,  a very  definite  re- 
lationship exists  between  the  trades  taught  and  the  local  industries. 
Those  trades  that  are  carried  on  in  the  city  where  these  schools  are 
located  are  taught  in  the  schools. 

ARE  PRESENT  CONDITIONS  SATISFACTORY. 

In  general,  superintendents  seem  to  feel  that  the  industrial  work 
now  given  is  satisfactory  as  far  as  it  goes.  Many  express  the  opinion 
that  more  time  should  be  given  to  the  work  and  greater  diversity 
should  be  introduced. 

The  following  reply  is  from  a superintendent  who  has  this  point 
of  view.  He  says:  “We  do  not  feel  that  we  have  really  made  a be- 
ginning in  meeting  the  demand  for  industrial  education.  The 
crowded  condition  of  our  schools  prevents  any  advanced  steps  in 
this  direction.  We  aim  as  soon  as  possible,  however,  to  establish 
schools  which  will  give  greater  training  along  a number  of  lines  of 
activities.” 

Another  superintendent  writes  as  follows : “ Our  present  industrial 
work  is  not  satisfactory,  if  it  is  thought  advisable  to  give  vocational 


164 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


training.  I am  not  satisfied  yet  that  vocational  training  should  be 
introduced  into  public  schools.  However,  I am  open  to  conviction. 
We  are  hoping  to  try  a plan  of  part-day  school  and  part-day  work 
in  the  shops  and  in  other  vocations.  If  this  plan  works  out  satisfac- 
torily it  will  mean  that  we  will  use  the  shops  and  factories  of  the 
city  for  the  practical  work,  while  the  academic  and  theoretical  work 
will  be  given  in  the  schools.” 

Still  another  superintendent  writes:  “We  want  more  work  of  an 
industrial  nature  in  the  schools  we  have.  We  want  a thoroughly 
equipped  industrial  plant  in  our  high  school.  We  want  a school  that 
will  give  students  a thorough  training  in  all  departments  of  the  silk 
industry,  our  leading  industry,  and  its  associated  occupations,  the 
manufacturing  of  silk  machinery,  etc.  We  should  do  something  for 
the  young  men  who  follow  the  iron  and  steel  industries,  locomotive 
building,  structural-steel  work,  etc.” 

THE  MATHEMATICAL  CURRICULUM. 

It  is  customary  to  give  a course  in  arithmetic  through  the  grades, 
beginning  in  the  first  or  second  grade  and  extending  through  the 
eighth.  In  the  eighth  grade  a course  in  constructive  geometry  is 
given  and  sometimes  one  in  elementary  algebra. 

In  the  academic  high  schools  having  four-year  courses  the  cus- 
tomary course  in  mathematics  is  given  as  follows:  One  year  of 
algebra  is  required,  and  this  is  usually  given  in  the  first  year  of  the 
liigh-school  course;  one  year  of  geometry  is  also  required  in  most 
high  schools.  Sometimes  it  is  a year  of  plane  and  solid  geometry, 
given,  as  a rule,  in  the  third  year  of  the  high-school  course.  Some- 
times the  one-year  course  is  devoted  entirely  to  plane  geometry ; then 
it  is  usually  given  in  the  second  year  of  the  high-school  course. 
Arithmetic  is  generally  required  in  the  commercial  courses,  and  in 
some  high  schools  it  is  required  in  other  courses  also.  In  addition, 
in  the  third  or  fourth  year  of  the  high-school  courses  a half  year  of 
advanced  algebra  and  a half  year  of  solid  geometry  are  offered  as 
electives,  and  then  plane  geometry  only  is  required. 

The  following  course  in  mathematics,  given  in  one  of  the  largest 
high  schools  in  the  Middle  West,  is  typical  of  the  work  given  in 
schools  of  this  class:  In  the  first  year,  algebra;  in  the  second  year, 
plane  geometry;  in  the  third  year,  solid  geometry  and  advanced 
algebra ; in  the  fourth  year,  trigonometry.  The  instructor  in  mathe- 
matics in  this  school  writes  as  follows : “ A modification  of  this 

course  that  would  possibly  be  an  improvement  is  the  introduction  of 
elementary  solid  geometry  propositions,  and  trigonometry  notions  in 
a first  course  in  geometry,  to  be  given  in  the  second  year;  the  re- 
mainder of  solid  geometry  together  with  the  most  difficult  plane 


INDUSTRIAL  CLASSES  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


165 


geometry  propositions,  to  constitute  an  advanced  course,  coming  in 
the  third  year.  This  would  permit  of  the  introduction  of  a wide 
range  of  extremely  interesting  problem  material  into  the  geometry 
course.” 

RELATION  OF  MATHEMATICS  TO  INDUSTRIAL  WORK. 

The  general  tenor  of  the  replies  received  indicates  that  a greater 
effort  is  being  made  to  correlate  mathematics  taught  in  the  grades 
and  in  the  high  school  with  manual  training,  domestic  science,  and 
other  industrial  work  offered  in  these  schools.  As  a rule  in  academic 
high  schools,  separate  classes  in  industrial  mathematics  are  not  con- 
ducted. In  evening  and  trade  schools,  the  mathematics  offered  is 
taught  frequently  by  the  instructor  in  the  trade.  In  this  case,  the 
mathematics  taught  is  such  as  will  be  useful  in  the  given  trade. 
Shop  formulas  are  taught;  these  formulas  are  applied  to  practical 
problems  and  the  meaning  of  the  formulas  is  made  clear.  Emphasis 
is  placed,  primarily  but  not  exclusively,  on  the  empirical  use  of  the 
formulas  instead  of  on  the  demonstrative  side  as  in  high-school 
mathematics.  In  the  Washington  Irving  High  School  in  New  York 
City,  a technical  high  school  for  girls,  the  course  in  mathematics 
follows  a course  made  by  the  domestic  art  and  commercial  depart- 
ments of  the  school. 

The  following  replies  to  the  questionnaire  will  indicate  in  greater 
detail  what  is  being  done  along  the  line  of  industrial  mathematics 
and  the  effect  industrial  work  is  destined  to  have  on  mathematical 
teaching. 

From  a large  city  in  the  East  is  the  following  reply : “ Industrial 
mathematics  is  taken  up  in  the  Technical  Evening  High  School,  and 
in  the  vocational  schools.  In  each  case,  separate  classes  are  held  for 
mathematics,  but  it  is  correlated  as  much  as  possible  with  shopwork. 
The  demonstrative  side  is  not  emphasized  particularly,  neither  are 
formulas  given  empirically.  Our  instructors  try  to  show  the  reason 
why  and  to  make  the  rules  and  formulas  logical  deductions.  I have 
no  doubt  that  with  the  growth  of  industrial  work  in  the  schools  a 
system  of  shop  mathematics  will  be  evolved,  beginning  with  arith- 
metic and  extending  certainly  through  geometry,  which  will  apply 
particularly  to  the  industries.” 

Another  superintendent  writes:  “No  work  in  industrial  mathe- 

matics is  given.  Use  is  made  of  practical  problems  and  applications 
of  mathematics  to  the  arts  and  sciences  because  experience  has  shown 
that  such  problems  add  interest  to  the  work.” 

A third  superintendent  in  one  of  the  large  Western  cities  says: 
u There  is  nothing  special  in  our  course  of  study  known  as  industrial 
mathematics.  I think,  however,  that  there  is  need  for  work  of  this 
kind.  In  connection  with  manual  training,  mathematics  especially 


166  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 

suited  to  this  kind  of  work  is,  of  course,  used.  The  same  is  true  in 
regard  to  various  lines  of  manual  activities  offered  in  the  Manual 
Training  High  School.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  public  school  in- 
dustrial work  will  tend  to  make  arithmetic,  taught  in  the  elementary 
schools,  much  simpler  and  more  practical  in  its  character.” 

A principal  of  one  of  the  large  high  schools  in  the  Middle  West 
says : “ Shop  arithmetic  is  given  with  class  lectures  and  work  in  the 
shop.  Application  is  emphasized.  No  attention  whatever  is  paid 
to  demonstration.  There  is  no  correlation  at  present  between  mathe- 
matics and  industrial  work.  In  the  near  future,  the  mathematical 
subjects  will  have  to  treat  their  problems  and  theorems  as  some  part 
of  the  world  in  which  we  live,  and  not  as  something  that  pupils  think 
exists  in  imagination.  Industrial  work  will  make  demands  on  the 
pupils  which  will  require  them  to  get  their  mathematics  in  organized 
shape  and  hold  it  ready  for  every  emergency.” 

In  a large  city  in  the  Middle  West  the  practical  side  of  mathematics 
in  the  grades  is  emphasized  by  supplying  pupils  with  mimeo- 
graphed sets  of  questions  and  problems  such  as  would  arise  in  buying 
familiar  articles  at  the  meat  market,  at  the  grocery  department, 
or  at  a department  store  in  its  various  departments.  These  problems 
are  arranged  to  bring  out  the  idea  of  economical  buying  of  articles 
needed  for  a meal  and  of  buying  articles  needed  in  the  various 
phases  of  domestic  work.  Problems  are  given  on  the  cost  of  heating 
and  lighting  a house  by  gas  and  by  electricity.  In  this  case,  state- 
ment is  made  of  the  number  of  feet  of  gas  used,  and  the  number  of 
kilowatts  of  electricity  used,  and  pupils  are  required  to  compute  the 
monthly  bill,  for  these  items.  Problems  are  also  given  relating  to  the 
practical  work  of  different  industries,  such  as  railroad  and  foundry 
problems,  pay  rolls,  cost  of  house  furnishing,  etc.  Data  are  given 
of  the  amount  of  money  spent  by  the  city  in  each  of  the  various  kinds 
of  city  improvements,  and  the  amount  of  improvement  made,  for 
example,  the  number  of  miles  of  street  paved  in  brick,  in  asphalt,  etc. 
From  these  data  a large  number  of  problems  are  developed.  It  is 
evident  that  problems  of  this  kind  connect  directly  with  the  child’s 
home  life,  with  the  industrial  life,  and  with  the  civic  life  with  which 
he  is  familiar. 

CHANGES  NEEDED  IN  THE  MATHEMATICAL  CURRICULUM. 

The  changes  needed  in  the  mathematical  content  and  curriculum 
are  along  the  lines  indicated  in  the  foregoing.  The  principal  of  one 
of  the  largest  high  schools  in  New  York  City  says:  “ The  mathemati- 
cal courses  need  reformation.  What  can  any  sort  of  mathematics 
do  for  the  ordinary  man,  the  ordinary  woman,  the  industrial  worker, 
the  housekeeper?  Get  this  mathematical  desideratum  expressed  in 
terms  of  power  and  information,  and  then  plan  your  course  in  mathe- 


INDUSTRIAL  CLASSES  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


167 


matics  to  produce  the  outlined  purposes.  At  present  the  procedure 
is,  ‘ Every  high  school  has  algebra  and  geometry.  We’ll  have  them 
too.’  Neither  of  these  subjects  springs  out  of  the  needs  of  the  stu- 
dents, nor  is  it  concretely  directed  toward  equipping  the  students  with 
any  useful  knowledge  or  power.” 

The  following  quotation  sums  up  the  opinion  expressed  in  the  large 
majority  of  the  replies  received:  “ Some  of  the  less  essential  should 
be  eliminated  * * * and  more  drill  given  to  concrete  problems 

involving  home  and  industrial  life.” 

REQUIRED  AND  ELECTIVE  MATHEMATICS. 

The  opinion  of  a large  majority  of  principals  and  superintendents, 
answering  the  questionnaire,  is  expressed  by  the  following  quotation  : 
“ Elementary  algebra  and  plane  geometry  should  be  required  of  all. 
All  should  have  at  least  this  amount  of  mathematics  so  as  to  appre- 
ciate the  disciplinary  and  practical  value  of  this  branch  of  human 
knowledge.  Algebra  and  geometry  are  essential  to  a study  of  the 
sciences.  Higher  algebra  and  solid  geometry  may  with  profit  be 
made  elective.” 

The  following  quotation  expresses  a more  radical  view : “ If  al- 
gebra and  geometry  must  come  at  the  beginning  of  the  course,  I 
would  make  both  elective  on  account  of  the  immaturity  of  most  be- 
ginning students.  The  great  modification  that  I would  suggest  in 
high  school  mathematics  would  be  a shifting  of  the  whole  matter  at 
least  one  year  higher  in  the  course,  using  the  first  year  for  language, 
history,  and  science  subjects.” 

PROPOSED  FUSION  OF  DIFFERENT  BRANCHES  OF  MATHEMATICS. 

The  general  opinion  of  those  answering  the  questionnaire  is  that 
algebra  and  geometry  should  not  be  fused  into  one  course  in  mathe- 
matics, nor  should  plane  and  solid  geometry  be  fused.  The  follow- 
ing is  a typical  quotation:  “Algebra  and  geometry  should  not  be 
fused.  By  such  a plan  students  will  gain  very  little  knowledge  of 
either.”  Algebra  should  precede  geometry.  The  step  from  arith- 
metic to  algebra  is  much  easier  than  from  arithmetic  to  geometry. 
Arithmetic  and  algebra  are  more  closely  related.  Plane  and  solid 
geometry  should  not  be  fused. 

The  opinion  is  very  generally  expressed  that,  while  it  is  undesirable 
to  make  the  fusions  spoken  of,  a very  much  closer  relationship  should 
exist  between  the  different  branches  of  mathematics  offered  in  the 
high  school. 

ORDER  OF  MATHEMATICAL  STUDIES. 

The  quotations  given  above  and  many  others  of  similar  nature 
that  could  be  given,  express  the  prevailing  opinion  that  algebra  should 


168 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


precede  demonstrative  geometry,  though  a course  in  constructive 
geometry  should  precede  algebra.  Plane  geometry  should  precede 
solid  geometry. 

THE  UTILITARIAN  SIDE  OF  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 

“In  what  ways  is  stress  placed  on  the  utilitarian  side  of  mathe- 
matics? ” was  one  of  the  questions  asked.  This  is  a question  to 
which  few  satisfactory  replies  were  received.  The  principal  of  one 
of  the  largest  technical  high  schools  in  the  Middle  West  says:  “Use 
is  made  of  practical  problems  and  applications  of  mathematics  to 
the  arts  and  sciences  because  experience  has  shown  that  such  prob- 
lems add  interest  to  the  class  work.” 

Another  principal  says : “ In  the  grades  no  special  stress  is  placed 
on  the  utilitarian  side  except  that  we  attempt  to  find  worthy  concrete 
problems.  In  the  Manual  Training  High  School  shop  work  is  made 
the  basis  of  many  problems  in  arithmetic  and  geometry.  The  com- 
mercial course  in  the  high  school  aims  to  be  altogether  practical.” 

A superintendent  of  a large  eastern  city  says : “ Commercial  arith- 
metic is  studied  as  a regular  subject  in  the  business  course,  and  all 
work  in  manual  training  is  from  drawings  and  plans,  requiring 
mathematical  computations.” 

Another  superintendent  states : “ Material  for  problems  in  all  grades 
is  drawn  from  home  and  store  and  general  outside  experience. 
Printed  forms,  bills,  and  blanks  of  various  kinds  of  business  are 
used  in  the  classroom,  tax  bills,  gas  bills,  etc.  Pupils  are  required 
to  compute  the  customary  discount  on  these  bills.” 

MATHEMATICS  AND  APPLIED  SCIENCES. 

The  replies  indicate  a general  tendency  to  use  in  the  work  in  mathe- 
matics problems  from  the  applied  sciences,  models,  etc.,  to  make  the 
work  more  effective.  The  following  are  quotations  from  the  answers 
to  this  phase  of  the  inquiry : “ Problems  of  parallelograms  of  forces, 
falling  bodies,  immersed  solids,  solids  made  in  the  manual  training 
department  are  used.”  “ Problems  in  elementary  mechanics,  card- 
board models,  and  similar  devices  are  used.”  “ Sectional  models 
should  be  used  as  foundation  work  in  mensuration  in  the  grades  and 
in  the  high  school.  All  instruments  and  machines  from  which  prob- 
lems are  drawn  should  be,  so  far  as  possible,  studied,  and  from 
these  the  results  should  be  verified.” 

CORRELATION  OF  DIFFERENT  LINES  OF  MATHEMATICS. 

Relatively  few  schools  indicate  any  considerable  attempt  to  cor- 
relate the  different  lines  of  mathematical  work  in  school.  A very 
large  number  of  schools  make  no  reply  to  this  phase  of  the  inquiry. 
Some  report  that  no  correlation  is  attempted.  A few  report  that 


INDUSTRIAL  CLASSES  IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


169 


work  along  this  line  is  carried  on : “Algebraic  methods  are  used  in 
geometry  work;  algebraic  results  and  formulas  are  illustrated  geo- 
metrically; logarithmic  computations  of  volumes  is  made  in  solid 
geometry.”  “Algebra  and  geometry,  while  not  taught  together,  are 
made  interdependent  as  much  as  possible.” 

DRAWING  AND  GEOMETRY. 

Is  the  fundamental  relation  between  drawing  and  geometry  empha- 
sized? If  so,  how?  To  this  question  few  answers  were  received. 
The  following  are  some  of  them : “ Yes.  In  mechanical  and  archi- 
tectural drawing.”  “ The  course  in  mechanical  drawing,  given  in 
the  first  year,  is  introduced  by  the  graphical  solution  of  a number  of 
geometric  construction  problems.”  “ No.  The  drawing  teacher 
teaches  perspective,  for  instance,  which  is  a direct  application  of 
geometry  and  optics,  without  any  reference  to  either  subject.  I 
doubt  if  any  drawing  teacher  ever  was  taught  the  connection.” 
“ The  fundamental  relation  between  geometry  and  drawing  is  em- 
phasized both  in  the  grades  and  in  the  high  school,  in  manual  train- 
ing, in  arithmetic,  in  geometry,  and  in  mechanical  drawing.”  “ Very 
strongly.  We  give  an  eight  weeks’  course  in  preliminary  geometry, 
and  insist  on  accurate  drawings  all  the  time.”  “ Mechanical  draw- 
ing is  applied  geometry,  and  its  relations  are  made  use  of  perforce 
in  all  mechanical  drawing  and  drafting  for  industrial  work.”  These 
quotations  serve  to  illustrate  that  in  spite  of  some  divergence  in 
opinion  the  importance  of  this  phase  of  the  work  is  coming  to  be 
recognized  in  schoolroom  practice. 

EDUCATIONAL  MUSEUMS. 

Very  few  of  the  cities  heard  from  report  that  they  are  equipped 
with  a mathematical  museum.  Very  many  of  those  who  replied  in- 
dicate a belief  in  the  value  of  such  a museum,  as  the  following  quo- 
tations show : “ Undoubtedly  a collection  of  models,  instruments, 
pictures,  etc.,  would  be  of  great  value.”  “ We  believe  it  has  some 
value,  but  it  is  not  essential.”  “ It  is  too  bad  that  we  have  not  such 
a museum.”  “ Illustrative  material  is  always  of  value.  It  stimu- 
lates interest  and  self-activity.”  Occasionally  a pessimistic  note  is 
heard  as  the  following : “ I never  saw  an  educational  museum  that 
was  worth  anything,  chiefly  because  it  was  so  administered  that  the 
teachers  would  not  take  the  trouble  to  use  it.” 

CONCLUSION. 

These  replies,  which  were  received  from  cities  in  all  parts  of  the 
United  States,  indicate  a strong  tendency  to  increase  the  amount  and 
variety  of  industrial  work  offered  in  public  schools. 


170 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


Where  trades  are  taught  instruction  in  shop  mathematics  is  given 
usually  by  the  instructor  in  the  trades.  The  work  as  given  in  these 
classes  in  shop  mathematics  is  adapted  directly  to  the  trades  taught. 
In  the  regular  mathematical  work  in  the  public  schools  no  great 
change  in  the  mathematical  curriculum  is  demanded. 

The  effect  of  the  industrial  work  is,  therefore,  to  introduce  into 
all  lines  of  public-school  mathematics  a larger  number  of  problems 
related  to  the  industrial  work  done  in  school,  to  the  industries  car- 
ried on  in  the  community,  to  the  actual  life  of  the  child  and  his 
home,  and  to  the  civic  enterprise  of  the  city. 


SUBCOMMITTEE  2.  CORPORATION  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS. 

In  corporation  industrial  schools  the  type  of  work  done  in  mathe- 
matics varies  with  the  demand  for  mathematical  knowledge  in  the 
work  carried  on  by  the  corporation.  In  one  school,  as,  for  example, 
the  John  Wanamaker  Commercial  Institute,  the  work  will  consist 
mainly  of  commercial  arithmetic.  In  another  school  the  mathematical 
curriculum  will  extend  to  a knowledge  of  algebra,  geometry,  and  pos- 
sibly trigonometry  because  of  the  need  for  understanding  formulse 
which  must  be  applied  in  machine  shops.  In  these  schools,  as  has 
been  suggested  above  in  the  discussion  of  apprenticeship  schools, 
there  are  found  boys  who  have  had  from  six  to  eight  years  of  ele- 
mentary school  work,  with  an  occasional  boy  who  may  have  had  some 
work  in  high  school.  With  this  rather  meager  equipment,  and  with 
the  large  need  for  mathematical  knowledge  which  must  be  applied  to 
shopwork,  it  becomes  apparent  that  the  problem  of  the  shop  school  is 
largely  one  of  getting  before  the  class  problems  which  deal  with 
actual  shop  conditions  and  teachers  who  understand  shopwork,  as 
well  as  theoretical  mathematics. 

Our  standard  textbooks  deal  with  mathematics  in  a general  way, 
covering  many  subjects  which  have  no  connection  with  manufacturing 
industries.  This  being  the  case  we  can  not  use  the  existing  textbooks 
for  problem  work,  and  therefore  it  falls  upon  the  instructor  to 
write  the  problems  required.  These  problems  must,  of  course,  follow 
in  order  the  usual  textbook  classification.  Since  each  kind  of  indus- 
try requires  problems  adapted  to  its  production,  no  one  book  can  pro- 
vide problems  for  all  industries  requiring  trade  knowledge.  How- 
ever, one  textbook  can  cover  sufficiently  the  industries  representing  the 
manufacture  of  machinery,  engines,  and  electrical  equipment. 

The  problems  must  not  only  follow  textbook  classification,  but 
they  must  be  in  fact  what  they  purport  to  be,  namely,  shop  problems. 
In  the  writing  of  these  problems  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the 


CORPORATION  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS. 


171 


instructor  should  be  a man  who  has  had  shop  experience  and  one  who 
is  familiar  with  the  various  departments  and  in  touch  with  factory 
conditions. 

These  problems  will  involve  not  only  a knowledge  of  the  machines 
in  use  but  an  intimate  knowledge  of  the  factory  production,  stock 
departments,  and  piecework  rates.  This  knowledge  is  necessary  be- 
cause the  shop  boy  is  quick  to  note  an  error  in  dealing  with  factory 
work,  and  he  is  equally  quick  to  lose  confidence  in  the  instructor  who 
shows  a lack  of  shop  experience. 

The  work  in  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry  in 
schools  of  this  type  is  not  sharply  differentiated  as  in  the  ordinary 
school.  In  order  to  indicate  something  of  the  nature  of  the  relation- 
ship which  exists  among  these  subjects,  as  well  as  to  give  some  idea 
of  the  subject  matter  covered  and  the  method  of  instruction,  the  pro- 
gram of  work  carried  out  under  the  direction  of  Maj.  A.  W.  Lowe, 
superintendent  of  educational  classes  for  the  General  Electric  Co., 
West  Lynn.  Mass.,  is  given  in  the  following  pages : 

ARITHMETIC. 

Having  written  the  problems,  the  next  step  is  to  have  the  apprentices  work 
out  the  values.  One  method  of  teaching  the  above  subject  is  to  have  the  prob- 
lem given  in  the  usual  way;  then  substitute  literal  values  for  the  numerical 
values  previously  given  and  put  the  problem  in  the  form  of  an  algebraic  state- 
ment; then  substitute  a set  of  numerical  values  for  the  literal  quantities  and 
solve  the  problem. 

I give  herewith  specimen  examples : 

Problem  1.  Brass  castings  are  worth  23.25  cents  per  pound ; cast-iron  cast- 
ings, 3.75  cents  per  pound ; malleable-iron  castings  4.68  cents  per  pound.  Dur- 
ing one  week  5,980  pounds  of  malleable-iron  castings,  8,760  pounds  of  brass 
castings,  and  21,900  pounds  of  cast-iron  castings  were  shipped.  What  was  the 
value  of  the  castings  sent  out? 

Problem  2.  Brass  castings  are  worth  (a)  cents  per  pound;  cast-iron  castings, 

(b)  cents  per  pound;  malleable-iron  castings,  (c)  cents  per  pound.  During  one 
week  (d)  pounds  of  malleable-iron  castings,  (e)  pounds  of  brass  castings,  and 
(f)  pounds  of  cast-iron  castings  were  shipped.  What  was  the  value  of  the 
castings  sent  out? 

Problem  3.  Using  the  literal  quantities  of  problem  2,  let  (a)  = 27.5,  (b)  = 3.8, 

(c)  =4.38,  (d)  =6,830,  (e)  =7,240,  and  (f)  =2,250.  What  was  the  value  of 
the  castings  sent  out? 

Problem  4.  With  a good  quantity  of  coal  the  average  coal  consumption  is  If 
pounds  per  indicated  horsepower  per  hour  for  a 1,400  H.  P.  triple-expansion 
engine  running  condensing.  How  long  will  it  take  to  consume  250  tons  of  coal, 
providing  the  engine  averages  a 14^-hour  run  for  each  24  hours? 

Problem  5.  With  a good  quantity  of  coal  the  consumption  is  (a)  pounds  per 
indicated  horsepower  per  hour  for  a (b)  H.  P.  triple-expansion  engine  running 
condensing.  How  long  will  it  take  to  consume  (c)  tons  of  coal,  provided  the 
engine  averages  a 16|-hour  run  for  each  24  hours? 

Problem  6.  In  problem  5 let  (a)  = If  pounds,  (b)  = 1,250  H.  P.,  and  (c)  = 135 
tons.  How  long  will  the  supply  of  fuel  last? 


172 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


It  is  an  excellent  method  of  introducing  to  the  apprentice  the  first  steps  in 
algebra,  and  my  experience  shows  that  the  boy  by  this  method  grasps  the  idea 
of  algebra  much  more  quickly  than  by  the  usual  “ cut  and  dried  ” methods. 

ALGEBRA. 

A portion  of  the  arithmetic  class  period  should  be  set  apart  for  the  study  of 
elementary  algebra. 

It  may  be  argued  by  some  that  the  study  of  algebra  is  not  necessary  in  an 
industrial  education.  To  such  I will  say  that  the  study  of  algebra  is  necessary 
to  a proper  understanding  of  the  formulae  which  the  boy  will  be  called  upon 
to  use  in  his  later  work. 

In  the  teaching  of  this  subject  great  care  must  be  exercised  by  the  instructor 
in  that  his  explanation  of  elementary  principles  must  be  so  clear  and  concise 
as  to  enable  the  boy  to  understand  the  very  foundation  of  algebra.  Much 
attention  is  given  to  the  use  of  the  formula  and  the  simple  equation. 

PLANE  GEOMETRY. 

In  the  teaching  of  plane  geometry  we  give  the  boy  instruction  relating  to  the 
line,  and  plane  figures.  He  is  held  to  a rigorous  explanation  of  the  theorem 
and  the  class  is  not  allowed  to  pass  to  the  next  theorem  until  the  one  under 
discussion  is  thoroughly  understood.  Wherever  possible,  the  attention  of  the 
boy  is  called  to  a practical  application  of  the  principle  involved.  This  arouses 
the  interest  of  the  boy,  for  the  subject  then  has  a meaning  and  its  application 
is  tangible  and  not  imaginary. 

In  connection  with  the  geometry  the  subject  of  mensuration  is  taught.  In 
problems  involving  weight  the  boy  first  calculates  the  weight  and  then  checks 
this  calculation  by  weighing  the  article. 

If  there  be  a difference  in  the  two  results  then  the  boy  must  prove  whether 
or  not  the  calculation  is  correct.  He  finally  decides  that  the  error  is  due  to 
his  mistakes  in  the  calculation.  With  the  area  of  a plane  surface  a similar 
method  is  followed  and  the  boy  must  measure  the  surface  and  compare  the 
result  with  his  calculated  area. 

A few  specimen  problems  are  given  below : 

Problem  1.  A cylindrical  oil  tank  is  to  be  made  30  inches  in  diameter  and 
long  enough  to  hold  200  gallons.  Find  the  length. 

Problem  2.  The  handwheel  of  a rheostat  is  5?  inches  inside  diameter  and 
7i  inches  outside  diameter  and  cross  section  1 inch  in  diameter.  The  hub  is 
1%  inches  in  diameter  by  li  inches  long  and  the  bore  is  one-half  inch  in  diam- 
eter; connecting  the  hub  and  hand  part  are  4 spokes  each  one-half  inch  in 
diameter.  Find  the  weight,  if  made  of  C.  I. 

Problem  3.  The  concentric  diffuser  of  an  arc  lamp  is  conical  shape,  40  inches 
in  diameter  and  8 inches  high.  If  the  upper  rays  of  light  strike  the  surface 
6 inches  from  the  base,  find  the  amount  of  reflecting  surface  used. 

Problem  4.  One  part  of  a friction  brake  is  of  the  shape  of  the  frustum  of  a 
cone.  The  outer  surface  of  the  frustum  is  8 inches  in  diameter  and  the  top  is 
6 inches  in  diameter ; the  height  is  li  inches.  What  is  the  angle  at  the  center 
for  the  development  of  the  leather,  and  what  is  the  radius  for  the  base  and  for 
the  top? 

TRIGONOMETRY. 

This  ends  the  subject  of  mathematics  as  pure  mathematics.  It  has  been 
proven  repeatedly  in  shopwork  that  a working  knowledge  of  trigonometry  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  assets  a shopman  can  possess.  On  large,  and  some- 


CORPORATION  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS. 


173 


times  small,  layout  work  a knowledge  of  this  subject  is  absolutely  necessary, 
for  oftentimes  an  exact  dimension  must  be  given  and  the  work  must  be  finished 
to  that  dimension. 

Our  boys  are  given  instruction  in  trigonometry  through  the  solution  of  the 
oblique  triangle.  Not  all  the  examples  or  problems  are  given  to  the  class,  but 
enough  are  given  to  enable  the  boy  to  handle  any  problem  which  he  will  be 
called  upon  to  solve  in  the  execution  of  his  shopwork. 

He  is  given  thorough  instruction  in  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  subject, 
and  his  knowledge  of  these  principles  is  thoroughly  tested. 

A few  specimen  problems  are  given  below : 

Problem  1.  Three  holes  are  so  located  on  a casting  that  the  lines  connecting 
their  centers  form  a right  triangle.  A is  an  acute  angle  of  28  degrees  and  the 
hypothenuse  (c)  is  11  inches.  Find  the  sides  a and  b. 

Problem  2.  A cast-steel  exhaust  flange  is  26  inches  in  diameter,  is  1^  inches 
thick,  and  has  8 bolt  holes  nine-sixteenths  inch  in  diameter  and  exhaust 
opening  6 inches  in  diameter.  What  is  the  surface  area?  What  is  the  weight? 
What  is  the  distance  between  the  centers  of  any  two  consecutive  bolt  holes? 
If  one-eighth  inch  was  allowed  for  machining,  what  is  the  original  weight 
of  the  casting? 

Throughout  such  a course  as  is  outlined  above,  the  real  test  of  the 
boy’s  knowledge  of  his  theoretical  work  is  found  in  his  ability  to  ap- 
ply the  principles  supposedly  mastered,  to  what  are  usually  termed 
practical  problems.  In  the  work  at  West  Lynn  the  boy’s  knowledge 
of  mathematics  is  applied  to  mechanics,  power  of  transmission, 
strength  of  materials,  calculating  machine  parts,  magnetism,  and 
electricity. 

Mr.  Gardner,  of  the  School  for  Apprentices  of  the  New  York  Cen- 
tral Lines,  characterizes  their  work  in  the  following  language : 

Stress  is  laid  upon  the  practical  and  commercial  side  of  the  mathematical 
instruction.  Every  example  is  clothed  in  the  language  of  the  shops  and  is 
illustrated  by  actual  practice  in  the  boy’s  daily  work.  For  example,  the  boy 
learns  ratio  and  proportion  by  figuring  the  change  gears  for  cutting  different 
screws  in  his  lathe,  and  the  principles  of  leverage  are  demonstrated  by  the 
throttle  and  reverse  lever  on  the  locomotive  and  the  brake  rigging  on  the  car. 
No  attempt  is  made  to  teach  subjects  promoting  general  culture.  The  system 
is  not  philanthropic,  but  is  a hard  and  fast  business  proposition  firmly  fixed 
upon  a paying  basis. 

Things  are  not  taught  that  are  interesting  to  the  teacher,  but  those  that  are 
useful  to  the  student.  The  apprentice  needs  a working  knowledge  of  elementary 
mathematics,  but  the  vital  point  is  that  it  should  be  elementary  and  that  it 
must  be  a working  knowledge.  The  problems  are  not  regarded  as  affording  a 
complete  program  of  study  in  itself,  but  always  form  part  of  a regular  course 
planned  in  accordance  with  the  trade  the  boy  is  following. 

Arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  physics,  and  practical  mechanics  are  fused 
so  completely  that  the  student  knows  no  study  by  any  name  but  arithmetic. 
It  has  not  been  found  expedient  for  skilled  mechanics  in  railroad  service  to 
acquire  a knowledge  of  higher  mathematics. 

All  conventional  limits  between  all  branches  of  mathematics  are  suppressed. 
Mathematics  is  taught  by  lesson  sheets.  Each  boy  takes  two  sheets  of  problems 
home  per  week,  each  sheet  containing  an  average  of  seven  problems.  In  the 


174 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


classroom  and  laboratory  two  sheets  of  practical  problems  capable  of  actual 
demonstration  are  finished  per  week.  Bright  boys  may  do  as  many  more  at 
home  or  in  the  classroom  as  they  wish. 

The  boy  is  taught  by  the  instructor  and  his  assistant,  and  is  not  told  how  to 
do  examples,  but  is  asked  how  to  do  them.  Groups  of  boys  are  instructed  in 
the  laboratory  by  the  shop  or  classroom  instructor.  Instruction  is  very  in- 
formal, and  friendly  discussions  are  encouraged  between  the  boys  and  the 
teacher,  consistent  with  order  and  discipline. 

Leverage  models  for  problems  in  all  classes  of  levers,  racks  containing  gears, 
and  lathes  for  studying  the  properties  of  gearing,  wheel  and  axle  model,  pulley 
blocks,  inclined  plane,  screw  jack,  etc.,  are  used.  A small  upright  engine  is 
used  in  the  laboratory  for  teaching  valve  setting.  Models  of  the  Stephenson 
and  Walschaert  valve  gears  are  studied  and  small  scale  models  of  engine  wheels 
and  frames  are  employed  for  teaching  boys  the  practical  way  of  laying  out 
keyways  for  axles  and  eccentrics  and  for  setting  the  shoes  and  wedges  which 
are  used  in  the  main  driving-wheel  journals  of  locomotives.  A small  tension 
and  compression  machine  is  used  for  a course  in  strength  of  materials. 

Sample  sheets  of  home  problems  used  in  the  apprenticeship  schools 
of  the  New  York  Central  lines  follow: 

If  a raise  of  pay  of  10  per  cent  is  made  in  a man’s  wages  it  means  that  one- 
tenth  of  the  present  amount  will  be  added  to  it.  If  his  rate  is  $2.50  a day  one- 
tenth  of  this  is  25  cents,  and  his  new  rate  is  $2.75. 

Suppose  now  our  man  getting  $2.75  a day  was  cut  10  per  cent ; what  would 
he  receive?  2.75+10/100=0.275,  and  $2.75— 0.275=$2.47|,  which  is  less  than  he 
got  in  the  first  place  before  he  was  raised  10  per  cent.  We  thus  see  that  a 10 
per  cent  raise  is  less  in  amount  than  a 10  per  cent  cut.  This  is  because  our  base 
for  the  cut  is  a larger  sum  than  the  base  for  the  raise. 

When  we  say  an  engine  or  motor  is  85  per  cent  efficient,  we  mean  that  we  are 
getting  85  parts  of  work  out  of  a possible  100.  When  we  say  a certain  quantity 
of  coal  contains  65  per  cent  carbon  and  1 per  cent  sulphur,  we  mean  that  65/100 
of  any  amount  of  this  coal  is  carbon  and  1/100  is  sulphur.  We  do  not  mean 
that  65  pounds  are  carbon  and  1 pound  is  sulphur. 

RATIO  AND  PROPORTION. 

1.  If  a planer  has  a cutting  speed  of  30  feet  per  minute  and  a return  speed 
of  147  feet  per  minute,  what  is  the  ratio  of  the  cutting  speed  to  the  return 
speed  ? 

2.  What  ratio  is  the  area  of  the  steam  port  to  that  of  the  exhaust  port  on  an 
engine  having  a steam  port  of  24  square  inches  and  an  exhaust  port  of  36  square 
inches? 

3.  The  dead  load  of  a 50-ton  freight  car,  consisting  of  the  weight  of  the  car 
empty  and  the  trucks,  is  42,600  pounds.  The  live  load,  or  the  weight  of  the 
freight  carried,  is  108,000  pounds.  What  is  the  ratio  of  the  live  to  the  dead 
load? 

4.  If  the  car  in  the  above  problem  had  only  carried  37,400  pounds  of  freight, 
what  would  have  been  the  ratio  of  the  live  to  the  dead  load? 

5.  What  is  the  ratio  of  the  dead  to  the  live  load  in  a passenger  coach  where 
the  car  and  trucks  weigh  90,450  pounds,  and  the  passengers  weigh  4,500  pounds? 

6.  On  a 36-inch  planer  the  ratio  of  the  cutting  speed  to  the  return  speed  of 
the  table  is  1 to  2.94.  With  a return  speed  of  50  feet  per  minute,  what  is  the 
cutting  speed? 


CORPORATION  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS. 


175 


BOILERMAKER’S  HOME  PROBLEMS. 

1.  How  much  will  it  take  to  shear  a three-fourth  inch  steel  rivet  if  the  shear- 
ing strength  of  the  steel  is  rated  at  45,000  pounds  per  square  inch? 

2.  The  tensile  strength  of  boiler  plate  is  55,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  How 
many  pounds  would  it  take  to  pull  apart  a piece  of  plate  24  inches  wide  by 
three-fourths  inch  thick? 

3.  Two  one-half  inch  plates  A and  B (fig.  27)  are  joined  by  two  1-inch  rivets 
in  a single-riveted  lap  joint.  Suppose  the  plates  were  pulled  part,  the  plate  B 
tearing  between  the  rivets  on  the  line  XXX.  If  the  tensile  strength  of  the 


Fig.  27. 


plate  is  55,000  pounds  per  square  inch,  what  was  the  pull  in  pounds  which  tore 
the  plate? 

4.  With  the  same  plates  as  in  the  last  problem,  what  pull  would  tear  the 
plate  if  the  rivets  were  three-fourth  inch  instead  of  1 inch? 

5.  If  the  shearing  strength  of  the  rivet  iron  (fig.  27)  is  45,000  pounds  per 
square  inch,  how  much  would  the  two  1-inch  rivets  stand  before  they  would 
be  sheared  off?  How  much  would  it  take  to  shear  them  if  they  were  only 
three-fourth  inch  in  diameter? 


6.  In  the  joint  shown  in  fig.  27,  if  the  rivets  are  1 inch  diameter  and  the 
plate  one-half  inch  thick,  which  will  give  way  first,  the  rivets  or  the  plate? 

GENERAL  CLASSROOM  PROBLEMS. 

Fig.  28  shows  the  top  sheet  of  a tank  made  of  one-fourth  inch  steel  plate. 
Divide  the  figure  into  3 rectangles,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines.  Use  Machine 
Shop  Arithmetic,  page  137,  for  all  circular  areas. 

1442°— 11 12 


176 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


Find  area  of  rectangle  A in  square  inches ; find  area  of  rectangle  B in  square 
inches ; find  area  of  rectangle  C in  square  inches ; find  area  of  manhole  in  square 
inches;  find  area  of  24-inch  half  circle  in  square  inches;  find  area  of  two  12- 
inch  half  circles  in  square  inches;  find  area  of  two  6-inch  corners  in  square 
inches;  subtract  the  two  corners,  the  24-inch  semicircle  and  the  manhole  from 
rectangle  C,  then  add  this  area  to  A and  B and  then  add  to  these  the  24-inch 
circle  made  by  the  ends  of  the  two  legs ; what  is  area  of  finished  plate  in  square 
inches ; what  is  area  of  finished  plate  in  square  feet ; what  is  weight  of  finished 
plate  in  pounds? 


Find  the  weight  of  coal  which  is  contained  in  the  two  hoppers  of  the  hopper- 
bottom  gondola  car  shown  in  Fig.  29.  Find  the  area  of  the  triangular  end  of  one 
hopper  and  multiply  this  by  the  length  of  the  hopper.  The  shape  of  the  hopper 
is  a triangular  prism. 

Remember  that  1,728  cubic  inches  make  1 cubic  foot  and  that  1 cubic  foot  of 
coal  weighs  45  pounds. 

Consider  the  top  side  of  the  hopper  to  be  flush  with  the  floor  of  the  car. 

Area  of  two  triangular  ends,  square  inches;  volume  of  two  hoppers,  cubic 
inches;  volume  of  two  hoppers,  cubic  feet;  weight  of  coal  in  two  hoppers, 
pounds. 


In  all  leverage  problems  the  first  and  most  important  thing  is  to  find  and 
locate  the  fulcrum.  The  fulcrum  is  the  point  which  determines  the  moment 
arms  from  which  we  get  the  required  answer. 

The  moment  arm  is  always  the  distance  from  the  fulcrum  to  the  force  or 
weight. 

1.  A safety  valve  Y on  a stationary  boiler  is  loaded  with  a 50-pound  weight 
at  W.  (Fig.  30.)  Find  the  total  steam  pressure  on  V necessary  to  open  the 
valve. 

2.  If  the  weight  was  changed  to  75  pounds  and  the  distance  from  the  center 
line  of  the  valve  to  the  fulcrum  was  made  3 inches,  how  much  steam  pressure 
would  it  take  to  open  the  valve? 


CORPORATION  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS. 


177 


3.  A stationary  boiler  is  to  carry  50  pounds  per  square  inch  steam  pressure. 
The  safety  valve  is  2 inches  in  diameter.  If  the  lever  is  designed  as  in  Fig.  30, 
how  heavy  a weight  must  be  used?  Give  answer  to  nearest  even  pound. 

4.  What  class  of  lever  is  shown  by  Fig.  30. 

1.  Fig.  31  shows  a tender-brake  rigging  operated  by  an  8 by  12  inch  air  cylin- 
der. If  the  piston  moves  8 inches,  how  far  will  the  push  rod  move? 

2.  Draw  the  similar  triangle  diagram  for  problem  1 on  the  blackboard  and 
mark  plainly  all  dimensions  and  distances  moved. 


3.  If  the  air  pressure  in  the  brake  cylinder  was  90  pounds  per  square  inch, 
what  would  be  the  force  transmitted  by  the  push  rod? 

Fig.  32  shows  an  air  hoist  using  a regular  shop  tackle  with  two  pulleys  ih 
the  lower,  or  movable,  block  and  two  in  the  upper  block.  The  loose  end  of  the 
rope  is  fastened  to  the  upper  block.  This  arrangement  is  useful  when  it  is 
necessary  to  have  a good  deal  of  power  with  a low  lift. 


1.  If  the  total  lift  required  for  the  hoist  shown  in  Fig.  33  is  3 feet  and  the 
heaviest  casting  weighs  12,000  pounds,  what  length  of  cylinder  would  we  need, 
allowing  2 inches  additional  for  clearance? 

2.  In  the  above  problem,  what  power  must  we  have  on  the  piston? 

3.  The  hoist  shown  in  Fig.  33  has  three  pulleys — one  on  the  piston  rod  and 
two  on  the  structure.  If  it  is  required  to  lift  a maximum  load  of  9,000  pounds 
with  an  available  air  pressure  of  80  pounds  per  square  inch,  what  size  cylinder 
should  be  used?  Give  answer  to  nearest  even  inch. 


178 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


SUBCOMMITTEE  3.  PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  OF  MATHEMATICS 
FOR  TRADE  AND  INDUSTRIAL  SCHOOLS. 

The  committee  charged  with  the  investigation  of  the  preparation  of 
teachers  consider  the  character  of  the  preparation  which  teachers  of 
mathematics  have  had  who  are  now  employed  in  trade  schools  or  in 
schools  which  emphasize  the  practical  element,  and  also  the  changes 
in  preparation  for  this  work  which  are  desirable,  and  how  such 
changes  may  be  brought  about.  As  a preliminary  to  the  two  main 
inquiries  it  was  also  thought  to  be  desirable  to  investigate  briefly  the 
status  of  mathematics  teaching  in  practical  schools  in  order  to  deter- 
mine the  relative  importance  of  the  subject  as  indicated  by  the  amount 
of  time  given  to  it  and  by  the  character  of  the  teaching.  With  these 
objects  in  view  about  25  schools  were  chosen,  located  in  widely  sepa- 
rated sections  of  the  United  States,  including  all  the  day  and  evening 
trade  schools,  public  or  private,  known  to  the  investigator,  and  also 
about  the  same  number  of  technical  or  industrial  schools  having  a 
more  general  vocational  aim;  and  to  these  were  sent  the  following 
questionnaire : 

1.  Is  mathematics  taught  at  all  in  your  school?  If  so,  kindly  indi- 
cate the  extent  in  hours  per  year  ( a ) of  theoretical  mathematics;  (5) 
of  applied  mathematics. 

2.  Is  mathematics  in  your  school  taught  by  one  or  more  specialists 
in  that  subject,  by  a teacher  of  other  subjects,  or  by  both  classes  of 
teachers?  (a)  Number  of  special  teachers  of  mathematics;  (b)  num- 
ber of  teachers  of  other  subjects  who  give  mathematical  instruction. 

3.  Outline  briefly  the  character  of  the  preparation  which  your 
teachers  of  mathematics  have  had,  whether  specialists  or  not. 

4.  What  facilities  for  preparing  teachers  of  mathematics  for  trade- 
school  work  are  known  to  you? 

5.  Do  you  feel  the  necessity  of  extending  the  facilities  for  such 
preparation;  and  if  so,  what  recommendations  would  you  make  in 
regard  to  it? 

The  responses  to  this  questionnaire  were  prompt  and  generally 
complete.  There  was  a wide  range  in  the  statistical  replies  called  for 
in  the  first  two  questions,  as  might  be  expected  from  the  varied 
character  of  the  schools  to  which  the  questionnaire  was  sent.  There 
would  be  no  value  in  tabulating  these  returns.  The  significant  facts 
determined  were  that  nearly  all  the  schools  give  some  instruction  in 
theoretical  mathematics,  only  two  reporting  “ no  instruction,”  and  all 
reported  that  they  give  some  instruction  in  applied  mathematics. 
The  greatest  number  of  hours  of  instruction  in  theoretical  mathe- 
matics is  440  hours  per  year  and  in  applied  mathematics  988  hours 
per  year.  This  is  so  far  in  excess  of  the  average  that  it  seemed  some- 
what abnormal.  These  figures  were  reported  by  the  director  of  a 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  TRADE  SCHOOLS. 


179 


trade  school  connected  with  a certain  large  manufacturing  interest. 
Aside  from  this  extreme  example  the  average  time  devoted  to  theo- 
retical mathematics  may  be  said  to  be  about  300  hours  covering  a 
period  of  one  and  one-half  years,  while  the  average  time  devoted  to 
applied  mathematics  is  210  hours  covering  about  the  same  time. 
Several  of  the  reports,  however,  recognize  no  distinction  between  the 
theoretical  and  the  applied  mathematics,  but  give  the  average  amount 
of  time  to  the  subject  as  a whole.  There  is  some  reason  in  this  view 
of  the  case,  inasmuch  as  theoretical  mathematics  should  be,  and  pre- 
sumably is,  taught  in  practical  schools  not  for  mental  discipline,  but 
for  its  utility  as  a necessary  part  of  the  equipment  of  the  worker  in  a 
shop  or  factory.  It  is,  in  fact,  very  difficult  to  draw  the  line  between 
theoretical  mathematics  taught  with  a practical  aim  and  applied 
mathematics. 

The  replies  to  the  second  question  indicated  that  about  the  same 
number  of  special  teachers  of  mathematics  are  employed  as  those 
who  teach  mathematics  as  a part  of  their  work.  The  reports  indi- 
cate, however,  a tendency  in  the  direction  of  the  employment  of 
special  teachers.  In  all  large  schools  the  special  teacher  is  the  rule, 
though  one  large  industrial  school  reported  only  3 special  teachers  of 
mathematics  and  13  who  teach  other  subjects  as  well.  This  is  evi- 
dently an  exceptional  instance.  Most  of  the  schools  reporting  a 
mixed  program  for  teachers  of  mathematics  were  small  schools  in 
which  such  a policy  is  a manifest  necessity.  There  seemed  to  be 
recognition  of  the  idea  that  mathematics  teaching,  to  be  most  effec- 
tive, should  be  in  the  hands  of  special  teachers  trained  by  study  and 
by  experience  for  this  work. 

Turning  now  to  the  first  of  the  two  main  points  of  our  inquiry 
viz,  the  character  of  the  preparation  which  teachers  of  mathematics 
in  practical  schools  have  had,  the  reports  indicate  that  college  gradu- 
ates and  graduates  of  engineering  schools  largely  predominate, 
though  in  a few  instances  the  highest  training  was  received  in 
normal  schools.  It  should  be  said,  however,  that  all  the  reports 
emphasized  the  fact  that,  in  the  selection  of  teachers,  much  weight 
was  given  to  practical  experience  in  the  shop  or  drafting  room  as  a 
necessary  element  in  the  training  of  teachers  of  mathematics  in  prac- 
tical schools.  Such  training  is  manifestly  essential  to  effective  work 
in  applied  mathematics.  Speaking  of  the  teachers  of  applied  mathe- 
matics, the  director  of  the  School  of  Industrial  Foremen  in  Boston 
says : “ They  are  teachers  of  many  years’  experience  in  mechanical 
and  electrical  engineering  subjects,  but  have  not  specialized  in  mathe- 
matical work.  Such  teachers  are  much  better  able  to  get  the  point 
of  view  of  men  carrying  on  work  in  the  drafting  room,  shop,  or 
factory  than  is  possible  for  a teacher  whose  experience  is  limited  to 
mathematical  instruction  pure  and  simple.”  This  quotation  fairly 


180 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS. 


represents  the  general  tone  of  all  the  reports  on  this  point.  College 
graduates  who  are  teachers  of  experience  are  effective  in  teaching 
theoretical  mathematics;  but  in  order  to  present  the  subject  of  ap- 
plied mathematics  effectively  much  actual  shop  experience  is  essential. 
This  thought  was  well  expressed  in  one  of  the  papers  by  the  director 
of  the  industrial  classes  in  Fitchburg,  Mass.,  in  recommending 
preparation  in  the  “ best  possible  technical  schools  with  5 or  10  years’ 
shop  experience  as  apprentice  or  journeyman.”  But,  ideal  as  such 
preparation  may  be,  it  will  be  recognized  as  a very  difficult  thing  to 
accomplish  in  any  large  way.  Certainly  the  number  of  teachers  of 
mathematics,  even  in  practical  schools,  who  have  received  such  train- 
ing must  be  relatively  small.  With  very  few  exceptions  the  answer 
to  the  fourth  question — viz,  What  facilities  for  preparing  teachers 
of  mathematics  for  trade-school  work  are  known  to  you? — was 
“ None  at  all.” 

Passing  to  the  second  main  point  of  inquiry — viz,  What  changes  in 
the  present  order  of  preparation  for  the  practical  teaching  of  mathe- 
matics are  desirable? — the  trend  of  the  replies  was  in  favor  of 
extending  such  scientific  and  practical  training  as  engineering  courses 
and  shop  experience  can  afford.  No  director  of  industrial  or  trade 
schools  seems  to  feel  that  special  school  facilities  for  preparing 
teachers  of  mathematics  for  trade-school  work  would  be  desirable  or 
indeed  possible.  One  director  writes  that  a course  in  practical 
mathematics  with  a view  to  teaching  u should  be  given  in  engineer- 
ing courses  in  technical  colleges,”  and  another  says  that  it  seems  best 
that  no  special  facilities  to  develop  teachers  of  practical  mathematics 
should  be  provided^  but  rather  that  the  effort  should  be  made  to 
develop  in  engineering  schools  teachers  who  have  a realizing  sense  of 
the  importance  of  applied  mathematics  and  who  should  further  per- 
fect themselves  for  teaching  by  actual  experience  in  the  solution  of 
practical  problems  as  they  arise  from  time  to  time  in  actual  shop- 
work. 

Finally,  this  report  may  be  summarized  as  follows:  There  are  at 
present  no  special  facilities  for  training  teachers  of  mathematics  for 
trade  schools.  Such  teachers  now  find  their  best  preparation,  after 
the  necessary  theoretical  groundwork,  in  several  years  of  actual  ex- 
perience in  applying  mathematics  to  the  problems  of  the  shop  and 
drafting  room.  This  practical  experience  is  considered  to  be  of  such 
importance  that  it  does  not  seem  desirable,  from  the  present  point  of 
view  of  those  who  have  had  experience  in  directing  trade-school 
work,  to  encourage  special  school  training  to  develop  teachers  of 
mathematics  for  trade  schools. 

It  is  only  fair  to  suggest  that  in  some  of  our  normal  schools  the 
kind  of  training  which  is  given  in  mathematics  will  do  much  to  equip 
teachers  for  work  in  industrial  and  trade  schools.  This  is  especially 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  TRADE  SCHOOLS. 


181 


true  in  schools  in  which  much  attention  is  given  in  the  industrial 
arts.  Not  infrequently  the  teacher  in  training  will  have  the  oppor- 
tunity to  teach  mathematics  to  students  who  are  engaged  in  work  in 
the  household  and  industrial  arts,  and  the  demand  will  be  made 
that  problems  growing  out  of  their  shopwork  be  used  in  the  mathe- 
matics classes.  Such  training  will  not,  of  course,  take  the  place  of 
actual  shop  experience  upon  the  part  of  the  teacher,  but  we  may 
expect  that  students  wdio  have  had  such  experience  will  at  least  ap- 
preciate the  need  for  knowledge  of  the  work  done  in  shops. 

To  the  student  of  the  elementary  school  curriculum  these  investi- 
gations concerning  the  type  of  work  demanded  in  mathematics  for 
special  classes  of  children  will  be  suggestive  in  the  reorganization 
of  the  whole  curriculum  for  special  groups  of  children.  It  is  un- 
doubtedly true  that  in  all  subjects  the  tendency  has  been  to  provide 
a uniform  course  of  study  which  takes  little  account  of  the  lack  of 
ability  on  the  part  of  those  who  quit  school  and  start  to  work  because 
of  the  lack  of  interest  in  the  school  program.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  school  has  made  little  or  no  provision  for  children  of  superior 
ability.  If  it  is  true  that  the  curriculum  all  along  the  line  needs 
to  be  differentiated  in  at  least  the  last  two  years  of  the  elementary 
school  course  to  meet  the  needs  of  those  who  are  to  go  into  the  indus- 
tries, it  is  none  the  less  true  that  special  provision  should  be  made  for 
exceptionally  capable  children  which  will  result  in  the  saving  of  time 
in  their  preparation  for  their  later  work  in  college  or  technical 
schools.  This  investigation  in  the  teaching  of  mathematics  will, 
therefore,  it  seems,  not  only  be  significant  in  giving  information  to 
those  who  plan  to  organize  work  in  this  field,  but  it  will  also  point 
the  way  for  a reorganization  which  is  demanded  in  other  subjects. 


INDEX. 


Agriculture,  relation  of  arithmetic  to,  55. 

Algebra,  courses  containing,  134;  instruc- 
tion, General  Electric  Co.,  172;  intro- 
duction in  early  grades,  17;  purpose  in 
grades,  134-136. 

Algorisms,  use  of  special,  111-113. 

American  educational  institutions,  sche- 
matic survey,  7-14. 

Apprentices’  school,  New  York  Central 
lines,  instruction  in  mathematics,  173- 
177;  partial  list,  157;  training  in  mathe- 
matics, 156-157. 

Arithmetic  as  a topic  in  Michigan  State 
Normal  College,  83-84;  course  of  study, 
education  department  of  State  of  New 
York,  45-55;  Indianapolis  schools,  55- 
64;  effect  of  school  organization  on 
teaching,  83-84;  method  of  instruction, 
36-42,  97-103;  objective  method  of 
teaching,  40-41,  103-106;  relation  to 
manual  arts,  household  arts,  and  agri- 
culture, 54-55;  special  methods  for  ob- 
taining accuracy,  independence,  and 
speed,  107-111;  status  in  rural  schools, 
16;  teaching,  characteristic  modes  in 
methods,  117-120,  examples  and  prob- 
lems, 113-117,  General  Electric  Co., 
171-172;  use  of  methods  of  rationaliza- 
tion, 106-107;  use  of  special  algorisms, 
oval  forms,  and  written  arrangements, 
111-113. 

Augusta,  Me.,  course  of  study  in  mathe- 
matics for  public  schools,  147. 

Boiler-maker’s  home  problems,  175. 

Butler,  N.  M.,  on  training  of  teachers  in 
elementary  grades,  152. 

California,  elementary  schools,  course  of 
study,  82. 

Chicago,  course  of  study  in  mathematics 
for  the  public  schools,  147-148. 

City  schools,  organization,  81. 

City  training  schools,  seventh  and  eighth 
grade  teachers  of  mathematics,  148. 


City  unit,  81. 

Class  instruction,  138-139. 

Class  time,  division,  139-140. 

Concrete  methods  of  teaching,  140-141. 

Correspondence  schools,  best  type,  160. 

County  board  of  education,  function  and 
powers,  79-80. 

County  school,  organization,  79. 

Course  of  study,  arithmetic,  education 
department  of  New  York  State,  45-55; 
elementary  schools,  California,  82; 
European,  influence,  130-131;  general, 
16-17;  general  content  of  the  courses 
by  grades,  18-32;  mathematics,  changes 
needed,  166,  high  schools,  164-165,  in 
each  type  of  school,  85-89,  lack  of  uni- 
formity, 131-133,  seventh  and  eighth 
grades,  146-148;  primary  schools,  Ten- 
nessee, 81-82;  rural  schools,  71;  typical, 
33,  44-64. 

Courses,  tendencies  as  to,  32-33. 

Courtis,  S.  A.,  on  standardized  tests,  91. 

Curriculum.  See  Course  of  study. 

Departmental  teaching,  141. 

District  organization  of  schools,  80. 

Draper,  A.  S.,  on  training  of  teachers  for 
elementary  schools,  150. 

Drawing,  fundamental  relation  to  geom- 
etry, 169. 

Education,  nonpublic  agencies,  12-13. 

Educational  alliance,  New  York  City,  71. 

Educational  institutions,  American,  sche- 
matic survey,  7-14. 

Elementary  course,  influence  of  complet- 
ing, 129. 

Elementary  education,  aim  (Hanus),  16, 
(Thorndike)  15;  definition  of  term,  127. 

Elementary  schools,  aim  and  organiza- 
tion, 15-16;  internal  organization,  81- 
83;  special  kinds,  153-181. 

European  curricula,  influence,  130. 

Evening  schools,  supported  by  public 
funds,  list,  157-158. 


183 


184 


INDEX. 


Examinations,  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  school,  33-36,  72-74,  89-92;  kinds, 
33-35;  mathematics,  136-138;  reasons 
for  giving,  35;  standardized  tests,  36; 
tendency  in  the  use  of,  35-36. 

Formal  discipline,  doctrine,  128. 

General  Electric  Co.,  instruction  in  math- 
ematics, 171-173. 

Geometry,  fundamental  relation  to  draw- 
ing, 169;  in  the  grades,  136;  introduc- 
tion in  early  grades,  17 ; plane,  instruc- 
tion, General  Electric  Co.,  172. 

Grades,  amount  of  arithmetic  to  be  cov- 
ered by,  83;  distribution  of  material 
through,  33;  geometry,  136;  1 to  6, 
mathematics,  68-119;  organization, 
131. 

“Grube  method,”  arithmetic,  118. 

Hanus,  Paul,  aim  of  elementary  educa- 
tion, 16. 

High  school,  influence  of  preparation, 
129-130;  mathematics,  curriculum, 
164-165. 

Horace  Mann  School,  experiments  in 
teaching  arithmetic,  120;  grading,  83. 

Household  arts,  relation  of  arithmetic 
to,  54. 

Hull  House,  Chicago,  71. 

Indianapolis,  schools,  course  of  study  in 
arithmetic,  55-64. 

Induction  and  deduction,  teaching,  141- 
142. 

Industrial  changes,  in  United  States, 
80-81. 

Industrial  education,  cultural,  161-162; 
public  schools,  160-170;  public  schools, 
and  local  industries,  163. 

See  also  Vocational  industrial  work. 

Industrial  schools,  corporation,  170-177; 
intermediate,  instruction  in  mathe- 
matics, 154-155;  teachers  of  mathe- 
matics, 178-181. 

Industrial  work,  relation  of  mathematics 
to,  165-166. 

Instruction,  class,  138-139. 

Interest,  doctrine  of,  in  training  the  will, 
128. 

John  Wanamaker  Commercial  Institute, 
mathematical  curriculum,  170. 

Kindergarten,  influence,  72;  mathemat- 
ics, 65-67. 

Maine,  township  unit,  81. 

Massachusetts,  township  unit,  81. 


Mathematics,  and  applied  sciences,  168; 
conduct  of  the  course,  17-18;  correlation 
of  different  lines,  168-169;  elementary, 
influence  of  aims  on  teaching,  94-97; 
elementary,  methods  employed  in 
teaching  (Suzzalo),  93-120;  introduc- 
tion in  early  grades,  17 ; order  of  studies, 
167-168;  proposed  fusion  of  different 
branches,  167;  relation  of  arithmetic 
to,  54;  required  and  elective,  167; 
teaching,  influence  of  a scientific  aim, 
94-97,  methods  employed,  75-78;  utili- 
tarian side  in  public  schools,  168. 

Michigan  State  Normal  College,  arithme- 
tic as  a topic,  83-84. 

Museums,  educational,  illustrative  ex- 
hibits, mathematics,  169. 

National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Industrial  Education,  list  of  trade 
schools,  155-156. 

Negro,  trade  schools,  list,  159-160. 

New  England  States,  township  unit,  81. 

New  York  Central  Lines,  apprentices’ 
schools,  instruction  in  mathematics, 
173-177. 

New  York  City,  course  of  study  in  mathe- 
matics for  the  public  schools,  147;  for- 
ward movement,  promotion  of  teachers 
of  mathematics,  149-150;  preparation  of 
teachers,  146. 

New  York  State,  education  department, 
course  of  study  in  arithmetic,  45-55. 

Nonpublic  schools,  types,  13-14. 

Normal  schools,  private,  mathematics 
course,  149;  State,  mathematics  course, 
149;  training,  43. 

Organization  of  schools,  69-71;  elemen- 
tary, internal,  81-83;  external,  78-81. 

Parochial  schools,  mathematics  in  grades 
7 and  8,  142-144. 

Part-time  schools,  training,  159. 

Pedagogical  museums,  126. 

Private  elementary  schools,  purpose,  84- 
85. 

Private  schools,  influences,  131. 

Psychological  studies,  influence,  128. 

Public  education,  agencies,  7-9. 

Public  schools,  kinds  of  industrial  work, 
161;  mathematics  in  grades  7 and  8, 
127-142;  types,  9-12. 

Rationalization,  use  of  methods  of,  106- 
107. 


INDEX. 


185 


Recitation  time,  139. 

Rural  schools,  course  of  study,  71;  influ- 
ences, 131;  Michigan,  course  of  study, 
83;  organization,  71;  status  of  arithme- 
tic, 16. 

School  period,  six-year  elementary,  ar- 
guments for,  82-83. 

School  year,  elementary  schools,  16. 

Sciences,  applied,  and  mathematics,  168. 

Seerley,  H.  H.,  on  training  of  teachers  for 
elementary  schools,  152. 

Shop  courses,  schools  supported  by  pub- 
lic funds,  list,  158-159. 

Standardized  tests,  36,  74. 

State  board  of  education,  powers  and 
functions,  78-79. 

State  normal  schools,  mathematics  course, 
149. 

Stone,  C.  W.,  and  standardizing  tests, 
74,  76. 

Study  time,  139. 

Suzzalo,  Henry,  on  methods  employed 
in  teaching  elementary  mathematics, 
93-120. 

System  of  education,  American,  7-14. 

Teachers,  preparation  for  grades  1 to  6, 
120-126;  preparation  for  grades  7 and  8, 
144-152;  New  York  City,  146,  149-150; 
rational  preparation  for  grades  7 and  8, 
150-152;  recommendations  for  a teach- 
ing course,  43-44;  seventh  and  eighth 
grades,  148-152;  trade  and  industrial 
schools,  178-181;  training  and  qualifi- 
cation, 42-44. 


Teaching,  arithmetic,  characteristic 
modes  in  methods,  117-120,  objective 
method,  103-106,  use  of  special  algo- 
risms, 111-113;  mathematics,  concrete 
methods,  140-141,  departmental,  141, 
induction  and  deduction,  141-142, 
methods,  75-78,  97-103  (Suzzalo),  93- 
120,  rapidity  and  accuracy,  140. 

Technical  schools,  day  courses,  156;  sup- 
ported by  public  funds,  list,  156. 

Tennessee,  elementary  schools,  course  of 
study,  81-82. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  aim  of  elementary  edu- 
cation, 15. 

Township  organization  of  schools,  80. 

Township  unit,  81,  Massachusetts,  81. 

Trade  schools,  colored  race,  list,  159-160; 
instruction  in  mathematics,  155-156; 
list,  supported  by  private  foundation, 
155-156,  supported  by  public  funds, 
155;  teachers  of  mathematics,  178-181. 

Trigonometry,  instruction,  General  Elec- 
tric Co.,  172-173. 

United  States  Bureau  of  Education, 
work,  78. 

University  and  college  departments  of 
education,  training  of  teachers  in  mathe- 
matics, 148-149. 

University  School,  Montgomery,  Ala., 
object,  84-85. 

Vocational  industrial  work,  162-163. 

Washington  Irving  High  School,  New 
York  City,  relation  of  mathematics  to 
industrial  work,  165. 

Y.  M.  C.  A.,  industrial  education,  158. 


o 


UNITED  STATES  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 

BULLETIN,  1911,  NO.  14 WHOLE  NUMBER  461 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN 
IN  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS 


Prepared  by 

JAMES  H.  VAN  SICKLE 

Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction,  Springfield,  Mass. 

LIGHTNER  WITMER 

Director,  Psychological  Laboratory  and  Clinic,  University  of  Pennsylvania 

LEONARD  P.  AYRES 

Director,  Division  of  Education,  Russell  Sage  Foundation 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1911 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Letter  of  transmittal 5 

Chapter  I. — The  discovery  of  the  exceptional  child 7 

The  socialization  of  public-school  work  and  the  individualization  of  the 

child 7 

Institutions  or  schools  for  the  deaf  and  blind 8 

Reform  schools 9 

Idiocy  and  retardation 10 

Special  classes  for  physical  defectives 14 

The  gifted  child 14 

Chapter  II. — Proportions  of  school  populations  composed  of  exceptionl  chil- 
dren  16 

Slow,  backward,  retarded,  or  laggard  children 17 

Normal  and  bright  children 17 

Talented  or  exceptionally  bright  children 17 

Summary 18 

Chapter  III. — The  classification  of  exceptional  children 19 

Chapter  IV. — Methods  for  determining  the  extent  and  degree  of  retardation 

in  city  school  systems 23 

The  age  and  grade  table 24 

The  method  of  locating  the  13-year-old  children. 25 

Repeaters 26 

A method  of  discovering  the  causes  of  retardation 28 

Summary 29 

Chapter  V. — Provision  for  exceptional  children  in  city  school  systems 31 

Provision  for  the  morally  exceptional 32 

Provision  for  the  mentally  exceptional 33 

Provision  for  the  physically  exceptional 34 

Provision  for  the  environmentally  exceptional 35 

Chapter  VI. — Grading  and  promotion,  with  special  reference  to  the  needs  of 

exceptional  children 36 

The  Batavia  plan 37 

The  North  Denver  plan 38 

The  Cambridge  plan 39 

Large-school  plan 39 

The  Pueblo  plan 40 

Summary 41 

Chapter  VII. — Descriptions  of  work  done  for  exceptional  children  in  American 

school  systems 42 

Baltimore,  Md 42 

Bayonne,  N.  J 43 

Boston,  Mass 43 

Calumet,  Mich 44 

Cambridge,  Mass 45 

Camden,  N.  J 45 


3 


4 


CONTENTS. 


Chapter  VII. — Descriptions  of  work  clone  for  exceptional  children  in  American 
school  systems — Continued.  Page. 

Chicago,  111 45 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 48 

Cleveland,  Ohio 50 

Denver,  Colo 51 

Detroit,  Mich 51 

Fitchburg,  Mass 51 

Hartford,  Conn 52 

Houston,  Tex 53 

Indianapolis,  Ind 54 

Joplin,  Mo 55 

Lincoln,  Nebr 55 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 55 

Lynn,  Mass 56 

Milwaukee,  Wis 56 

Minneapolis,  Minn 58 

Newark,  N.  J 58 

New  Bedford,  Mass 59 

New  Haven,  Conn 59 

Newton,  Mass 59 

New  York,  N.  Y * 59 

Oakland,  Cal 60 

Philadelphia,  Pa 61 

Reading,  Pa 61 

Rochester,  N.  Y 61 

St.  Louis,  Mo 61 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 62 

Schenectady,  N.  Y 62 

Somerville,  Mass 62 

Spokane,  Wash 62 

Springfield,  Mass 63 

Williamsport,  Pa 64 

Woonsocket,  R.  I 64 

Worcester,  Mass 64 

Chapter  VIII. — The  selection  and  training  of  teachers 66 

Cities  reporting  but  not  stating  any  provision  for  exceptional  children  ...  68 

Statistical  summary  of  cities  making  provision  for  exceptional  children..  69 

Cities  making  provision  for  exceptional  children 71 

Brief  bibliography 89 

Index 91 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


Department  of  the  Interior, 

Bureau  of  Education, 
Washington , October  2,  1911. 

Sir:  There  are  many  children  in  attendance  upon  the  public 
schools  of  our  country  who,  for  one  reason  or  another,  can  not  work 
most  satisfactorily  to  themselves  or  others  when  classified  with  the 
great  majority  of  the  children.  School  authorities  have  seen  for 
many  years  that  the  presence  of  such  children  in  the  regular  classes 
is  detrimental  to  the  progress  of  both  the  exceptional  and  the  non- 
exceptional.  In  the  manuscript  entitled  “ Provision  for  Exceptional 
Children  in  Public  Schools, ” herewith  transmitted,  Supt.  J.  H.  Van 
Sickle,  of  Springfield,  Mass.,  Dr.  Lightner  Witmer,  Director  of  the  Psy- 
chological Laboratory  and  Clinic  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania, 
and  Dr.  Leonard  P.  Ayres,  Associate  Director,  Department  of  Child 
Hygiene,  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  have  set  forth  the  results  of 
their  investigations  and  their  suggestions  and  recommendations  to 
the  public-school  workers  of  our  country  in  regard  to  the  educa- 
tional care  these  children  need.  In  addition  to  the  detailed  dis- 
cussions relating  thereto,  extended  information  concerning  the  num- 
ber of  cities  in  our  country  attempting  to  meet  the  problems  sug- 
gested is  furnished  in  tabular  form.  The  authors  have  tentatively 
classified  those  children  who  need  this  special  care  in  public  schools 
into  ten  groups.  Some  enter  late  and  need  help  to  make  up  their 
work;  others  are  exceptionally  talented  and  should  be  allowed  to 
make  as  rapid  progress  as  consistent  with  thoroughness;  others 
enter  speaking  only  a foreign  language  and  at  first  need  special  and 
almost  exclusive  drill  in  English;  still  others  are  slow,  backward, 
or  defective  in  one  way  or  another,  but  not  to  such  a degree  as  to 
require  the  care  of  public  institutions  for  the  defective  classes.  It 
is  a valuable  piece  of  work  and  will  be  of  much  help  to  all  who  are 
seeking  for  more  effective  and  just  classification  of  public-school 
children. 

I accordingly  recommend  the  publication  of  these  results  as  a 
bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Education. 

Very  respectfully,  P.  P.  Claxton, 

Commissioner. 

The  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

5 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN 
PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  DISCOVERY  OF  THE  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILD. 

THE  SOCIALIZATION  OF  PUBLIC-SCHOOL  WORK  AND  THE  INDIVIDUALI- 
ZATION OF  THE  CHILD. 

The  progress  of  educational  work  in  the  last  20  years  furnishes  an 
impressive  display  of  social  functions  assumed  by  the  schools  of  this 
and  other  countries.  Medical  school  inspection,  school  feeding, 
school  nurses,  and  special  classes  for  truants,  physical  defectives, 
and  backward  children  are  all  separate  evidences  of  a single  move- 
ment looking  toward  the  socialization  of  public-school  instruction 
and  involving  the  public-school  authorities  in  the  direct  responsi- 
bility for  most  of  the  child’s  life  and  development. 

On  the  one  hand,  education  is  becoming  socialized  and  is  giving 
increasing  recognition  to  community  interests.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  has  resulted,  in  respect  to  the  children,  in  a greater  individualiza- 
tion. Education  is  primarily  concerned  with  the  task  of  trans- 
mitting from  one  generation  to  the  next  the  intellectual  traditions 
and  the  moral  standards  which  have  been  acquired  by  the  race. 
The  eye  of  the  teacher,  therefore,  is  mainly  directed  to  the  subject 
matter  of  instruction,  or  to  the  code  of  morals  and  manners  which  it 
is  desired  to  impress  upon  the  child.  This  is  as  it  should  be.  All 
efficient  work  is  accomplished  only  through  concentration  of  atten- 
tion and  through  the  direction  of  effort  toward  a single  result.  The 
public  school  must  never  give  up  as  its  chief  function  the  teaching  and 
training  of  children  in  relatively  large  groups,  by  teachers  who  are 
impressed  with  the  importance  of  the  subject  matter  of  instruction, 
and  who  look  upon  the  class  as  a fairly  homogeneous  unit. 

Nevertheless,  provision  must  also  be  made  within  the  modern 
public  school  for  training  many  children  not  as  members  of  a group, 
but  as  individual  or  exceptional  children.  The  social  purpose  of  this 
kind  of  individualized  educational  treatment  may  be  considered 
the  keynote  of  our  American  civilization.  Children  are  not  born 
equal,  nor  can  we  ever  thrust  equality  upon  them;  but  American 
education  can  see  to  it  that  every  child  has  a fair  opportunity  to 

7 


8 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 


develop  the  mental  capacities  with  which  it  is  endowed  at  birth. 
The  public  schools  may  eliminate  in  large  measure  the  accidents  of 
social  and  financial  position  and  the  circumstances  of  the  child’s 
individual  history  as  determining  factors  in  its  career.  Every  child 
should  reach  adult  age  with  his  brains  developed  to  the  full  measure  of 
their  efficiency.  This  is  recommended  not  merely  out  of  sympathy  for 
the  child,  but  also  because  the  community  needs  every  bit  of  brain 
power  available,  whether  this  brain  power  appears  in  the  family  of  a 
Pennsylvania  miner,  a New  England  farmer,  or  a Pittsburgh  million- 
aire. Anything  less  than  this  spells  retarded  or  arrested  development. 
The  highly  gifted  child  can  be  as  much  retarded  by  the  circumstances 
of  his  life  history  or  by  the  school  system  as  is  the  congenitally  dull 
or  mentally  defective  child.  This  bulletin  is  conceived  as  having 
the  purpose  of  making  available  some  facts  and  considerations  which 
it  is  believed  should  determine  the  public-school  treatment  of  the 
exceptional  child. 

What  is  normal,  even  what  is  supernormal,  often  fails  to  arouse 
attention.  The  abnormal,  the  pathological,  the  deficient,  and  the 
defective — these  first  win  the  attention  of  society.  Among  primitive 
races  this  attention  is  accompanied  by  feelings  of  horror,  even  of 
terror,  and  the  abnormal  are  sometimes  eliminated  by  violent  means. 
Next,  they  are  segregated,  under  the  spur  of  a philanthropic  impulse, 
and  are  supported  in  institutions,  or  they  are  retained  under  merely 
custodial  care.  This  segregation  is  partly  for  the  benefit  of  society, 
and  only  partly  for  the  purpose  of  taking  care  of  society’s  helpless 
members.  It  is  relatively  late  in  the  history  of  the  world  that  the 
discovery  is  made  that  the  training  of  certain  groups  of  these  abnormal 
or  defective  social  elements  presents  a problem  of  scientific  and  social 
importance. 

INSTITUTIONS  OR  SCHOOLS  FOR  THE  DEAF  AND  BLIND. 

In  the  year  1744  a Portuguese  Jew  named  Pereire  gave  before  the 
Academy  of  Science  at  New  Rochelle,  France,  a most  dramatic 
demonstration  of  the  power  of  the  human  intellect  to  solve  a problem 
of  special  training.  He  presented  before  the  members  of  the  academy 
a boy  who  had  been  born  deaf,  and  whom  he  had  taught  to  talk. 
From  that  day  the  world  could  no  longer  regard  the  training  of  con- 
genitally deaf  children  as  an  impossibility,  and  yet,  despite  this 
brilliant  solution  of  a problem  in  scientific  education,  the  world  was 
slow  to  recognize  the  value  of  Pereire’s  work,  and  it  was  not  until  the 
year  1867  that  deaf  children  in  the  United  States  were  taught  by  the 
oral  method. 

Institutions  for  the  training  of  deaf  children  had  been  established 
many  years  before.  This  type  of  special  school  had  its  origin  in  the 
foundation  of  a school  for  the  deaf  by  the  Abbe  de  l’Epee  in  1771  in 


DISCOVERY  OF  THE  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILD. 


9 


Paris.  Inspired  by  Pereire’s  example,  but  unacquainted  with 
Pereire’s  scientific  knowledge  and  unpenetrated  by  his  educational 
genius,  the  Abbe  de  l’Epee  was  moved  more  by  the  spirit  of  philan- 
thropy to  care  for  and  educate  deaf-mutes.  Pereire  was  perhaps  too 
far  ahead  of  his  time  to  impress  the  world  with  the  importance  of  his 
achievement.  Moreover,  he  never  inducted  others  into  the  secrets 
of  his  method,  and  with  the  single  exception  of  Heinicke,  in  Germany, 
those  interested  in  the  training  of  deaf  children  failed  during  almost 
a century  to  grasp  the  physiological  and  psychological  elements  of 
the  problem. 

The  world  has  now  caught  up  with  Pereire,  and  public  education 
is  about  to  enter  into  the  full  enjoyment  of  the  results  of  his  labors 
and  of  the  labors  of  many  others  in  this  and  cognate  fields.  It 
behooves  all  who  are  interested  in  the  development  of  all  types  of 
special  education  to  see  to  it  that  the  work  which  scientific  men  within 
the  field  of  education  are  accomplishing  shall  be  made  available  to 
others.  The  work  must  be  thoroughly  grounded  upon  scientific 
principles,  and  scientific  workers  as  well  as  trainers  of  exceptional 
children  must  be  provided  with  the  professional  equipment  and  the 
physical  means  to  undertake  this  work  satisfactorily. 

The  successful  training  of  deaf  children  stimulated  an  interest  in 
the  blind.  By  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  an  initial 
attempt  to  provide  for  the  training  of  these  two  classes  of  defective 
children  had  been  made  by  the  civilized  nations  of  Europe  and 
America. 

REFORM  SCHOOLS. 

The  next  group  of  exceptional  children  to  be  provided  for  were 
those  who  stood  in  danger  of  growing  into  an  adult  life  of  criminality; 
in  other  words,  children  in  need  of  special  moral  training.  This  move- 
ment was  inspired  partly  by  the  general  movement  for  prison  reform 
in  England  and  partly  by  the  work  of  such  men  as  Pestalozzi,  who 
were  keen  to  recognize  the  danger  to  the  continental  countries  arising 
from  the  number  of  destitute,  vagrant,  and  morally  neglected  children 
who  had  been  deprived  of  their  natural  protectors  by  the  Napoleonic 
wars. 

In  the  United  States,  “ houses  of  refuge”  began  to  be  established 
in  1824,  and  three  of  them  were  soon  in  existence — one  in  Boston,  one 
in  New  York,  and  one  in  Philadelphia.  These  institutions  were 
started  not  as  a part  of  the  prison  system,  but  as  an  experiment  in 
special  education.  No  one  can  comprehend  the  history  and  present 
status  of  houses  of  refuge  and  other  reform  schools  who  fails  to  recog- 
nize that  the  inspiration  for  their  establishment  was  exactly  the  same 
as  that  which  led  in  the  last  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century  to  the 
founding  of  parental  schools  and  public  day  classes  for  truants  and 
disciplinary  cases.  The  supreme  court  of  Pennsylvania  has  decided 


10  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 

in  a well-known  case  that  the  house  of  refuge  is  not  a penal  institution, 
but  a school.  The  children  sent  to  the  reform  school  become  the 
wards  of  the  State  until  they  are  21,  not  because  of  the  overt  act,  but 
because  their  actions  have  proved  them  in  need  of  special  oversight 
and  moral  training,  or  else  their  home  environment  or  their  personal 
characteristics  prove  them  morally  endangered. 

IDIOCY  AND  RETARDATION. 

The  effort  to  train  the  group  of  children  variously  designated  as 
feeble-minded,  imbecile,  or  idiotic  led  first  to  the  scientific  appreciation 
of  the  problem  of  retardation  and  to  a real  understanding,  mainly 
through  the  work  of  Seguin,  of  the  problem  of  special  education  in 
relation  to  arrested  or  retarded  development. 

As  in  most  discoveries,  accident  and  misapprehension  played  a 
large  part  in  gaining  for  us  a scientific  comprehension  of  “ retarda- 
tion.” A little  more  than  a century  ago,  in  the  year  1797,  a boy 
apparently  about  12  years  of  age  was  found  running  wild,  like  a 
beast  of  the  field,  through  the  forests  of  Aveyron,  in  the  southern 
part  of  France.  No  one  ever  knew  his  origin,  or  where  or  how  he 
had  spent  the  years  between  his  birth  and  his  discovery.  Devoid 
of  the  faculty  of  speech,  he  showed  very  few  signs  of  intelligence  and 
made  his  wants  known  through  the  simplest  of  inarticulate  cries. 
He  selected  his  food  by  the  sense  of  smell,  and  what  he  chose  proved 
him  unaccustomed  to  the  dietary  of  civilization.  He  drank  by  lying 
flat  upon  the  ground  and  thrusting  his  mouth  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  water.  He  often  walked  on  all  fours,  and  fighting  with  his 
teeth  like  an  animal,  he  resisted  the  placing  of  garments  upon  his 
back,  and  made  unremitting  efforts  to  escape.  Subjected  to  con- 
finement and  forced  to  submit  to  the  ways  of  civilized  life,  he  proved 
to  be  fairly  tractable. 

Brought  to  Paris  he  excited  the  liveliest  interest  and  was  pre- 
sented as  an  object  of  scientific  curiosity  before  the  French  Academy 
of  Science.  Pinel,  the  famous  physician  of  the  insane  at  Bicetre, 
declared  the  child  idiotic  and  therefore  untrainable.  But  Itard,  a 
physician  of  that  first  institution  for  the  training  of  deaf-mutes, 
established  at  Paris  by  the  Abbe  de  l’Epee,  believed  the  boy  to  be 
merely  wild  and  untaught.  He  undertook  this  boy’s  training, 
admitting  the  close  resemblance  of  the  boy’s  condition  to  idiocy, 
but  believing  that  he  could  be  restored  to  the  normal  mental  life  of 
humanity,  because  of  his  conclusions  as  to  the  u cause  and  cura- 
bility of  that  apparent  idiotism.”  To  express  Itard’s  opinion  in 
modern  language,  the  boy  in  his  opinion  was  not  a case  of  idiocy,  but 
a case  of  arrested  or  retarded  development,  the  result  of  neglect  and 
separation  from  the  normal  human  environment. 


DISCOVERY  OF  THE  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILD. 


11 


The  outcome  of  Itard’s  self-assumed  task  was  to  prove  him  doubly 
in  the  wrong.  The  result  of  his  training  showed  first  that  the  boy 
was  an  idiot  and  secondly  that  an  idiot  could  be  trained.  Itard’s 
failure — for  he  could  not  restore  this  boy  to  normal  mental  condi- 
tion— is  one  of  the  great  successes  in  the  history  of  education  and 
mental  science.  Itard  himself  scarcely  recognized  the  significance 
of  his  own  success.  Interested  in  the  boy  as  a primitive  savage  who 
had  been  retarded  in  development  because  of  the  absence  of  the 
normal  human  environment,  Itard  failed  to  see  that  this  boy,  idiot 
though  he  was,  suffered  from  an  arrest  or  retardation  of  develop- 
ment due  to  physiological  causes  resident  within  himself.  The  dis- 
covery that  idiocy  is  retardation  was  left  for  Itard's  pupil,  a phy- 
sician, psychologist,  and  educator,  Edward  Seguin. 

On  the  basis  of  the  accomplishment  of  Pereire  and  Itard,  Seguin 
made  the  deduction  that  feeble-mindedness  is  an  arrest  of  mental 
development  necessarily  consequent  upon  the  imperfect  sense  organs 
and  organs  of  motion  with  which  these  children  are  endowed  at 
birth.  He  proposed  to  exercise  the  imperfect  organs  so  as  to  develop 
their  functions,  as  Pereire  had  previously  developed  the  organs  of 
articulation  in  deaf-mutes,  and  to  train  the  functions  of  the  organism 
so  as  to  develop  the  imperfect  organs.  He  defines  his  system  as 
“the  adaptation  of  the  principles  of  physiology  through  physiological 
means  and  instruments  to  the  development  of  the  dynamic,  percep- 
tive, reflective,  and  spontaneous  functions  of  youth.” 

Seguin  began  his  first  experiment  in  the  training  of  a feeble- 
minded child  in  1837.  So  successful  was  this  expert  physiological 
education  of  all  the  senses  that  Seguin  won  for  himself,  as  Itard  had 
before  him,  the  commendation  of  the  Academy  of  Science.  In  1842 
he  formed  the  first  small  class  of  feeble-minded  children,  whose 
training  he  undertook  at  the  Bicetre. 

Seguin’s  work  became  a model  for  the  countries  of  the  civilized 
world.  Inspired  by  his  example  and  assisted  by  his  treatise  on 
idiocy,  published  in  1846,  training  schools  for  feeble-minded  children 
were  established  first  in  Massachusetts  in  1849,  and  in  the  next  few 
years  in  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  other  States  of  the  Union. 

The  next  contribution  to  an  understanding  of  the  meaning  of  the 
word  retardation  came  directly  out  of  school  practice.  First 
among  civilized  nations  Germany  addressed  itself  to  the  task  of  edu- 
cating every  child,  long  before  this  county  had  even  awakened  to  the 
fact  that  many  of  its  prospective  citizens  were  not  receiving  sufficient 
school  training  to  cast  an  intelligent  vote.  Just  as  soon  as  com- 
pulsory education  laws  were  partially  enforced  and  a serious  effort 
made  to  educate  every  child,  it  was  found  that  there  are  children  not 
properly  called  feeble-minded  who  are  yet  incapable  of  making  nor- 
mal progress  in  the  ordinary  day  schools.  The  appreciation  of  the 


12  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 

necessity  of  providing  a special  form  of  training  for  these  backward 
pupils  led  to  the  organization  of  the  first  special  class  in  Dresden  in 
1865. 

In  this  country  the  compulsory  education  laws  began  to  be  really 
enforced  in  a few  States  about  1890.  As  a consequence  truant 
schools,  disciplinary  schools,  and  schools  for  backward  children 
came  into  existence  in  some  States.  The  idea  of  establishing  day 
classes  and  schools  for  deficient  children  appears,  however,  to  have 
been  first  introduced  to  American  teachers  by  August  Schenck,  of 
Detroit,  in  1878,  in  an  address  to  the  American  Teachers’  Association. 
Dr.  Andrew  RickofT,  superintendent  of  schools  for  the  city  of  Cleve- 
land, acting  on  Schenck’s  suggestion,  established  two  classes  in 
Cleveland,  limiting  them,  however,  to  disciplinary  cases.  The  second 
class  was  established  in  Chicago  in  1892.  This  is  still  in  existence, 
and  other  special  classes  have  been  added.  New  York  established 
its  first  class  in  1895,  under  the  direction  of  Miss  Elizabeth  Farrell. 
Several  other  classes  have  since  been  formed,  and  in  1905  adequate 
supervision  was  first  provided  through  the  appointment  of  Miss  Far- 
rell as  inspector  of  ungraded  classes.  In  the  same  year,  or  a year 
later,  a school  was  organized  at  Waukegan,  111.,  by  Supt.  Hall, 
designed  for  backward  children  of  all  kinds,  those  mentally  deficient 
as  well  as  those  retarded  through  lack  of  educational  advantages. 

The  first  city  to  plan  for  a complete  organization  of  these  classes 
directly  under  the  city  superintendent  was  Providence,  R.  I.,  which 
formed  six  classes  for  truants  and  disciplinary  cases  in  1893,  and  a 
separate  class  for  backward  children  in  1896.  Springfield,  Mass., 
organized  a special  class  in  1898,  under  Supt.  Balliet.  Boston  and 
Philadelphia  followed  in  1899;  Cleveland  established  four  classes  in 
1905,  and  Portland,  Me.,  established  a class  in  1906. 

Another  movement  undoubtedly  played  an  important  part  in  the 
awakening  of  the  school  authorities  and  general  public  to  the  exist- 
ence of  retardation  as  an  educational  and  social  problem.  The  intro- 
duction of  medical  inspection  into  the  schools,  originally  for  the  detec- 
tion and  prevention  of  contagious  and  infectious  diseases,  led  to  the 
discovery  and  treatment  of  physical  defects,  which  were  found  to  be 
a powerful  factor  in  retarding  the  school  progress  of  many  children. 
Medical  inspectors  and  school  nurses,  and  in  more  recent  years  social 
visitors,  are  appointed  in  many  cities  as  an  integral  part  of  the  school 
system.  Without  them  it  would  be  impossible  to  realize  the  purpose 
for  which  the  schools  exist.  The  medical  profession,  both  in  this 
country  and  abroad,  has  made  contributions  of  great  value  bearing 
upon  the  physical  causes  of  arrested  and  retarded  development. 

In  the  course  of  time  the  term  “retardation”  has  come  to  cover 
types  of  children  hitherto  considered  normal.  Compared  with 
imbeciles  and  idiots  these  children  are  undoubtedly  normal,  but  com- 


DISCOVERT  OF  THE  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILD. 


13 


pared  with  those  children  who  are  passing  upward  through  the  grades 
without  meeting  serious  obstacles  to  their  progress,  these  children 
manifest  an  arrest  or  retardation  of  development.  In  some  this  is 
dependent  upon  internal  physiological  causes,  a defect  of  the  brain 
or  nervous  system,  even  though  a minor  defect.  In  others  it  is  due 
to  physical  defects,  bad  eyesight  or  hearing,  which  only  indirectly 
j albeit  seriously  affect  the  normal  development  of  the  brain.  We 
have  come  to  recognize  retardation  as  a mental  status,  not  a brain 
disease  or  defect  as  is  idiocy.  Retardation  is  a stage  of  mental 
development  which  can  only  be  defined  with  reference  to  what  we 
assume  to  be  the  regular  course  of  normal  development.  Any  child, 
the  functions  of  whose  brain  are  not  developed  up  to  the  normal 
limit  for  his  age,  is  suffering  from  retardation.  A status  or  stage  of 
progress  which  may  be  retardation  for  one  child  may  not  be  retarda- 
tion for  another.  The  physiological  and  psychological  age  of  a 
child  need  not  correspond  to  his  chronological  age.  We  have  come 
to  see  that  children  who  stand  at  the  head  of  a class  in  school  may  be 
more  retarded  than  children  who  are  at  the  bottom  of  a class.  There 
are  those  who  contend  that  the  schools  give  relatively  less  training  to 
those  who  are  mentally  well  endowed  than  they  do  to  the  average 
pupil  or  to  the  dullard. 

When  retardation  is  thus  defined  in  terms  of  individual  develop- 
ment the  necessity  clearly  arises  for  the  public  schools  to  provide  for 
the  highly  gifted  children  as  well  as  for  those  less  fortunate  in  natural 
endowment.  The  question  of  importance  is  as  to  the  number  of 
these  exceptional  children  in  the  schools.  Up  to  the  present  time 
school  statistics  have  limited  themselves  to  enumerating  the  retarded 
children,  using  that  term  to  indicate  those  children  who  are  behind 
grade  for  their  age.  Pedagogical  or  school  retardation  follows  from 
the  supposition  that  a child  enters  upon  his  first  year  of  school  work 
before  he  has  passed  his  seventh  birthday.  If  he  advances  one  grade 
each  year  he  will  complete  the  eight  years  of  the  elementary  course 
before  he  has  passed  his  fifteenth  birthday.  This  establishes  a theo- 
retical age  limit  for  each  grade,  apparently  not  excessive  in  its  edu- 
cational requirements;  for  the  child  who  leaves  the  elementary 
schools  in  his  fifteenth  year  can  not  complete  the  high  school  before 
his  nineteenth  year  or  graduate  from  college  before  his  twenty-third 
year.  Supt.  Bryan,  of  Camden,  N.  J.,  first  collated  statistics  of 
retardation  based  upon  the  enrollment  figures  of  that  city  for  two 
successive  years,  1904-1906.  He  found  in  the  elementary  schools  of 
Camden  that  72  per  cent  of  the  children  exceeded  the  theoretical 
age  limit;  that  47  per  cent  exceeded  the  age  limit  by  one  year  or 
more;  26  per  cent  by  two  years  or  more;  13  per  cent  by  three  years 
or  more ; and  5 per  cent  by  four  years  or  more. 


14  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 

It  is  generally  agreed  to  call  a child  retarded  or  backward  who 
exceeds  the  age  limit  by  two  years  or  more.  The  discovery  of  the 
existence  of  over-age  and  retarded  children,  and  the  development  of 
the  methods  of  determining  their  number,  is  the  work  of  Maxwell, 
Bryan,  Cornman,  Falkner,  and  Ayres.  The  literature  of  retardation 
has  rapidly  acquired  extensive  proportions.  The  working  out  of  the 
many  practical  problems  which  arise  in  connection  with  the  treat- 
ment of  backward  children  will  have  consequences  which  will  affect 
every  type  of  child  in  the  public  schools. 

SPECIAL  CLASSES  FOR  PHYSICAL  DEFECTIVES. 

In  this  country  and  also  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  sporadic 
efforts  have  been  made  in  the  public  schools  to  care  for  various  classes 
of  physical  defectives.  In  the  United  States,  especially  successful 
efforts  have  been  made  to  train  in  public  day  classes  deaf  children 
and  blind  children.  The  best  day  classes  for  such  children  have  been 
located  in  the  Middle  West,  probably  because  in  that  locality  adequate 
provision  had  not  been  made  by  the  State  in  the  establishment  of 
institutions  for  their  care  and  training.  It  would  seem  as  though 
in  the  United  States  the  two  systems  of  handling  deaf  and  blind 
children  will  be  on  trial  for  some  years,  to  determine  whether  the 
custodial  school  or  the  day  school  is  the  more  efficient  and  economical, 
and  also  which  is  the  better  adapted  for  the  all-round  development 
of  the  child. 

In  England  and  the  United  States  special  classes  have  been  or- 
ganized for  crippled  children,  in  many  places  the  children  being 
transported  to  the  schools  from  their  homes.  In  Baltimore,  special 
classes  have  been  established  for  epileptic  children.  The  develop- 
ment of  preventive  medicine,  together  with  the  progress  of  medical 
school  inspection,  has  led  in  many  localities  to  the  organization  of 
open-air  schools  and  of  special  schools  for  children  suffering  from 
tuberculosis. 

THE  GIFTED  CHILD. 

The  problem  of  the  gifted  child  may  be  said  to  have  first  provoked 
action  when  Dr.  William  T.  Harris,  as  superintendent  of  the  schools 
of  St.  Louis,  introduced,  as  long  ago  as  1872,  a plan  for  making 
promotion  fit  different  intellectual  grades.  In  many  localities  the 
development  of  a fixed  and  rather  static  grading  system  and  promo- 
tion system,  particularly  when  promotions  were  made  only  at  yearly 
intervals,  led  to  the  discovery  that  many  children  are  kept  back 
unduly,  owing  to  the  “ lock-step”  system.  Many  efforts  have  been 
made  toward  the  solution  of  this  problem — ungraded  classes,  more 
rapid  promotion  through  special  tutoring  and  systems  of  flexible 
grading,  the  method  of  dividing  grades  up  into  groups  according  to 


DISCOVERY  OF  THE  EXCEPTIONAL,  CHILD. 


15 


intellectual  ability,  etc.  Several  cities  have  made  provision  for  the 
more  rapid  progress  of  gifted  pupils  by  gathering  them  into  centers 
where,  under  especially  skilled  teachers,  they  pursue  a curriculum 
modified  by  the  early  introduction  of  some  of  the  high-school  studies. 
It  is  probable  that  very  many  men  have  been  induced  to  see  more 
clearly  the  necessity  of  providing  for  the  gifted  child,  since  so  much 
attention  has  been  given  to  the  backward  and  defective  child. 


CHAPTER  II. 


PROPORTIONS  OF  SCHOOL  POPULATIONS  COMPOSED  OF 
EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN. 

If  all  of  the  children  in  our  public  schools  could  be  ranked  according 
to  their  intellectual  abilities,  it  is  probable  that  a rough  classification 
would  group  them  about  as  follows: 

Talented 4 per  cent. 

Bright j 

Normal |92  per  cent. 

Feeble-minded 4 per  cent. 

The  4 per  cent  here  designated  as  feeble-minded  may  for  administra- 
tive purposes  be  divided  into  two  groups.  The  lower  one  includes 
about  one-half  of  1 per  cent  of  the  entire  school  membership  and  con- 
sists of  children  of  the  lowest  grade  of  mentality  found  in  the  public 
schools.  They  are  genuinely  mentally  deficient,  and  can  not  prop- 
erly be  treated  in  the  public  schools.  They  are  institution  cases,  and 
should  be  removed  to  institutions. 

Ranking  just  above  these  are  the  remaining  3J  per  cent  who  are 
feeble-minded  but  who  can  be  given  a certain  amount  of  training  in 
special  classes  in  the  public  schools.  This  is  not  the  sort  of  treatment 
that  they  should  ideally  receive,  for  few  of  them  can  ever  become  inde- 
pendent members  of  the  community,  but  it  is  the  sorb  that  they  should 
have  if  they  are  to  be  dealt  with  at  all  by  the  public-school  systems 
as  now  constituted. 

The  foregoing  statements  in  regard  to  this  lowest  group  in  the 
intellectual  scale  are  of  necessity  based  on  meager  evidence,  for  the 
reason  that  few  comprehensive  psychological  surveys  of  entire 
school  systems  have  been  conducted.  They  represent  tfie  conclusions 
arrived  at  by  those  who  have  conducted  such  investigations  as  have 
been  made.  The  best  evidence  bearing  on  the  problem  is  to  be  found 
in  the  following  reports: 

Two  Thousand  Normal  Children  Tested  by  the  Binet  Scale.  The 
Training  School,  January,  1911. 

The  Classification  of  Clinic  Cases.  Holmes.  Psychological  Clinic, 
April,  1911. 

What  Can  the  Public  School  Do  for  Subnormal  Children?  The 
Training  School,  September,  1910. 

Report  of  Committee  on  Special  Education.  Report  of  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Education,  1910,  Yol.  II,  pp.  xxi-xxv. 

1G 


SCHOOL  POPULATIONS  AND  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN. 


17 


SLOW,  BACKWARD,  RETARDED,  OR  LAGGARD  CHILDREN. 

Ranking  above  the  feeble-minded  group  comes  a much  larger  class 
of  children,  constituting  anywhere  from  10  to  50  per  cent  of  the  entire 
school  membership,  made  up  of  those  who  are  not  mentally  deficient, 
but  who  make  slow  progress  through  the  grades.  In  point  of  numbers 
and  importance  these  children  constitute  a great,  if  not  our  great- 
est, school  problem.  They  make  up  about  one-third  of  the  total 
school  membership  in  the  average  city,  and  in  most  localities  their 
numbers  are  distinctly  greater  among  the  boys  than  among  the  girls. 

These  backward  children  who  take  more  than  the  normal  time 
to  complete  the  work  of  each  grade  are  the  children  who  usually  spend 
their  entire  school  lives  in  the  lower  grades,  and  fall  out  of  school 
permanently  without  completing  even  the  elementary  course.  It  is 
this  pedagogical  retardation  among  great  numbers  of  children  who 
have  no  congenital  mental  defect  that  is  responsible  for  the  school 
evils  known  as  repetition,  retardation,  and  elimination. 

Data  concerning  the  number  of  these  children  in  different  city 
school  systems  may  be  found  in  a large  proportion  of  all  of  the  num- 
bers of  educational  periodicals  issued  during  the  past  four  years,  and 
in  most  of  the  recent  reports  of  city  school  superintendents.  Sum- 
maries of  conditions  are  presented  by  Ayres  in  “ Laggards  in  our 
schools,  ” Chapters  IV  and  VII,  and  in  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner 
of  Education,  1910,  Vol.  II,  pp.  xxi  to  xxv. 

NORMAL  AND  BRIGHT  CHILDREN. 

The  largest  group  is  that  composed  of  the  normal  and  bright  children 
who  have  no  great  difficulty  in  completing  the  work  of  the  grades 
satisfactorily  in  about  the  alloted  time.  The  size  of  this  group  in 
school  systems  as  commonly  organized  varies  from  about  40  per  cent 
to  about  80  per  cent  of  the  entire  membership.  This  wide  range  of 
variability  does  not  indicate  that  the  children  of  different  cities  are 
of  such  varying  degrees  of  mental  ability  as  the  figures  would  seem  to 
show.  It  merely  reflects  the  fact  that  in  some  cities  the  demands  of 
the  school  curriculum  and  the  teaching  methods  are  much  more 
nearly  in  accord  with  the  abilities  of  the  children  than  they  are  in 
others. 

TALENTED  OR  EXCEPTIONALLY  BRIGHT  CHILDREN. 

Quantitative  evidence  as  to  the  number  of  exceptionally  bright 
children  found  in  our  public  schools  is  even  more  rare  than  is  such 
evidence  with  respect  to  the  feeble-minded. 

Such  data  as  are  available  seem  to  indicate  that  about  4 per  cent 
of  the  entire  school  membership  may  fairly  be  rated  as  exceptionally 
bright  or  talented.  Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  report 
of  the  testing  of  2,000  normal  children  by  the  Binet  scale,  conducted 
5092°— Bull.  14—11 2 


18  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 

by  the  New  Jersey  Training  School.  This  test  showed  that  some- 
what more  than  4 per  cent  of  the  school  children  were  mentally 
more  than  one  year  ahead  of  their  ages.  These  are  the  children  who 
are  born  with  exceptional  endowments,  and  go  through  the  public 
schools  with  greater  than  average  ability  and  rapidity. 

Another  bit  of  evidence  is  found  in  Volume  II  of  the  1910  Report 
of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  in  a table  printed  on  page  xxiii. 
This  table  presents  figures  from  319  cities,  showing  that  in  the 
average  city  about  4 per  cent  of  the  pupils  are  one  year  or  more 
under  age  for  their  grades. 

Still  further  evidence  is  presented  by  Ayres,  in  Chapter  VII  of 
11  Laggards  in  our  schools,”  where  figures  are  given  from  different 
cities  showing  that  the  number  of  children  making  more  than  nor- 
mally rapid  progress  through  the  grades  ranges  from  1 to  5 per  cent 
of  the  entire  membership. 

That  these  unusually  able  children  have  been  given  scant  atten- 
tion in  our  public  schools  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  at  the  present 
time  only  five  cities  are  known  to  have  special  classes  for  excep- 
tionally gifted  children.  These  cities  are  Baltimore,  Worcester, 
Indianapolis,  Lincoln,  and  Rochester.1 

SUMMARY. 

1.  In  a normal  school  population  about  one-half  of  1 per  cent  of 
the  children  are  genuinely  mentally  deficient  and  should  be  treated 
in  institutions. 

2.  Ranking  above  these  comes  a group  of  feeble-minded  children, 
constituting  about  3J  per  cent  of  the  school  membership.  These 
children  are  educable  in  special  classes  of  public  schools,  but  few  of 
them  can  become  independent  members  of  the  community. 

3.  Ranking  above  these  children  comes  a larger  group  of  mentally 
sound,  but  slow,  children.  This  group  constitutes  from  10  to  50 
per  cent  of  the  membership,  and  in  the  average  city  amounts  to 
about  33  per  cent.  These  are  normal  individuals  for  whom  the 
present  school  curriculum  and  regime  are  ill  adapted.  In  most 
cities  a majority  of  them  are  boys. 

4.  Ranking  above  these  pupils  is  the  large  mass  of  school  children 
who  make  substantially  normal  progress  through  the  grades  and 
some  of  whom  make  rapid  progress.  These  constitute  from  40  to  80 
per  cent  of  the  school  membership. 

5.  At  the  upper  end  of  the  scale  comes  a group  of  unusually 
bright  or  talented  children,  composing  about  4 per  cent  of  the  total 
number.  Only  five  cities  have  so  far  organized  classes  for  these 
supernormal  children. 


1 In  answering  the  questionnaire,  a copy  of  which  appears  on  p.  31,  54  superintendents  write  “ yes  ’’after 
item  No.  14;  but  it  seems  quite  certain  that  the  great  majority  of  those  answering  thus  regard  some  form 
of  flexible  grading  as  the  special  provision  meant. 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE  CLASSIFICATION  OF  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN. 

We  assume  that  this  bulletin  is  addressed  to  those  who  are  inter- 
ested primarily  in  questions  relating  to  the  proper  treatment  of  excep- 
tional children  rather  than  in  a scientific  classification  based  upon  a 
recognition  of  the  causes  of  exceptional  character  in  children.  The 
most  significant  distinction  is  that  between  children  who  can  not 
properly  be  educated  in  the  public  schools  and  children  who  can  be 
adequately  instructed  and  trained  in  day  classes.  We  shall  therefore 
make  our  primary  classification  the  distinction  between  institution 
cases  and  public-school  cases. 

It  is  difficult  to  state  any  one  basis  for  the  establishment  of  this 
classification.  There  are  at  least  three  grounds  for  this  distinction. 
In  the  first  place,  there  are  children  idiotic  and  imbecile,  children 
morally  degenerate  and  delinquent,  children  severely  crippled  or 
suffering  from  a disease  like  epilepsy,  whom  any  superintendent 
would  recognize  as  being  unfit  for  association  with  normal  children 
in  the  grade.  Many  of  these  children  are  the  subjects  of  custodial 
treatment  only,  even  inside  the  institution  in  which  they  may  be 
segregated. 

A second  basis  for  this  distinction  has  reference  to  the  curability 
or  relative  permanence  of  the  child’s  condition.  Certain  children 
who  are  approximately  normal  in  appearance  and  in  mental  character 
are  yet  hopelessly  degenerate.  For  their  own  safety  and  for  the 
safety  of  the  children  with  whom  they  may  be  associated  in  the  pub- 
lic schools,  it  is  desirable  that  they  should  be  removed  from  the 
schools  and  placed  in  institutions.  Some  of  them  are  educable  and 
can  perhaps  be  trained  in  the  public  day  schools,  but  it  would  be 
undesirable  for  them  to  be  thus  treated.  The  most  dangerous  types 
of  moral  imbeciles  come  in  this  class.  These  children  some  compe- 
tent authority  connected  with  the  public-school  system  should  be 
quick  to  recognize.  Experts  should  be  called  in  and  the  school 
authorities  ought  to  lend  their  every  assistance  to  obtain  legal  sanc- 
tion for  the  segregation  of  these  children  in  special  institutions,  in 
order  that  they  may  not  pass  their  lives  among  normal  children, 
with  the  danger  of  moral  contagion  and  the  possibility  of  propagating 
their  kind. 

The  third  basis  for  the  distinction  between  an  institutional  and  a 
public-school  case  is  amenability  to  treatment  in  the  public  schools 
and  institutions.  It  stands  to  reason  that  an  institution  which  con- 


19 


20  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 

trols  every  hour  of  a child’s  existence — sleeping  or  awake — ought  to 
be  able  to  provide  more  effective  training  for  difficult  cases  than  can 
the  public  schools  in  day  classes.  In  distinguishing  between  those 
cases  which  should  be  sent  to  institutions  and  those  which  should  not 
we  must  take  into  consideration  whether  the  child  requires  the  kind 
of  work  which  the  public  school  can  not  supply  in  day  classes. 

A most  confusing  circumstance  arises  from  the  fact  that  the  various 
types  of  exceptional  children  shade  off  into  normal  types  of  children. 
From  children  who  are  slightly  slow  and  dull  by  nature,  there  is  a 
steady  gradation  through  children  that  are  only  touched  with  feeble- 
mindedness to  children  who  are  classified  in  institutions  as  “ high- 
grade  imbeciles,”  “ middle-grade  imbeciles,”  “low-grade  imbeciles,” 
“superficial,  and  profound  idiots.”  Ordinary  teachers,  superintend- 
ents, and  casual  observers  will  have  no  difficulty  whatever  in  excluding 
idiots  and  low-grade  imbeciles  from  the  public  schools.  Indeed,  it  is 
very  rare  that  children  below  the  grade  of  middle-grade  imbeciles  are 
found  in  the  public  schools.  The  border-land  cases,  high-grade  imbe- 
ciles, perhaps  even  middle-grade  imbeciles,  will  be  interpreted  very 
diversely  by  those  who  are  not  familiar  with  these  classes  of  children. 
Some  teachers  and  superintendents  will  think  that  they  have  in  mid- 
dle-grade imbeciles  very  good  material  to  work  with  in  the  public 
schools ; whereas  expert  opinion  may  advise  the  removal  of  such  chil- 
dren from  public  day  classes  to  institutions. 

Another  circumstance  is  that  many  children  are  what  some  call 
apparently  feeble-minded  or  imbecile ; that  is  to  say,  they  present  all 
of  the  features  of  permanent  imbecility  excepting  that  they  very 
rapidly  recover  or  are  restored  to  approximately  normal  condition 
under  proper  physical  and  mental  treatment.  Some  distinguish 
these  types  of  children  as  suffering  on  the  one  hand  from  imbecility 
and  on  the  other  from  pseudo-imbecility.  We  distinguish  between 
them  as  being  permanently  feeble-minded  or  imbecile,  and  curably 
retarded  in  development.  Two  children  may  present  exactly  similar 
characters  and  yet  one  child  may,  as  the  result  of  a year’s  special 
training,  be  restored  to  the  grades  and  be  capable  of  continuing  in  the 
grades  and  making  normal  progress;  whereas  the  other  child  may, 
after  a year’s  trial,  be  finally  sent  to  the  institution  to  which  he  should 
have  been  sent  without  the  waste  of  a year’s  time. 

The  expert  is  more  capable  of  classifying  children  into  these  two 
groups  of  institutional  and  public-school  cases  than  is  the  uninstructed 
teacher  or  layman;  but  there  are  doubtful  cases  where  even  expert 
opinion  is  unable  to  decide.  There  will,  therefore,  always  be  reason 
for  keeping  some  of  these  children  in  special  classes,  under  observa- 
tion pending  a final  diagnosis. 

We  shall  now  briefly  and  concisely  distinguish  between  those  cases 
which  we  regard  as  institutional  and  the  cases  of  those  whom  we 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN. 


21 


regard  as  susceptible  of  treatment  in  special  classes.  It  will  be 
necessary  for  us  to  recognize  a third  group,  comprising  types  of 
children  concerning  whose  treatment,  whether  in  institutions  or  in 
public  day  classes,  there  may  be  diversity  of  opinion  and  practice. 
It  must  be  premised  that  our  treatment  is  largely  experimental  and 
will  probably  remain  so  for  many  years  to  come.  What  place 
institutions  for  the  training  of  blind,  deaf,  and  other  types  of  excep- 
tional children  shall  play  in  the  future  and  especially  in  those  com- 
munities which  are  approaching  this  problem  for  the  first  time,  it  is 
impossible  for  us  to  say.  Modern  criticism  of  institutional  life  has 
led  to  many  reforms  in  institutional  procedure.  Much  objection 
that  can  at  present  be  laid  against  many  institutions  for  children  will 
undoubtedly  be  set  aside  in  the  future  as  institutions  encourage  and 
develop  separation  into  small  groups;  for  example,  separate  homes 
or  cottages.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  an  institution  which  need 
not  consider  per  capita  cost  can  provide  children  with  homes  and 
schools  of  a character  which  will  conserve  the  whole  life  of  the  child. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a strong  tendency  toward  the  unifica- 
tion of  all  educational  institutions  and  there  is  little  doubt  but  that 
the  public  schools  will  be  held  responsible  by  many  communities  for 
the  educational  treatment  of  types  of  children  who  in  the  past  have 
been  committed  to  special  institutions.  For  some  cases,  e.  g.,  per- 
sistent truants,  disciplinary  cases,  children  suffering  from  ill  health, 
children  who  are  a heavy  economic  tax  upon  their  families,  and 
children  whose  home  life  negatives  completely  the  influence  of  the 
school,  the  public  schools  of  the  future  may  be  required  by  an  awakened 
community  to  provide  parental  schools,  where  children  will  be  boarded 
as  well  as  educated,  and  where  the  advantages  of  home  training  and 
discipline  will  be  combined  with  the  special  class  of  instruction. 

The  grouping  which  we  make,  therefore,  is  to  be  regarded  as  a ten- 
tative or  temporary  effort,  one  which  we  shall  feel  under  no  obliga- 
gation  to  defend  but  which  we  embody  in  this  bulletin  for  the  purpose 
of  assisting  in  clarifying  the  thought  of  those  who  are  professionally 
interested  in  the  treatment  of  exceptional  children. 

I.  INSTITUTIONAL  CASES. 

(To  be  dismissed  from  the  oversight  and  care  of  the  public  school  authorities.) 

1.  Morally  insane  children. 

2.  Violently  insane  children. 

3.  Demented  children. 

4.  All  feeble-minded  children  below  the  grade  of  middle-grade  imbecile.  (Barr’s 

classification.) 

5.  High-grade  moral  imbeciles. 

6.  Severe  cases  of  epilepsy. 

7.  'Cases  of  contagious  and  infectious  diseases.  (Some  to  be  dismissed  temporarily; 

some  for  prolonged  periods.) 

8.  Children  helplessly  crippled  or  suffering  from  revolting  physical  deformity. 


22 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 


II.  CHILDREN  FOR  SPECIAL  CLASSES  OR  SPECIAL  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE 

PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 

1.  Foreign. 

2.  Late  entering. 

3.  Backward  but  capable  of  rapid  restoration  to  normal  grade. 

4.  Dull  and  feebly  gifted. 

5.  Children  requiring  vocational  training. 

6.  Children  of  precocious  physical  development,  especially  of  precocious  sex  devel- 

opment. 

7.  Exceptionally  gifted  or  able  children. 

8.  Children  suffering  from  various  physical  defects  of  minor  character  but  interfer- 

ing with  their  progress  and  unfitting  them  temporarily  or  permanently  for  the 
grades. 

9.  Speech  cases. 

10.  Social  cases;  those  whose  retardation  is  chiefly  due  to  home  conditions  calling  for 
the  services  of  a social  visitor  as  well  as  a special  teacher. 

III.  CHILDREN  OF  UNCERTAIN  CLASSIFICATION.  INSTITUTIONAL  OR 

SPECIAL  CASES. 

1.  Blind  and  semi-blind. 

2.  Deaf  and  semi-deaf. 

3.  Delinquents,  including  persistent  truants. 

4.  High-grade  imbeciles.  (Barr’s  classification.) 

5.  All  feeble-minded  children  of  higher  grade  than  high-grade  imbeciles. 

6.  Crippled  children. 

7.  Children  suffering  from  epilepsy  in  mild  degree  or  from  nervous  or  other  diseases 

rendering  them  difficult  or  improper  members  of  ordinary  classes. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


METHODS  FOR  DETERMINING  THE  EXTENT  AND  DEGREE 
OF  RETARDATION  IN  CITY  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS. 

The  term  “ retarded”  is  used  with  increasing  uniformity  to  describe 
the  condition  of  children  who  are  too  old  for  their  grades.  It  describes 
but  it  does  not  attempt  to  explain.  There  are  only  two  reasons  why 
children  may  be  too  old  for  their  grades — they  may  have  entered 
school  late  or  they  may  have  progressed  slowly.  In  either  case  the 
term  11  retarded”  is  used  by  educational  economists  to  describe  their 
condition. 

THE  AGE  AND  GRADE  TABLE. 


The  quickest  and  easiest  way  in  which  a school  superintendent 
can  discover  how  many  retarded  children  there  are  in  his  school 
system  is  by  means  of  a table  showing  how  many  children  there  are 
of  each  age  in  each  grade  in  his  schools.  The  table  on  the  following 
page  shows  the  distribution  of  children  by  grades  and  ages  in  the 
schools  of  Elmira,  N.  Y.,  in  October,  1910. 

It  will  be  noted  that  there  is  a heavy  broken  line  running  through 
the  table.  In  the  first  grade  this  line  divides  the  figures  so  as  to  leave 
on  the  left  those  referring  to  the  children  less  than  8 years  of  age  and 
on  the  right  those  8 years  old  and  older.  That  is,  the  figures  on  the 
left  refer  to  children  of  normal  age  and  those  on  the  right  to  over-age 
children.  The  line  is  broken  td  make  a similar  division  between  the 
figures  for  the  8 and  the  9 year  old  children  in  the  second  grade,  be- 
tween the  9 and  the  10  year  old  ones  in  the  third  grade,  and  so  on 
for  all  the  grades.  The  criterion  used  defines  a child  as  of  normal 
age  in  each  grade  as  follows : 


Grade.  Normal  age. 

1  Under  8 years. 

2  Under  9 years. 

3  Under  10  years. 

4  Under  11  years. 


Grade.  Normal  age. 

5  Under  12  years. 

6  Under  13  years. 

7  Under  14  years. 

8  Under  15  years. 


This  standard  for  dividing  children  into  normal  and  over-age 
groups  in  each  grade  has  received  general  acceptance  in  the  past  few 
years  and  is  now  in  common  use  in  city,  State,  and  National  reports. 

Referring  again  to  the  table,  it  will  be  noted  that  there  are  three 
columns  at  the  right-hand  end,  the  first  of  which  gives  the  total 
number  of  children  in  each  grade,  the  second  the  number  of  over-age 

23 


Age  and  grade  distribution,  October,  1910. 


24 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS, 


METHODS  FOR  DETERMINING  RETARDATION. 


25 


children,  and  the  third  the  per  cent  that  these  children  are  of  the 
whole  number.  At  the  bottom  is  a row  of  totals  giving  the  number 
of  children  at  each  age,  the  total  number  of  children,  and  the  number 
and  per  cent  of  over-age  ones. 

Age  and  grade  tables  have  suddenly  come  into  common  use, 
because  superintendents  are  discovering  that  they  are  the  most 
valuable  single  form  of  statistical  statement  used  by  schoolmen. 
They  are  basal  to  studies  of  retardation.  By  their  use  a superin- 
tendent can  easily  find  out  how  many  over-age  children  there  are  in 
his  school  system,  where  they  are,  and  who  they  are. 

For  purposes  of  comparison  of  conditions  in  successive  years  or 
between  different  cities  it  is  essential  that  the  date  of  gathering  the 
data  and  the  basis  of  enumeration  be  uniform  for  all  the  cities.  The 
most  satisfactory  basis  of  enumeration  is  the  enrollment  on  a given 
date  and  the  best  date  is  probably  that  adopted  by  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education  and  the  United  States  Immigration  Commission, 
which  is  the  second  Monday  in  December. 

THE  METHOD  OF  LOCATING  THE  13-YEAR-OLD  CHILDREN. 

A still  simpler  method  for  comparing  conditions  in  different 
cities,  or  in  different  parts  of  the  same  school  system,  or  for  the 
same  city  in  different  years  is  that  proposed  by  Dr.  Roland  P. 
Falkner  in  the  Psychological  Clinic  for  January,  1911.  This  is 
based  on  discovering  the  whereabouts  of  all  of  the  13-year-old 
children  in  the  school  system. 

For  example,  reference  to  the  Elmira  table  for  1910  shows  that 
there  were  13-year-old  children  in  all  of  the  grades  from  the  second 
to  the  eighth,  inclusive.  These  children  have  almost  reached 
the  limit  of  the  compulsory  school  period  and  it  is  certain  that  those 
not  within  a year  or  two  of  graduation  will  nearly  all  drop  out  without 
completing  the  course. 

In  the  case  in  point  the  13-year-old  children  in  the  sixth  and 
lower  grades  number  191  out  of  a total  of  367,  or  52  per  cent.  This 
fact  is  one  significant  measure  of  the  efficiency  of  this  school  system. 
It  means  that  52  per  cent  of  these  children  are  educational  misfits. 
They  are  wrongly  placed  in  the  grades,  they  hinder  the  other  children, 
and  they  make  the  work  of  the  teacher  harder  and  less  effective. 
Most  of  them  will  leave  school  without  completing  the  course. 
The  method  of  locating  the  13-year-old  children  is  significant  because 
it  furnishes  a measure  of  what  the  school  system  accomplishes  for 
the  children  within  the  period  of  compulsory  education.  It  is  most 
simple  and  easily  applied.  The  necessary  data  can  be  gathered  in 
most  schools  in  a few  hours  and  to  secure  them  involves  no  delay 
and  requires  no  installation  of  new  forms  of  record  keeping. 


26  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 

REPEATERS. 

A third  simple  method  for  discovering  which  children  are  not 
making  satisfactory  progress  consists  in  having  each  teacher  report 
the  number  of  children  who  are  doing  the  work  of  their  present 
grades  for  the  second,  third,  or  fourth  time.  These  children  are 
termed  repeaters.  The  principal  advantage  of  the  method  is  that 
in  gathering  the  data  for  the  report  the  teachers  become  interested 
in  the  individual  cases  of  the  children  to  an  extent  which  is  usually 
not  equaled  when  they  simply  report  the  ages.  The  great  weakness 
of  this  method  is  that  it  only  takes  into  account  the  status  of  the 
children  in  their  present  grades  and  does  not  concern  itself  with 
the  number  of  times  they  repeated  the  work  of  lower  grades.  Because 
of  this  defect  it  gives  deceptively  favorable  mass  results. 

TIME  IN  SCHOOL,  OR  THE  PROGRESS  STANDARD. 

The  methods  so  far  discussed  for  determining  the  extent  and  degree 
of  retardation  in  city  school  systems  are  all  based  on  different  com- 
binations of  data,  giving  the  grades  and  ages  of  the  children,  or  the 
time  that  they  have  been  in  their  present  grades.  The  method 
which  gives  the  best  and  fullest  information  is  one  that  combines  all 
three  of  these  criteria  and  tells  where  the  children  are  in  the  school 
course,  how  old  they  are,  and  how  long  it  has  taken  them  to  reach 
their  present  grades.  This  method  can  be  used  only  where  the  school 
records  include  individual  cards,  giving  the  school  history  of  each 
pupil,  or  where  such  individual  history  can  be  gathered  by  means’ of 
a special  investigation. 

The  following  table  presents  the  results  of  tabulating  the  individual 
records  of  980  pupils  in  the  fifth  grade  in  19  New  York  City  schools 
at  the  close  of  the  school  year  1907-8: 


Age  and  time  in  school,  fifth  grade,  19  schools  in  New  York  City,  1908. 


Total 


METHODS  FOR  DETERMINING  RETARDATION. 


27 


By  referring  to  the  top  row  of  figures,  it  will  be  seen  that  these 
children  varied  in  age  from  9 to  18  years,  and  reference  to  the  first 
column  shows  that  they  had  been  in  school  from  2 to  10  years.  There 
is  a heavy  vertical  line,  on  the  left  of  which  are  the  figures  representing 
children  11  years  old  or  less,  and  on  the  right,  those  representing 
children  12  years  old  or  older.  As  11  years  is  the  limit  of  normal  age 
for  children  in  the  fifth  grade,  this  leaves  on  the  left-hand  side  of 
the  line  the  figures  representing  all  of  the  normal-age  children,  and 
on  the  right  those  representing  children  who  are  over  age.  Children 
who  have  been  in  school  5 years  or  less  and  are  in  the  fifth  grade 
have  made  normal  or  rapid  progress.  Those  who  have  been  in 
school  more  than  5 years  have  made  slow  progress. 

These  two  groups  are  divided  by  the  heavy  horizontal  line.  This 
gives  us  a table  representing  the  status  of  all  of  the  fifth-grade  children 
with  respect  to  their  ages  and  their  school  progress.  All  of  those 
represented  by  figures  on  the  right-hand  side  of  the  line  are  above 
normal  age,  and  all  of  those  represented  by  figures  below  the  hori- 
zontal line  have  made  slow  progress.  This  arrangement  enables  us 
to  classify  our  children  in  four  groups,  as  follows: 

Upper  left-hand  section:  435  children  who  are  of  normal  age  and 
have  made  normal  progress. 

Lower  left-hand  section:  89  children  who  are  of  normal  age  and 
have  made  slow  progress. 

Upper  right-hand  section:  165  children  who  are  above  normal 
age  and  have  made  normal  progress. 

Lower  right-hand  section:  291  children  who  are  over  age  and  have 
made  slow  progress. 

These  data  enable  the  school  superintendents  to  classify  the  children 
of  the  grade  in  the  four  groups,  according  to  their  educational  needs, 
and  to  find  out  which  of  them  are  over  age  because  they  entered 
school  late,  and  which  ones  are  over  age  because  they  have  made 
slow  progress.  The  children  represented  by  the  figures  in  the  upper 
left-hand  section  constitute  44  per  cent  of  the  entire  grade  member- 
ship. They  are  of  normal  age,  and  they  have  been  making  normal 
progress.  They  are  not  subjects  for  specialized  attention. 

The  89  children  represented  by  the  figures  in  the  lower  left-hand 
section  constitute  9 per  cent  of  the  grade  membership.  They  are  of 
normal  age,  and  have  made  slow  progress;  and  the  only  reason  that 
they  are  not  numbered  among  the  over-age  children  is  that  they  were 
very  young  when  they  entered  school.  Their  cases  are  not  yet 
serious,  but  they  should  be  carefully  watched. 

The  165  children  represented  by  the  figures  in  the  upper  right-hand 
section  are  above  the  normal  age,  and  have  made  normal  progress. 
That  is  to  say,  they  entered  school  late,  and  the  school  is  not  to  blame 


28 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 


for  their  being  over  age  at  present.  Nevertheless,  as  they  are  rela- 
tively mature,  they  should  be  given  special  opportunities  to  make 
rapid  progress.  They  constitute  about  17  per  cent  of  total  member- 
ship. 

The  291  children  represented  by  the  figures  in  the  lower  right-hand 
section  constitute  30  per  cent  of  the  grade  membership,  and  are  both 
over  age  and  have  made  slow  progress.  These  are  the  serious  cases, 
and  they  should  be  given  the  most  careful  consideration.  They  are 
genuinely  backward,  and  are  not  only  too  old  for  their  grades  but  are 
chronic  repeaters. 

The  foregoing  analysis  shows  with  sufficient  clearness  the  advantages 
of  this  form  of  table.  It  gives  all  of  the  information  furnished  by  the 
other  methods,  and  much  in  addition.  The  disadvantages  connected 
with  its  use  are,  first,  that  the  data  can  not  be  gathered  until  the 
individual  school  history  of  each  child  is  secured,  and,  second,  a 
separate  table  has  to  be  made  for  each  grade.  It  is  impossible  to 
construct  one  showing  conditions  in  the  entire  school  system.  More- 
over, where  semiannual  promotions  are  in  force,  such  a table  should  be 
extended  so  as  to  show  both  ages  and  time  in  school  by  half  years. 

A METHOD  FOR  DISCOVERING  THE  CAUSES  OF  RETARDATION. 

Children  who  make  slow  progress  do  so  because  they  fail  of  pro 
motion.  Hence  the  most  direct  way  to  discover  the  causes  of  retard- 
ation is  to  find  out  the  salient  differences  between  the  promoted  and 
the  nonpromoted  children. 

The  easiest  way  to  do  this  is  to  record  significant  facts  regarding  all 
of  the  pupils  at  the  close  of  the  school  term  or  year,  and  tabulate  them 
for  the  promoted  and  the  nonpromoted  pupils,  so  as  to  discover  in 
what  respects  conditions  in  the  first  group  differ  from  those  in  the 
second  group.  This  avoids  the  common  error  which  results  from 
gathering  data  concerning  solely  the  pupils  who  fail,  and  then  having 
no  way  to  determine  how  these  pupils  differ  from  the  successful  ones. 
A blank  form,  which  has  been  successfully  used  for  gathering  signifi- 
cant data  for  promoted  and  nonpromoted  pupils,  is  the  following: 


METHODS  FOR  DETERMINING  RETARDATION. 


29 


Records  of  'promoted  and  nonpromoted  pupils. 


Number 
among 
children 
promoted 
at  end  of 
year. 

Number 
among 
children 
not  pro- 
moted. 

Boys 

Girls 

Average  age 

Average  days  attended 

From  non-English-speaking  families. . 
Foreign  born 

— 

Suffering  from  malnutrition 

Mentally  defective 

— 

Defective  vision 

Defective  hearing 

Adenoids 

Other  throat  troubles 

Enlarged  glands 

Defective  teeth 

Other  defects 

Grade . School . Teacher . Date- 

I 


In  a recent  investigation  the  use  of  this  blank  showed  that  non- 
promotions were  much  more  frequent  among  boys  than  among 
girls,  and  that  attendance  was  much  poorer  among  the  nonpromoted 
than  among  the  promoted  children  The  average  age  of  the  nonpro- 
moted children  was  greater  than  that  of  the  promoted  ones,  more  of 
them  came  from  non-English-speaking  families,  and  more  of  them 
were  foreign  born.  The  nonpromoted  children  showed  much  higher 
percentages  of  physical  defectiveness. 

The  use  of  this  blank  enables  the  superintendent  or  principal  to 
rate  the  different  retarding  influences  in  the  order  of  their  importance, 
and  as  a consequence  to  take  measures  looking  toward  their  elimina- 
tion. 

SUMMARY. 

The  age  and  grade  table  tells  how  many  and  what  proportion  of  the 
pupils  are  too  old  for  the  grades  they  are  in.  It  furnishes  the  quickest 
and  easiest  means  for  discovering  conditions  throughout  a school 
system. 

The  method  of  locating  the  13-year-old  children  shows  what  the  school 
has  accomplished  for  the  children  up  to  the  limit  of  its  legal  control 
over  them.  It  furnishes  an  indicator  of  the  results  of  retardation, 
but  does  not  give  a survey  of  the  whole  system.  It  is  the  most 
easily  applied  of  all  the  measures  of  retardation. 

The  enumeration  of  the  repeaters  in  each  grade  shows  which  children 
need  special  attention  at  any  time.  It  is  easily  done,  but  it  does 
not  show  which  children  are  chronically  backward  and  which  are 
temporarily  or  accidentally  so. 


30 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 


The  age  and  time-in-school  table  furnishes  the  most  complete  and 
useful  information  about  the  children.  It  shows  which  children  are 
over  age  because  they  have  made  slow  progress  and  which  ones  are 
over  age  because  they  entered  school  late.  It  furnishes  the  best 
method  for  discovering  the  significant  facts  about  the  school  progress 
of  the  children,  but  it  can  only  be  used  where  individual  school  his- 
tories can  be  obtained. 

The  causes  of  retardation  can  best  be  discovered  through  investi- 
gating the  differences  between  the  promoted  and  the  nonpromoted 
pupils. 


CHAPTER  V. 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  CITY 
SCHOOL  SYSTEMS. 

Under  date  of  March  15,  1911,  an  inquiry  was  addressed  to  the 
superintendents  of  city  schools  throughout  the  United  States,  asking 
them  for  information  as  to  what  was  being  done  in  their  systems  to 
provide  for  the  needs  of  exceptional  children.  The  inquiry  form 
used  was  as  follows : 

Washington,  D.  C.,  March  29,  1911. 

Dear  Sir:  Will  you  kindly  answer  the  following  questions  and  return  this  sheet  to 
me  at  once  for  the  use  of  a committee  which  is  preparing  for  the  Bureau  of  Education 
a bulletin  on  Provision  for  Exceptional  Children  in  the  Public  Schools ? 

Have  special  classes  been  formed  in  your  city  under  the  following  or  other  names 
(answer  yes  or  no)? 

1.  Delinquent 

2.  Backward 

3.  Defective 

4.  Blind  or  semiblind 

5.  Deaf  or  semideaf 

6.  Open  air 

7.  For  foreigners — day  schools 

8.  For  foreigners — evening  schools 

9.  Vocational 

10.  “Continuation” 

11.  Parental  or  residential 

12.  Epileptic 

13  For  late-entering  children 

14.  For  gifted  children 

Under  other  names : 

15  

16  

17  

18  

Have  you  any  provision  for: 

1.  Medical  inspection  for  contagious  and  infectious  diseases 

2.  Physical  examination  for  defects 

3.  Dental  clinics 

Any  reports  or  documents  you  may  have  and  any  rules,  regulations,  or  by-laws 
adopted  by  your  board  of  education  with  reference  to  such  special  features  of  your 
school  work  will  be  greatly  appreciated. 

Yours,  respectfully,  , 

Commissioner. 


Name, 

(Sty, - 


31 


32  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 


The  number  of  these  questionnaires  sent  out  was  1,285,  and  the 
list  to  which  they  were  sent  include^  all  of  the  municipal  school  sys- 
tems regularly  organized  under  superintendents.  Eight  hundred  and 
ninety-eight  replies  were  received,  divided  among  the  five  State 
divisions  as  follows: 


North  Atlantic 370 

South  Atlantic 60 

South  Central 90 

North  Central 322 

Western 56 

Total 898 


For  the  purpose  of  interpreting  the  results,  the  answers  have  been 
divided  into  four  groups,  and  the  information  treated  as  referring  to 
provision  made  for  children  who  are  exceptional  (1)  morally,  (2) 
mentally,  (3)  physically,  and  (4)  environmentally.  The  different 
kinds  of  special  provision  offered  in  city  school  systems  have  been 
roughly  grouped  under  these  four  headings  as  follows: 

I.  Morally  exceptional  : 

(a)  Classes  for  delinquent,  incorrigible,  and  refractory  pupils. 

(b)  Parental  and  residential  schools. 

II.  Mentally  exceptional: 

(а)  Classes  for  backward  children,  including  help  through  special  teachers, 

etc. 

(б)  Classes  for  mentally  defective  children,  epileptics,  etc. 

(c)  Classes  for  exceptionally  gifted  children. 

III.  Physically  exceptional: 

(а)  Classes  for  blind  or  semiblind . 

(б)  Classes  for  deaf  or  semideaf. 

(c)  Classes  for  dumb. 

(d)  Classes  for  stammerers,  stutterers,  and  lispers. 

( e ) Open-air  classes  for  children  physically  subnormal. 

(/)  Classes  for  crippled  children. 

IV.  Environmentally  exceptional: 

(а)  Classes  for  non-English-speaking  children,  in  either  day  or  evening 

schools. 

(б)  Classes  for  children  who  enter  late. 

(c)  Classes  for  children  from  subnormal  homes. 

PROVISION  FOR  THE  MORALLY  EXCEPTIONAL. 

According  to  the  returns,  152  cities  are  making  special  provision 
for  morally  exceptional  children.  The  following  table  shows  the  dis- 
tribution of  these  cities  by  State  divisions,  and  by  the  kind  of  pro- 
vision made.  The  identity  of  these  cities,  as  well  as  that  of  those 
from  which  the  data  of  all  the  following  text  tables  have  been  secured, 
may  be  learned  by  consulting  the  tabular  presentation  of  the  appendix, 
which  gives  by  States  and  individual  cities  the  information  secured 
through  the  questionnaire. 


PROVISION  IN  CITY  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS. 


33 


Cities  making  provision  for  morally  exceptional  children. 


Division. 

Cities  having 
classes  for  the 
delinquent,  in- 
corrigible, and 
refractory. 

Cities  havine 
parental  ana 
residential 
schools. 

Total. 

"NT nrtti  At.lant.ir> 

59 

10 

69 

South  Atlantic 

7 

1 

8 

South  Central 

10 

1 

11 

North  Central 

39 

5 

44 

Wfist.p.rn 

13 

7 

20 

Total  

128 

24 

152 

Comparison  of  these  figures  with  those  giving  the  total  number  of 
cities  in  each  division  furnishing  the  data  shows  that  17  per  cent  of 
the  school  systems  make  provision  for  morally  exceptional  children. 
There  is  noteworthy  variation  in  the  percentages  for  the  different 
divisions,  as  the  following  figures  show: 

Percentage  of  cities  making  provision  for  morally  exceptional  children. 


North  Atlantic 19 

South  Atlantic 13 

South  Central 12 

North  Central 14 

Western 36 

United  States 17 


PROVISION  FOR  THE  MENTALLY  EXCEPTIONAL. 

The  school  systems  making  provision  for  the  mentally  exceptional 
number  373,  or  42  per  cent  of  the  total  number.  The  following  table 
shows  how  these  cities  are  distributed  by  divisions,  and  the  different 
sorts  of  provision  made : 

Cities  making  provision  for  the  mentally  exceptional. 


Division. 

Having 
classes  for 
mentally 
defective. 

Having 
classes  for 
backward 
children. 

Having 
classes  for 
exception- 
ally gifted. 

Total. 

North  Atlantic 

44 

97 

22 

163 

South  Atlantic 

3 

15 

2 

20 

South  Central 

7 

18 

3 

28 

North  Central 

32 

70 

19 

121 

Western 

13 

20 

8 

41 

Total 

99 

220 

54 

373 

In  this  table  the  figures  giving  the  number  of  cities  having  classes 
for  the  mentally  defective  include  the  cases  in  which  the  superin- 
tendents reported  classes  for  epileptics.  In  a similar  way  the  figures 
for  classes  for  backward  children  include  the  cases  in  which  the  reports 
state  that  special  teachers  are  employed  to  assist  the  slow  pupils. 

5092°— Bull.  14—11 3 


34  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 

The  question  as  to  provision  for  gifted  children  has  been  given  a 
particularly  liberal  interpretation  by  the  superintendents  of  the  54 
cities  reporting  such  classes.  In  most  cases  this  means  merely  that 
in  these  cities  plans  of  flexible  grading  are  in  force  which  permit  the 
unusually  able  pupil  to  make  more  than  normally  rapid  progress 
through  the  grades. 

The  percentage  figures  showing  the  proportion  of  cities  in  each 
division  making  provision  for  the  mentally  exceptional  children  show, 
as  in  the  former  case,  remarkable  variability,  and  again  the  States  of 
the  Western  division  make  the  best  record. 


Percentage  of  cities  making  provision  for  the  mentally  exceptional. 


Division. 

Having 
classes  for 
mentally 
defective. 

Having 
classes  for 
backward 
children. 

Having 
classes  for 
exception- 
ally gifted. 

Total. 

North  Atlantic 

12 

26 

6 

44 

South  Atlantic 

5 

25 

3 

33 

South  Central 

8 

20 

3 

31 

North  Central 

10 

22 

6 

38 

Western 

23 

36 

14 

73 

United  States 

11 

25 

6 

42 

PROVISION  FOR  THE  PHYSICALLY  EXCEPTIONAL. 

The  cities  making  provision  for  the  physically  exceptional  number 
91,  and  the  kinds  of  special  classes  maintained  fall  into  six  groups. 
In  the  following  table  the  caption  “ Blind”  includes  classes  for  semi- 
blind, “Deaf”  includes  classes  for  semideaf,  and  “Stammerers” 
includes  classes  for  stutterers  and  lispers. 


Cities  making  provision  for  the  physically  exceptional. 


Division. 

Classes 
for  blind. 

Classes 
for  deaf. 

Classes 
for  dumb. 

Classes 
for  stam- 
merers. 

Open-air 

classes. 

Classes 
for  crip- 
pled. 

Total. 

24 

1 

1 

55 

10 

N orth  Atlantic 

4 

6 

1 

12 

1 

1 

9 

2 

1 

South  Atlantic 

South  Central 

North  Central 

9 

1 

34 

6 

1 

2 

Western 

1 

Total 

14 

46 

1 

2 

25  3 91 

One  noteworthy  feature  of  this  showing  is  the  large  number  of  cities 
in  the  North  Central  division  having  classes  for  the  deaf  and  the 
comparatively  small  numbers  in  the  other  divisions.  Another  is  the 
small  number  of  cities  in  the  Southern  divisions  having  special  provi- 
sion for  the  physically  exceptional. 

The  percentage  figures  show  that  in  this  type  of  provision,  as  in  the 
preceding  ones,  the  Western  division  makes  the  best  showing.  Six 
per  cent  of  the  cities  in  the  North  Atlantic  group  have  provision  for 
the  physically  exceptional.  In  the  two  southern  groups  the  numbers 
are  too  low  to  make  it  possible  to  compute  the  percentages.  The 


PROVISION  IN  CITY  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS. 


35 


figures  for  the  North  Central  and  Western  divisions  are  17  and  18  per 
cent,  respectively. 

These  figures  giving  the  facts  as  to  the  different  numbers  of  cities 
making  provision  for  the  needs  of  the  physically  exceptional  do  not 
include  the  regular  work  of  medical  inspection.  Figures  concerning 
this  were  gathered,  however,  and  with  the  following  results: 

Cities  having  systems  of  medical  inspection. 


Division. 

Having 

medical 

inspection. 

Having 
examina- 
tion for 
physical 
defects. 

Having 

dental 

clinics. 

North  Atlantic 

239 

231 

54 

South  Atlantic 

28 

22 

9 

South  Central 

48 

31 

6 

North  Central 

174 

130 

44 

Western 

37 

30 

12 

Total 

526 

444 

125 

! 

PROVISION  FOR  THE  ENVIRONMENTALLY  EXCEPTIONAL. 

The  number  of  cities  making  provision  for  the  pupils  who  are 
environmentally  exceptional  is  346,  but  this  figure  is  somewhat 
misleading  for  the  reason  that  it  includes  the  data  for  cities  having 
instruction  for  non-English-speaking  pupils  in  evening  schools  as  well 
as  in  day  schools.  The  facts  by  divisions  are  as  follows: 

Cities  making  provision  for  the  environmentally  exceptional. 


Division. 

Non-Eng- 
lish speak- 
ing 
(day). 

Non-Eng- 
lish speak- 
ing 

(evening). 

Late 

entering. 

Excep- 

tional. 

Total. 

North  Atlantic 

41 

122 

26 

189 

South  Atlantic 

1 

4 

6 

1 

12 

South  Central 

4 

8 

n 

19 

North  Central 

16 

53 

27 

96 

Western 

11 

10 

9 

30 

Total 

73 

197 

75 

1 

346 

Despite  the  fact  that  the  cities  of  the  Eastern  States  having  large 
foreign  populations  have  in  many  cases  provision  for  the  teaching  of 
non-English-speaking  pupils,  the  Western  division  makes  the  best 
showing  in  this  as  in  all  other  comparisons.  The  comparative  per- 
centage figures  are  as  follows : 

Percentage  of  cities  making  provision  for  the  environmentally  exceptional. 


North  Atlantic 51 

South  Atlantic 20 

South  Central 21 

North  Central 29 

Western 54 


United  States 


39 


CHAPTER  VI. 


GRADING  AND  PROMOTION 

WITH  SPECIAL  REFERENCE  TO  THE  NEEDS  OF  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN. 

The  administration  of  graded  schools  has  long  been  based  on  the 
plan  that  at  stated  intervals,  usually  of  one  year,  a reclassification 
of  pupils  takes  place,  the  more  proficient  ones  being  promoted  into 
the  next  higher  grade,  and  those  who  have  failed  to  cover  the  required 
ground  staying  where  they  are.  In  extreme  cases,  very  backward 
pupils  are  “demoted”  into  the  grade  below. 

The  most  obvious  defect  of  this  plan,  which  is  still  in  force  in  many 
localities,  is  that  the  child  who  fails  in  one  or  more  subjects,  but  who 
has  been  successful  in  the  rest,  is  compelled  to  do  again  the  work  of 
the  grade,  and  to  repeat  work  which  he  has  already  successfully  com- 
pleted, as  well  as  that  in  winch  he  has  failed. 

The  first  step  toward  mitigating  the  bad  effects  of  this  process  lies 
in  the  system  of  half-yearly  promotions  by  which  the  pupil  who  fails 
has  only  to  repeat  half  a year’s  work,  instead  of  that  of  an  entire  year. 
There  is  little  doubt  as  to  the  desirability  of  this  plan.  It  is  in  suc- 
cessful operation  in  scores  of  cities,  and  is  rapidly  spreading. 

Many  other  plans  have  been  designed  to  introduce  flexibility  of 
grading.  Most  of  these  are  modifications  of  a plan  developed  more 
than  30  years  ago  by  Dr.  W.  T.  Harris,  at  that  time  superintendent 
of  schools  of  St.  Louis.  The  object  of  this  plan  was  to  make  such  a 
modification  in  the  promotion  system  as  to  retain  the  machinery  of 
organizations  by  grades  and  regular  promotions,  and  at  the  same  time 
provide  for  the  needs  of  the  exceptionally  bright  and  the  exceptionally 
slow  child. 

The  most  thorough  and  extensive  study  of  the  various  grading  and 
promotion  plans  that  has  appeared  in  print  is  that  presented  by  the 
Brooklyn  Teachers’  Association  in  their  report  printed  in  the  fall  of 
1910.  This  investigation  is  based  on  the  returns  from  a questionnaire 
that  was  filled  in  by  more  than  a thousand  school  superintendents, 
principals,  normal  school  pupils,  and  so  on. 

The  investigation  was  conducted  by  a committee  on  school  organi- 
zation under  the  joint  chairmanship  of  Messrs.  Van  Evrie  Kilpatrick 
and  Charles  S.  Hartwell.  As  this  report  constitutes  by  far  the  most 
general  and  authoritative  statement  of  the  opinions  and  experience 
of  American  educators  concerning  different  grading  and  promotion 
plans,  it  is  used  as  the  basis  for  the  present  summary. 

36 


GRADING  AND  PROMOTION  OF  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN.  37 

Well-recognized  plans  for  securing  flexibility  in  grading  are  at  least 
a score  in  number.  Most  of  them  are  known  by  the  names  of  the 
places  in  which  they  have  been  used.  For  example,  the  Cambridge 
plan  is  one  that  has  been  used  for  some  20  years  in  Cambridge,  Mass., 
and  the  Batavia  plan  has  long  been  followed  in  Batavia,  N.  Y.  In 
many  other  instances,  while  plans  are  known  by  the  names  of  towns 
or  cities,  they  have  in  point  of  fact  never  been  in  universal  use  in 
those  localities. 

Nearly  all  of  these  numerous  plans  fall  into  one  or  the  other  of  two 
groups.  In  the  first  group  are  devices  for  securing,  so  far  as  possible, 
uniform  progress  through  the  grades  on  the  part  of.  all  pupils.  These 
plans  depend  on  giving  special  instruction  to  the  dull  pupils  in  order 
that  they  may  be  enabled  to  keep  up,  or  in  giving  extra  work  to  the 
bright  pupils  in  order  that  they  may  cover  more  than  the  normal 
amount  of  work  outlined  for  each  grade.  These  two  modifications 


One-half  year  progress. 

Sept.  Oct.  Nov.  Dec.  Jan.  Feb.  Mar.  Apr.  May.  June. 


Fig.  1 . — Batavia  Plan. — The  diagram  illustrates  the  equal  progress  of  all  the  children 
in  a given  grade  during  one  term.  The  coaching  of  the  slow  pupils  by  the  assistant 
teacher  makes  this  equality  of  progress  possible. 


of  the  plan  for  securing  uniform  progress  are  typically  represented 
by  the  Batavia  and  the  North  Denver  plans. 

In  the  second  group  are  grading  and  promotion  plans  which  are 
based  on  the  idea  of  permitting  children  of  differing  abilities  to  com- 
plete the  work  of  the  grades  in  differing  lengths  of  time.  The  Cam- 
bridge and  Chicago,  or  “ large  city”  plans  are  typical  of  those  which 
provide  for  differing  rates  of  progress  among  different  classes,  while 
the  Pueblo  plan  is  based  on  the  idea  of  letting  each  individual  child 
go  forward  according  to  his  particular  abilities  and  without  reference 
to  those  of  the  other  children. 

THE  BATAVIA  PLAN. 

The  Batavia  plan  has  for  many  years  been  used  in  the  public 
schools  of  Batavia,  N.  Y.  In  its  inception  it  was  a device  resorted 
to  in  order  to  make  tolerable  the  use  of  very  large  schoolrooms  pro- 
vided through  the  faulty  design  of  one  of  the  school  buildings. 

The  chief  characteristics  of  the  plan  are  large  classes  with  addi- 
tional teachers  to  give  individual  instruction  to  the  backward  pupils 


38 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 


in  each  room.  The  progress  of  all  the  pupils  is  uniform,  this  uni- 
formity being  secured  through  the  individual  teaching  of  the  slow 
pupils. 

The  principal  objection  to  the  plan  is  the  one  inherent  in  all 
attempts  to  teach  classes  of  very  large  size.  As  a temporary  relief 
for  conditions  brought  about  by  overcrowded  schoolrooms,  the  plan 
is  probably  good,  but  it  is  not  to  be  commended  for  permanent  use 
under  normal  conditions.  Among  the  reports  received  by  the  Brook- 
lyn Teachers’  Association  from  973  educators,  only  138  had  tried  the 
Batavia  plan,  and  of  these  only  62  per  cent  favored  it  after  trial. 

THE  NORTH  DENVER  PLAN. 

The  salient  characteristic  of  the  Batavia  plan  is  that  under  it  the 
best  efforts  of  the  teaching  force  are  devoted  to  assisting  the  least 
hopeful  members  of  the  class.  The  interests  of  the  ablest  are  sac- 


One-half  year  'progress. 

Sept.  Oct.  Nov.  Dec.  Jan.  Feb.  Mar.  Apr.  May.  June. 


Fig.  2. — North  Denver  Plan. — Diagram  illustrates  how  equality  of  progress  is  secured 
through  giving  the  bright  pupils  supplementary  work,  instead  of  giving  the  laggard  pupils 
extra  teaching. 


rificed  to  those  of  the  dullest.  In  sharp  contrast  to  this  is  the  North 
Denver  plan.  The  object  of  the  plan  is  to  provide  an  opportunity 
for  the  brighter  children  to  do  more  extended,  more  intensive,  and 
more  individual  work  than  the  other  members  of  the  class.  This 
extra  work  is  done  by  them  during  free  periods,  while  the  other 
children  are  reciting.  Home  work  is  minimized  and  the  brighter 
pupils  are  trained  to  depend  less  and  less  on  their  teachers  and  given 
an  opportunity  to  push  ahead  as  rapidly  as  their  capacities  will 
permit. 

Among  the  973  educators  who  contributed  to  the  study  of  the 
Brooklyn  Teachers’  Association,  169  had  tried  the  North  Denver  plan, 
and  of  these  94  per  cent  favored  it  after  trial.  The  chief  virtue  of 
the  plan  is  that  it  places  its  greatest  emphasis  on  assisting  the 
brightest  pupils.  Its  object  is  predominantly  constructive  rather 
than  predominantly  remedial. 


GRADING  AND  PROMOTION  OF  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN.  39 


THE  CAMBRIDGE  PLAN. 

The  plan  long  in  use  in  the  schools  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  is  the  best 
known  of  the  different  devices  and  systems  for  securing  an  opportu- 
nity for  children  of  differing  abilities  to  progress  through  the  grades 
at  different  rates  of  speed.  Its  aim  is  to  classify  students  according 
to  ability  and  then  to  have  the  different  classes  or  divisions  go  for- 
ward at  rates  appropriate  to  their  varying  abilities.  Moreover,  it 
brings  the  pupils  of  the  different  classes  together  at  stated  intervals 
and  provides  for  reclassification.  The  mechanism  of  this  plan  is  shown 
in  the  diagram,  which  illustrates  how  provision  is  made  whereby  a 
pupil  may  complete  the  work  of  the  six  grammar  grades  in  four,  five, 
or  six  years  and  is  given  opportunity  to  change  from  the  slow  to  the 
fast  division  or  vice  versa. 


Grade  A.  Grade  B.  Grade  C.  Grade  D. 

i 1 1 1 1 

»» ^ 4 years. 


I — i 1 i j 1 — i 

Fourth  grade.  Fifth  grade.  Sixth  grade.  Seventh  grade.  Eighth  grade.  Ninth  grade. 

Fig.  3.— Cambridge  Plan. 


Seventy-five  of  the  973  educators  had  tried  the  Cambridge  plan, 
and  92  per  cent  of  them  favored  it  after  trial. 

LARGE-SCHOOL  PLAN. 

In  New  York,  Chicago,  and  other  cities  a plan  commonly  known  as 
the  ‘Targe-school  plan”  has  been  in  use  for  15  years  or  more.  The 
large  number  of  pupils  makes  it  possible  to  have  three  or  more  classes 
in  each  grade  and  the  plan  places  the  brightest  ones  in  one  class,  the 
medium  ones  in  other  classes,  and  the  slow  pupils  in  still  other  classes. 
Each  class  completes  the  grade  work  as  rapidly  as  possible  so  that 
the  bright  division  may  be  promoted  a month  or  two  before  the  slow 
one.  The  chief  virtue  of  this  plan  is  that  it  makes  possible  close 
grading  and  the  most  just  placing  of  each  individual  pupil.  Its  chief 
defect  is  that  it  is  applicable  only  to  large  schools.  Of  the  973 
educators  above  referred  to,  111  had  tried  the  “ Chicago  plan,”  which 
is  virtually  the  large-school  plan,  and  93  per  cent  of  them  favored  it 
after  trial. 


40 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 


THE  PUEBLO  PLAN. 

The  most  individualistic  plan  of  grading  and  promotion  that  has 
ever  been  advanced  is  known  as  the  “ Pueblo  plan.”  This  plan  pro- 
vides that  each  pupil  shall  advance  as  rapidly  as  he  can  accomplish 

One-half  year  progress. 


Sept.  Oct.  Nov.  Dec.  Jan.  Feb.  Mar.  Apr.  May.  June. 


Fig.  4. — Large  School  Plan. — During  the  half  year  to  which  the  diagram  refers 
the  brightest  pupils  (in  the  division  represented  at  the  top  of  the  diagram)  have  completed 
the  work  of  a term  and  a half.  Each  of  the  other  divisions  has  covered  less  ground,  the 
last  one,  at  the  bottom,'  having  done  little  more  than  half  a term’s  work. 

his  work.  The  individual  and  not  the  class  is  the  unit  in  study, 
recitation,  progress,  and  graduation.  If  groups  are  formed  for 
recitation  they  are  temporary.  The  teacher  is  a director  of  work,  go- 
ing from  pupil  to  pupil.  There  is  no  home  study.  Among  the  973 
educators  questioned,  207  had  tried  the  Pueblo  plan  and  96  per  cent 


One-hal f year  progress. 


Fig.  5.— Pueblo  Plan.— Each  horizontal  line  represents  the  progress  of  an  individual  pupil,  and 
their  varying  lengths  show  how  pupil  A has  covered  almost  a year’s  work  during  the  half  year,  while 
the  slowest  pupil  (J)  has  done  only  about  a quarter  of  a year’s  work. 


favored  it  after  trial.  The  chief  objection  against  it  seems  to  be  that 
it  is  so  intensely  individualistic  in  nature  that  it  can  only  be  suc- 
cessfully carried  out  when  teachers  of  unusual  ability  are  available 
and  they  remain  in  their  positions  for  considerable  periods  of  time. 


GRADING  AND  PROMOTION  OF  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN.  41 

SUMMARY. 

The  first  unquestionably  valid  conclusion  which  comes  from  a study 
of  the  various  plans  designed  to  secure  flexible  grading  and  promotion 
is  that  the  “lock-step”  system  is  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  the 
pupils.  In  this  method  of  mass  promotion,  the  individual  is  lost. 
Under  it  pupils  are  not  so  classified  that  the  work  given  may  be 
adapted  to  their  individual  abilities.  It  places  the  emphasis  on  the 
weak  instead  of  on  the  strong,  and  so  makes  it  difficult  to  shorten  the 
elementary  school  period  for  the  more  able  pupils. 

There  is  no  simple,  ready-made  plan  for  avoiding  the  evils  of  the 
lock-step  system,  and  securing  for  6ach  child  that  full  opportunity 
to  advance  according  to  his  individual  ability  that  is  the  goal  of  the 
ideal  school  system.  Every  plan  must  be  modified  to  meet  local  con- 
ditions. In  many  cities  several  modifications,  and  even  several 
different  plans,  are  needed. 

There  is  general  consensus  of  opinion  that  the  object  of  a grading 
and  promotion  plan  should  be  to  bring  together  children  of  similar 
abilities  and  like  capacity  for  carrying  the  work,  so  that  each  group 
shall  be  as  nearly  as  possible  homogeneous.  Frequent  opportunity 
should  be  provided  for  reclassification,  so  as  to  allow  for  changes  in 
the  ability  of  the  child  to  carry  the  work,  giving  children  who  have 
been  making  slow  progress  opportunity  to  go  forward  rapidly,  and, 
where  necessary,  those  that  have  been  making  rapid  progress  oppor- 
tunity to  go  forward  more  slowly. 

The  emphasis  of  the  system,  and  the  strength  and  efforts  of  the 
teachers,  should  be  primarily  devoted  to  assisting  the  bright  pupils, 
rather  than  directed  toward  forcing  forward  the  dull  ones. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  WORK  DONE  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHIL- 
DREN IN  AMERICAN  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS. 

(Extracts  and  Summaries  from  Letters  and  Reports  Sent  by  Superintendents.) 

BALTIMORE,  MD. 

Classes  for  epileptics — Disciplinary  classes — Parental  schools. — Two 
special  classes  are  maintained  for  educable  epileptics.  They  attend 
school  during  the  forenoon  only.  Car  tickets  are  furnished  for  those 
living  at  a distance  from  the  school.  Twenty-four  ungraded  classes, 
chiefly  for  disciplinary  cases,  are  maintained — one  for  each  group  of 
schools  presided  over  by  a single  principal.  These  two  forms  of 
special  classes  are  provided  primarily  for  the  relief  of  the  regular 
classes.  There  is  also  a parental  school  for  habitual  truants. 

Flexible  grading. — The  plan  of  grading  in  operation  in  the  larger 
schools  includes  the  grouping  of  children  of  the  various  grades  into 
fast,  medium,  and  slow  classes.  Tlie  fast  classes  are  relatively  large. 
The  medium  and  slow  classes  are  graded  down  in  numbers  as  well  as 
in  ability  in  order  that  the  teaching  may  be  more  and  more  individual 
as  the  slowest  divisions  are  reached.  The  slowest  are  treated  as 
special  classes  with  the  curriculum  modified  to  fit  individual  needs. 

Classes  for  gifted. — On  completing  the  work  of  the  sixth  grade 
especially  capable  children,  whose  parents  desire  to  have  them  do  so, 
are  allowed  to  take  up  extra  studies  of  high-school  grade,  earning 
thereby  credits  which  count  toward  the  high-school  diploma.  Such 
children  are  able  as  a rule  to  complete  the  work  of  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  and  the  four  high-scliool  grades  in  five  years. 

Individual  assistance. — Individual  assistance  is  given  to  children 
who  are  backward  in  one  or  more  studies  by  senior  students  in  the 
training  schools,  who  perform  this  service  as  a part  of  their  course  in 
the  practice  of  teaching.  They  render  valuable  service,  for  which 
they  receive  a small  compensation,  and  are  benefited  by  the  corrective 
effect  of  this  individual  work  upon  their  natural  inclination  toward 
teaching  the  lesson  rather  than  the  child. 

Dental  clinic. — A dental  clinic  has  been  established  in  the  parental 
school.  The  Society  for  Oral  Hygiene  has  provided  the  equipment 
and  the  volunteer  service.  All  pupils  of  the  school  have  had  their 
mouths  examined  and  their  teeth  repaired.  New  pupils  are  treated 
42 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  WORK  DONE  IN  CITY  SCHOOLS, 


43 


as  soon  as  possible  after  they  are  committed  to  the  school.  Thus  far 
the  school  board  has  been  called  upon  only  to  provide  a suitable 
room. 

BAYONNE,  N.  J. 

Disciplinary  classes. — A special  class  is  maintained  for  refractory 
boys.  One  of  the  immediate  effects  sought  in  the  organization  of 
this  class  was  to  relieve  the  regular  classes  of  the  presence  of  these 
pupils.  Another  was  to  cause  a large  number  of  pupils  who  were 
giving  trouble  to  do  better.  Transfers  are  made  in  such  a way  that  a 
boy  is  given  a second  trial  in  a regular  class  before  entering  the 
special  class.  Thus  it  is  necessary  to  send  only  a small  per  cent  of 
troublesome  pupils  into  the  class. 

BOSTON,  MASS. 

Classes  for  subnormal. — Several  special  classes  for  subnormal 
children  have  been  maintained.  A special  medical  expert  examines 
the  children  who  are  recommended  by  the  principals  for  admission 
to  these  classes.  Only  improvable  cases  are  accepted.  Specially 
trained  teachers  are  employed  in  these  classes,  and  the  number  of 
pupils  is  limited  in  each  class  to  15.  The  course  of  study  is  exceed- 
ingly flexible,  and  is  especially  full  of  motor-training  elements. 
Many  pupils  have  been  returned  to  the  regular  grades.  Many 
others  who  have  made  small  progress  in  the  acquiring  of  knowledge 
have,  however,  established  moral  habits  and  acquired  physical  con- 
trol sufficient  to  make  them  eventually  self-supporting  members  of 
the  community. 

Disciplinary  classes. — Two  disciplinary  classes  have  been  estab- 
lished under  charge  of  teachers  especially  qualified  for  this  work.  No 
more  than  20  pupils  are  assigned  to  each  teacher.  With  scarcely  an 
exception,  pupils  whose  school  work  and  behavior  under  ordinary 
conditions  have  been  valueless  to  themselves  and  detrimental  to 
their  classmates  have  become,  in  the  disciplinary  classes,  interested 
in  their  work,  and  therefore  obedient  and  punctual. 

Ungraded  classes. — In  each  district  at  least  one  ungraded  class  is 
authorized.  In  some  districts,  where  a large  number  of  immigrant 
children  are  learning  to  speak  English,  several  such  classes  are  con- 
ducted. These  classes  differ  from  regular  classes  primarily  only  in 
the  fact  that  a smaller  number  of  pupils  are  assigned  to  them  (35). 
The  instruction  necessarily  must  be  adapted  to  the  conditions  in  the 
class,  and  the  course  of  study  is  modified  to  suit  these  conditions. 
The  purpose  is  to  give  special  help  to  those  pupils  who  need  it  and  to 
return  them  as  soon  as  possible  to  the  regular  grades. 

Vacation  school. — In  the  summer  high  school  opportunity  is  given 
to  secure  additional  points  or  to  supplement  the  work  of  the  regular 


44  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL.  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 

school  sufficiently  to  enable  the  pupil  to  secure  a passing  mark.  By 
this  means  pupils  of  exceptional  ability  may  be  able  to  shorten  their 
high-school  course  by  a year,  and  pupils  who  have  failed  to  pass  some 
part  of  their  work  during  the  year  may  make  it  up  in  the  summer 
and  thus  graduate  in  four  years  instead  of  five. 

Examination  for  defects. — Thirty-four  school  nurses  are  constantly 
employed  in  finding  and  correcting  all  forms  of  physical  defects. 
The  entire  department  of  school  hygiene  is  giving  its  attention  to 
improving  the  health  of  the  children.  Every  pupil  is  examined  each 
year  by  the  teachers  for  defects  of  eyesight  and  hearing. 

Oper^air  classes. — In  January,  1909,  the  park  commission  granted 
the  school  committee  the  use  of  two  rooms  and  the  roof  of  the  refec- 
tory building  in  Franklin  Park,  and  an  outdoor  class  was  started 
there  on  January  18,  1909.  No  pupil  who  has  reached  a contagious 
condition  is  admitted.  A careful  medical  examination  of  each  child 
is  made  by  an  expert  every  second  week. 

The  schoolhouse  commission  has  been  requested  to  provide  some 
of  the  new  buildings  with  fresh-air  rooms,  so  arranged  that  the  heat 
may  be  shut  off  and  the  room  filled  with  fresh  outside  air  and  flooded 
with  sunlight.  In  these  rooms  pupils  who  would  benefit  from  more 
fresh  air  may  be  seated  with  slight  additional  administrative  diffi- 
culty and  with  no  additional  cost. 

To  wait  until  fresh-air  rooms  in  new  buildings  are  supplied  in  every 
district  would  postpone  the  benefits  of  fresh-air  instruction  for  many 
generations.  Much  can,  however,  be  done  under  the  present  con- 
ditions. An  experiment  conducted  during  the  present  year  by  the 
principal  of  the  Prescott  School  illustrates  the  possibilities  in  any 
school.  “With  the  advice  and  assistance  of  the  school  physician 
and  the  school  nurse  about  20  children  who  were  thin,  pale,  anaemic, 
and  repeatedly  absent,  were  seated  during  pleasant  weather  in  a cozy 
corner  of  the  school  yard,  with  portable  desks,  and  under  the  charge 
of  a special  assistant.  The  regular  work  of  the  classroom  was  car- 
ried on  in  this  outdoor  class.  This  arrangement  relieved  the  most 
crowded  rooms  and  worked  a most  phenomenal  change  in  the  con- 
dition of  the  children  who  are  in  this  fresh-air  class.” 

CALUMET,  MICH. 

Ungraded  classes. — Three  “grading  rooms”  are  maintained  to  take 
care  of  pupils  who  are  more  advanced  in  some  subjects  than  in  others. 
Ten  or  twelve  pupils  are  placed  in  each  room  under  a strong  teacher. 
Some  subnormal  pupils  are  included  in  these  classes. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  WORK  DONE  IN  CITY  SCHOOLS, 


45 


CAMBRIDGE,  MASS. 

Open-air  classes. — The  open-air  school  is  conducted  in  a dwelling 
house,  remodeled  and  equipped  for  the  purpose.  The  school  will 
accommodate  27  pupils.  During  the  first  three  months  pupils  were 
received  on  the  recommendation  of  examining  physicians  of  the 
Anti-Tuberculosis  Association.  Later,  however,  the  pupils  have 
been  admitted  on  the  recommendation  of  the  medical  inspectors 
of  the  schools  and  the  visiting  nurse,  and  they  are  returned  to 
their  regular  classes  when  their  physical  improvement,  as  shown  by  a 
careful  examination,  is  such  as  to  lead  the  inspector  and  nurse  to 
advise  this  action.  The  improvement  in  the  general  health  of  the 
children  as  indicated  by  complexion,  appearance  of  the  eyes,  increase 
in  strength  and  activity,  has  been  noticeable.  On  entering  the  school 
each  child  is  provided  with  a chair  bag,  a leg  blanket,  a soapstone 
foot  warmer,  a worsted  toque,  a pair  of  woolen  gloves,  and  an  outside 
coat.  With  this  equipment  the  children  are  comfortable  even  in  the 
severest  weather. 


CAMDEN,  N.  J. 

Classes  for  subnormal. — The  first  special  class  established  was  some- 
what experimental  in  character.  Pupils  were  grouped  about  square 
tables  the  height  of  which  is  determined  by  the  size  of  the  children. 
Parents  have  consented  to  medical  examination  and  treatment. 

Operations  have  been  performed  by  the  hospital  surgeons  upon 
seven  children,  by  a physician  in  his  office  upon  two  others,  and  four 
other  children  have  received  careful  and  continued  medical  treatment. 
All  of  those  in  the  school  during  the  last  year  have  been  given  pains- 
taking medical  attention.  In  several  instances,  the  treatment  begun 
under  the  advice  of  the  teacher  has  been  continued  by  the  physician 
at  the  request  of  the  parents. 

There  are  now  four  special  classes  for  mentally  deficient  children, 
two  others  for  average  children  whose  mental  condition  is  not  strong, 
one  distinctly  disciplinary  class,  and  two  classes  of  institutional 
children,  many  of  whom  must  be  regarded  as  special. 

CHICAGO,  ILL. 

Schools  for  crippled. — Crippled  children  are  taught  in  two  schools, 
to  which  they  are  transported  free.  Ten  busses  are  used. 

Parental  schools. — The  average  membership  in  the  Chicago  Parental 
School  in  1910  was  297,  and  the  average  period  of  detention  six  and 
a half  months.  The  minimum  term  is  a little  less  than  four  months. 
The  time  of  parole  is  determined  by  the  boys’  behavior  and  the 
quality  of  work,  outside  pressure  being  disregarded.  Boys  are 
encouraged  to  earn  their  parole  as  quickly  as  possible,  to  guard 


46  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 

against  the  danger  of  being  institutionalized  and  to  make  room  for 
others  on  the  waiting  list. 

After  a boy  has  shown  his  capacity  to  do  good  work  and  to  behave 
himself  in  the  parental  school,  he  is  paroled  to  his  home  school. 
After  parole  he  is  carefully  watched,  and  if  necessary  is  visited  by  his 
teacher  or  family  officer.  Reports  are  sent  to  the  parental  school 
once  a month  by  the  principal,  showing  the  boy’s  deportment  and 
progress  in  his  studies.  If  these  reports  continue  good  for  the  period 
of  one  year,  the  boy  is  recommended  to  the  board  of  education  for 
discharge  from  the  custody  of  the  parental  school.  During  the 
period  of  parole,  the  boy  may  be  returned  upon  the  order  of  the  super- 
intendent of  the  parental  school,  for  violation  of  the  terms  of  his 
parole.  About  18  per  cent  of  the  boys  are  returned;  the  remainder 
make  a record  from  fair  to  excellent  in  their  home  schools. 

Correction  of  speech  defects. — Children  with  speech  defects,  stam- 
merers and  stutterers,  are  given  special  corrective  exercises  by  mem- 
bers of  the  graduating  class  of  Chicago  Teachers’  College  trained  for 
their  particular  work  in  the  department  of  oral  expression.  Instead 
of  gathering  the  children  together  into  one  building,  the  young 
teacher  travels  from  school  to  school. 

Cases  of  adenoid  growths  and  of  other  difficulties  in  the  speech 
organs  needing  surgical  or  medical  attention  are  referred  to  the 
department  of  child  study. 

Psychological  clinic. — The  department  of  child  study  examines  all 
subnormal  children,  and  prescribes  the  kind  of  intellectual  and  phys- 
ical training  which  the  teacher  in  the  subnormal  center  shall  give  the 
child.  A program  is  furnished  the  teacher  in  each  case  by  the  depart- 
ment. The  promotions  to  the  grades  are  made  after  the  examination 
by  the  department  of  child  study.  The  membership  in  each  sub- 
normal center  is  limited  to  20. 

Classes  for  deaf. — In  the  classes  for  the  deaf  some  attempts  were 
made  during  the  year  1910  to  bring  the  deaf  pupils  more  into  contact 
with  the  hearing  pupils  in  recitations  and  exercises  than  had  been  the 
custom.  Deaf  pupils  were  taken  into  classes  of  hearing  pupils  for  con- 
struction work  wherever  possible.  The  absence  of  part  of  the  class  of 
deaf  pupils  from  the  special  room  enabled  the  teacher  to  devote  her  time 
exclusively  to  the  remainder  of  the  class;  while  the  deaf  pupils  work- 
ing with  their  hands  along  with  the  hearing  pupils  found  their  infirmity 
no  bar  to  efficient  work.  Deaf  pupils  were  sent  to  rooms  of  hearing 
children  regularly  or  occasionally  for  recitations  along  with  hearing 
pupils,  the  lessons  having  been  prepared  with  the  help  of  the  special 
teacher.  They  usually  returned  from  such  exercises  full  of  enthu- 
siasm and  eager  to  tell  of  the  new  things  learned.  While  they  gained 
little  and  gave  to  the  teacher  but  little  when  compared  with  the 
hearing  children,  it  was  much  for  them,  and  they  profited  by  it. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  WORK  DONE  IN  CITY  SCHOOLS. 


47 


Instead  of  the  department  of  child  study  spending  time  in  making 
so  large  a number  of  examinations  as  formerly  at  school  buildings — 
and  that  without  much  of  the  necessary  apparatus  and  appliances — 
many  more  remote  and  widely  separated  sections  of  the  city  were 
served  by  appointments  to  meet  the  examiners  at  the  offices  of  the 
board  of  education.  Furthermore,  by  getting  into  direct  communi- 
cation with  the  parents  or  guardians  who  accompany  the  child  to  the 
office,  suggestive  information  can  be  secured  relative  to  the  child’s 
home,  personal  history,  and  in  general  the  group  of  factors  which 
influence  unfavorably  his  progress  in  school  work.  All  this,  when 
found  necessary,  is  supplemented  by  the  subsequent  report  of  the 
school  nurse  or  social  worker  after  having  visited  the  home. 

FROM  “ OPEN-AIR  CRUSADERS,”  191 1.1 

Open-air  classes. — In  September  two  rooms  were  opened  in  the 
Graham  School  to  show  what  natural  cold  air  will  do  for  normal 
pupils.  No  selection  of  individuals  was  made  except  that  as  children 
entered  the  school  for  their  first  year’s  work  they  were  given  their 
choice  of  entering  a cold  room  or  a warm  one.  Of  course  some  pains 
were  taken  to  inform  the  parents  in  advance  as  to  what  it  was 
expected  the  cold  air  would  do.  After  several  weeks  of  trial  in 
which  zero  weather  was  encountered  and  no  bad  effects  followed, 
teachers,  parents,  and  pupils,  seeing  what  had  been  done  for  those  in 
the  two  rooms,  asked  for  rooms  in  the  other  grades  for  the  same  sort 
of  work.  The  school  year  closed  with  seven  open-air  rooms. 

So  satisfactory  was  the  work  that  the  school  opened  in  September 
with  20  cold  rooms,  merely  retaining  enough  of  the  warm-air  rooms 
to  insure  a place  in  a warm  room  in  every  grade  for  pupils  whose 
parents  desired  them  to  have  it  and  also  a place  for  teachers  to  work 
in  warm  air  in  case  some  of  them  feared  that  work  in  a cold  room 
might  prove  too  strenuous. 

The  work  in  a cold  room  differs  from  that  in  a warm  room.  The 
pupils  are  exercised  far  more  frequently  and  in  the  low  grades  the 
seats  are  removed  so  as  to  provide  floor  space  for  games  and  dancing. 
Common  wooden  chairs  or  kindergarten  chairs  take  the  place  of 
seats,  and  long  tables  of  simple  construction  replace  the  old  form  of 
rigid  desks.  The  children  sit  in  the  schoolroom  clad  in  the  clothing 
which  protects  them  on  the  way  to  school.  They  keep  all  that 
clothing  on,  if  they  choose,  or  lay  aside  their  caps,  mittens,  over- 
shoes, and  coats  if  they  feel  uncomfortable  with  them  on.  During 
the  year  no  money  was  paid  out  for  any  sort  of  clothing  to  protect 

1 Open-Air  Crusaders—  Sherman  C.  Kingsley,  1911.  Published  by  United  Charities  of  Chicago.  For 
free  distribution. 


48 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 


the  children  from  cold,  as  it  was  found  that  whatever  clothing  would 
bring  them  safely  to  school  was  more  than  enough  for  protection 
in  the  school,  where  games  were  frequent. 

CINCINNATI,  OHIO. 

There  are  day  classes  for  the  deaf,  for  the  blind,  for  foreigners,  for 
the  mentally  defective,  and  for  the  retarded.  The  instruction  of 
the  blind  is  so  carried  on  that  the  blind  children  have  considerable 
association  with  other  children.  The  mentally  defective  children 
are  brought  together  in  a convenient  center,  so  that  there  can  be 
some  classification  and  much  attention  to  manual  work.  Those 
distant  from  the  center  are  conveyed  to  the  school  at  the  expense 
of  the  board. 

School  for  backward. — A special  school  is  maintained  for  slow 
children  more  than  three  years  behind  normal  children  of  their  age, 
but  not  mentally  defective.  In  organizing  this  school  a careful 
physical  and  mental  examination  was  made  of  the  children  and  their 
homes  were  visited.  Such  as  needed  medical  attention  received  it. 
Glasses  were  provided  and  operations  performed  for  adenoids.  A 
truant  officer  reports  each  morning  to  look  up  absentees.  The  fol- 
lowing advantages  are  claimed:  All  the  causes  usually  assigned  for 
backwardness  are  found  to  hold  good  here,  but  especially  it  has 
been  found  that  the  children  had  gotten  out  of  harmony  with  school 
work  and  most  of  them  were  in  school  because  they  had  been  coerced 
by  parents  or  school  officers.  On  the  street  and  in  their  games  they 
were  able  to  play  their  part,  but  in  the  schoolroom  they  had  been 
grouped  with  children  who,  though  much  younger,  surpassed  them. 

Now  that  they  have  been  grouped  with  those  of  their  own  age, 
and  work  is  assigned  them  that  interests  them,  their  attitude  toward 
school  has  changed.  They  are  classified  in  groups  that  average 
from  28  to  30  per  teacher;  the  course  of  study  lias  been  modified  to 
meet  their  special  needs;  they  are  given  a great  variety  of  handi- 
craft and  a half  hour  of  physical  training  a day  in  the  gymnasium. 
Under  these  conditions  the  children  have  become  tractable  and 
regular  in  attendance,  and  the  progress  they  have  made  is  encourag- 
ing to  them  and  to  their  teachers.  It  has  been  demonstrated  that 
under  favorable  conditions  most  over-age  children  not  mentally 
defective  can  do  creditable  school  work  and  become  serviceable 
citizens 

The  great  advantage  of  collecting  a large  number  of  special  pupils 
into  one  school  over  the  old  method  of  establishing  an  ungraded  room 
in  each  school  is  apparent.  Classification  of  groups  of  children  with 
similar  needs  enables  teachers  to  handle  twice  as  many  children  with 
greater  ease;  the  enthusiasm  that  comes  from  numbers  is  obtained; 
the  teachers  themselves  have  companionship  and  an  opportunity  to 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  WORK  DONE  IN  CITY  SCHOOLS. 


49 


interchange  ideas  and  get  counsel;  and,  above  all,  manual  and  physi- 
cal training  can  be  given  in  a systematic  way  that  will  lead  to  use- 
fulness. 

These  teachers  are  paid  only  $50  more  than  grade  teachers.  There 
is  an  advantage  in  this,  for  those  who  do  not  feel  a genuine  interest 
in  such  work  will  not  be  tempted  to  go  into  it  because  of  money 
consideration.  When  teachers  of  special  aptitude  go  into  special 
work,  they  will  not  voluntarily  leave  it.  There  seems  to  be  a fasci- 
nation about  it;  every  child  is  a problem;  there  is  something  dis- 
tinctly interesting  each  day  and  hour;  there  is  a continual  call  for 
sympathy,  energy,  skill,  and  tact;  there  is  a feeling  of  unity  and 
harmony  and  mutual  helpfulness  in  the  teaching  corps;  and,  finally, 
there  is  the  sense  of  mastery  and  the  exultation  of  victory  over  the 
unusual.  This  seems  to  apply  to  the  teachers  in  all  types  of  schools 
for  special  children. 

Special  school  for  boys. — Pupils  are  sent  to  this  school  by  the 
juvenile  court  or  by  the  superintendent.  It  includes  boys  who  are 
willfully  and  persistently  absent  from  school  and  those  whose  conduct, 
while  not  criminal,  is  not  amenable  to  ordinary  treatment.  The 
school  is  the  last  resort  in  school  discipline.  To  a decided  extent 
it  has  removed  the  necessity  for  corporal  punishment.  The  number 
of  cases  of  corporal  punishment  now  is  not  one-half  what  it  was  five 
years  ago.  It  is  now  restricted  by  stringent  rules  and  can  be  admin- 
istered only  in  presence  of  a third  person. 

The  superintendent  commits  boys  only  to  the  day  school.  If  this 
proves  insufficient  to  break  up  truancy,  the  juvenile  court  commits  to 
the  detention  department,  where  the  pupil  is  kept  at  night,  attending 
the  school  (in  the  same  building)  by  day.  Of  those  who  were  removed 
to  other  institutions  only  three  were  for  truancy;  that  is,  the  school 
failed  in  only  three  cases.  Almost  all  who  have  remained  under  its 
influence  for  some  time  have  completely  changed  their  ideas  and  their 
attitude  toward  organized  authority.  Most  of  them  have  gone  out 
and  lived  up  to  their  expressed  intention  to  “make  good.” 

Sixty  per  cent  of  those  in  attendance  have  been  committed  for 
truancy,  40  per  cent  for  incorrigibility  and  other  causes.  About 
60  per  cent  have  been  committed  by  the  superintendent  of  schools 
and  40  per  cent  by  the  juvenile  court. 

All  are  given  one  hour  in  the  shop,  one  hour  in  the  gymnasium,  and 
three  hours  in  the  schoolroom  where  emphasis  is  given  to  the  com- 
mercial side  of  the  essential  branches  and  to  drawing  and  writing. 
Most  of  the  work  is  individual. 

The  discipline  is  so  free  as  to  create  some  criticism.  There  is  a 
spirit  of  good  will,  however,  that  could  not  be  obtained  by  a spying, 
cruel  system  of  government.  The  teachers  insist  upon  gentlemanly 
5092°— Bull.  14—11 — -4 


50  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 

behavior  and  try  to  secure  it  from  properly  cultivated  motives  rather 
than  from  forms  and  rules.  The  school  is  very  popular  with  the  boys 
who  do  not  want  to  be  sent  back  to  their  own  schools.  Parents 
frequently  report  that  the  boys  behave  much  better  and  show  more 
willingness  to  help.  The  purpose  of  the  school  is  not  punitive;  it  is 
to  develop  in  the  boys  the  power  of  self-government  and  a desire  for 
self-control. 

CLEVELAND,  OHIO. 

Ungraded  classes. — Whenever  a child,  because  of  low  mentality, 
bad  home  influence,  nervousness,  physical  defects,  or  any  other 
cause,  falls  behind,  he  is  left  with  his  regular  grade  and  sent  to  the 
school  for  backward  children  in  the  study  or  studies  in  which  he 
may  need  special  help.  These  schoolrooms  for  backward  children 
are  not  complete  in  themselves,  but  rooms  to  which  those  needing 
it  are  sent  for  special  assistance. 

Flexible  grading. — Where  conditions  are  favorable,  schools  are 
arranged  into  slow  and  fast  grades.  The  differences  in  children  are 
great,  and  to  have  the  children  of  widely  varying  capacities  in  the 
same  class  is  to  the  disadvantage  of  all,  and  especially  to  the  dis- 
advantage of  the  less  capable.  This  is  true  even  when  the  teacher 
seeks  to  give  special  attention  to  the  slower  pupils,  for  the  stronger 
will  invariably  assume  the  leadership,  and  this  tends  to  restrain  and 
suppress  the  weaker.  To  organize  schools  where  the  conditions  are 
favorable  into  slow  and  fast  grades  is  then  merely  to  place  children 
of  relatively  equal  capacity  together.  To  equalize  opportunities,  45 
children  are  placed  in  the  fast,  and  only  35  are  assigned  the  slow  grade. 

The  advantages  of  this  plan  for  the  strong  children  are : Instruction 
can  be  better  adapted  to  their  capacities;  a broader  range  of  facts  can 
be  considered,  and  a wider  range  given  to  the  application  of  principles; 
instruction  can  be  made  more  thorough  and  fundamental.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  less  favored  children  can  be  given  work  better  suited 
to  their  abilities;  the  advance  is  slower  and  more  carefully  planned; 
there  is  greater  opportunity  to  develop  individuality  and  leadership, 
and  to  bring  out  whatever  ability  and  latent  capacity  these  children 
may  have. 

This  plan  or  organization  thus  permits  each  to  work  according  to 
his  capacity,  and  while  it  adds  to  the  strong,  by  making  the  slower 
grade  somewhat  smaller,  it  permits  not  only  of  a better  adjustment  of 
work  to  the  less  favored,  but  also  of  a greater  amount  of  personal 
attention,  and  can  not  help  being  a factor  in  holding  many  a slow 
child  in  school  and  up  to  grade. 

Vacation  schools. — Vacation  schools,  open  to  all  children  of  grammar 
and  high  school  grades  who  have  failed  of  promotion,  are  maintained 
for  eight  weeks  in  the  summer.  Responsibility  for  promotion  of  the 
pupil  after  having  done  this  work  is  vested  in  the  vacation  teachers. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  WORK  DONE  IN  CITY  SCHOOLS. 


51 


School  for  backward. — A new  20-room  building  in  the  center  of  a 
very  congested  district  has  been  set  apart  for  retarded  children. 
There  are  800  children  in  this  school  retarded  one,  two,  three,  or 
more  years.  It  is  planned  to  simplify  the  course  of  study  and  to  give 
the  work  of  this  school  a strong  individual  bias,  to  the  end  that  part 
of  these  retarded  children  may  make  up  certain  of  the  time  lost  and 
be  restored  to  their  proper  grade,  and  that  the  others  may  be  advanced 
along  lines  suited  to  their  abilities  and  thereby  secure  more  of  an 
education  than  would  otherwise  be  possible  to  such  children. 

DENVER,  COLO. 

School  for  backward. — Two  buildings  have  been  set  apart  to  which 
are  sent  children  who  are  three  years  or  more  behind  their  grades. 
The  demand  is  in  excess  of  the  capacity  of  these  two  buildings. 
The  pupils  enrolled  are  studied  as  individuals  and  every  effort  made 
to  ascertain  why  time  has  been  lost  and  how  the  difficulty  may  be 
overcome  in  each  case.  Other  centers  for  retarded  children  are  to 
be  provided. 

DETROIT,  MICH. 

Classes  for  deaf. — -Forty-nine  pupils  were  registered  in  the  school 
for  the  deaf  in  1909.  A number  of  semideaf  children  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  deaf  school  at  so  early  an  age  that  much  may  be  done 
to  retain  and  develop  speech. 

In  January,  1908,  three  pupils  completed  the  eighth  grade  and 
were  graduated.  Two  are  attending  the  Central  High  School,  where 
they  follow  the  course  of  study  prescribed  for  their  hearing  com- 
panions without  special,  help.  The  third  pupil,  because  of  adverse 
circumstances,  was  compelled  to  assist  in  the  support  of  the  home. 
She  is  employed  in  the  mail-order  department  of  a large  dry-goods 
store  in  this  city.  In  January,  1909,  a former  graduate  of  the  school 
for  the  deaf  completed  a high-school  course.  The  success  of  these 
pupils  has  been  a great  incentive  to  the  pupils  of  the  grammar  grades 
who  are  now  planning  for  a high-school  education.  Detroit  main- 
tains a normal  training  department  in  connection  with  the  school  for 
the  deaf. 

FITCHBURG,  MASS. 

Special  teacher  for  backward. — After  several  years’  experience  with 
the  type  of  ungraded  class  in  which  children  backward  in  one  or  more 
branches  took  all  their  work  in  the  ungraded  rooms,  a change  was 
made  to  a plan  by  whiph  the  child  engages  in  general  exercises  in  one 
of  the  regular  grades,  and  comes  to  the  special  teacher  about  20  min- 
utes each  day  for  special  help  in  the  troublesome  study.  This  teacher 
has  no  other  children  to  watch,  no  other  work  to  supervise.  The 


52  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 


special  weakness  of  each  child  is  considered,  and  the  work  planned 
accordingly.  At  least  twice  the  number  of  children  reached  by  the 
former  plan  can  be  reached  by  this  plan.  Fifty  different  children  a 
day  has  been  the  highest  number,  40  to  45  being  the  usual  number. 

Supplementary  classes. — Pupils  of  the  highest  grammar  grades, 
commonly  known  as  “left  overs,”  many  of  them  having  been  “left 
over”  in  previous  years,  are  allowed  to  enter  the  high  schools,  forming 
a class  by  themselves,  a single  teacher  being  placed  in  charge  of  the 
whole  work  of  the  class,  who  lays  out  work  for  the  pupils  according  to 
their  individual  capabilities.  These  pupils  are  able  to  pursue  some 
of  the  studies  of  the  high-school  grade,  although  advancing  less  rapidly 
than  the  members  of  the  other  classes. 

Provision  is  made  in  like  manner  for  pupils  from  the  various  classes 
next  below  the  highest  grammar  grade,  these  pupils  standing  in  rela- 
tion to  the  highest  grammar  grades  in  a position  corresponding  to 
that  which  those  “left  overs”  from  the  highest  grammar  grades  stood 
in  relation  to  the  high  school.  These  pupils  from  the  various  gram- 
mar schools  are  united  in  one  class  and  made  a part  of  the  highest 
grade  in  a way  similar  to  that  under  which  the  special  high-school 
class  is  organized  and  managed.  Some  members  of  the  special  high- 
school  classes  are  able  to  do  the  work  prescribed  for  the  regular 
classes  and  some  admitted  to  the  supplementary  grammar  grade 
class  make  such  progress  as  to  gain  admission  to  the  high  school  with 
the  regular  class. 

HARTFORD,  CONN. 

Open-air  class. — The  first  outdoor  school  in  Connecticut  was  opened 
in  a tent  on  the  grounds  of  the  Sigourney  School,  on  January  3,  1910. 
A floor  was  laid  with  a sand  cushion  beneath  it  and  a wainscoting 
built  about  the  sides  of  the  tent  to  about  20  inches,  affording  protec- 
tion to  the  feet  of  the  pupils,  all  the  air  in  the  tent  coming  in  from  the 
upturned  sides  and  not  from  the  damp  ground.  The  arrangement  of 
the  tent  inside  was  like  that  of  the  regular  schoolroom,  with  desks, 
blackboards,  and  other  paraphernalia.  Two  teachers  of  experience 
in  different  grades  of  work  were  engaged  to  care  for  the  school,  and 
were  eminently  successful. 

Through  the  cooperation  of  the  Society  for  the  Prevention  of 
Tuberculosis,  food,  warm  clothing,  and  medical  examination  and 
inspection  were  provided. 

The  children  were  selected  from  13  different  schools  and  from  10 
different  nationalities  and  numbered  47  before  the  season  closed. 
When  children  had  gained  sufficiently,  or  home  conditions  had  mate- 
rially improved,  children  were  sent  home,  at  first,  but  later  it  seemed 
best  to  retain  them  as  long  as  possible,  in  order  to  test  not  only  the 
health-giving  scheme  of  the  school  but  the  educational  side  as  well. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  WORK  DONE  TN  CTTY  SCHOOLS. 


53 


Ali  school  children  entering  were  selected  from  groups  selected  from 
schools  and  examined.  They  were  first  weighed,  and  thereafter  tested 
on  the  scales  weekly  and  a record  kept  of  their  weight  at  each  weigh- 
ing. Some  of  the  records  show  remarkable  gain,  while  others  show 
steady  upward  progress. 

The  temperature  in  the  tent  has  registered  as  low  as  16°  while  the 
studies  were  in  progress  and  no  one  seemed  to  suffer,  protection  to 
the  feet  being  assured  by  heated  soapstones  in  the  sitting  bag. 

Most  of  the  pupils  were  below  grade  in  their  studies.  Under  ideal 
conditions — small  numbers,  perfectly  fresh  air,  nourishing  food,  rest, 
and  exercise — they  made  much  progress.  One  second-grade  child 
who  was  in  the  outdoor  school  less  than  two  months,  upon  her  return 
to  the  regular  school  was  put  into  the  fourth  grade.  There  were  nine 
grades  in  the  school.  One  teacher  taught  the  first  five  grades;  the 
other  took  the  four  remaining  grades.  When  possible  the  classes 
were  united.  The  backward  pupils  were  greatly  helped  by  reciting 
with  several  classes.  Children  who  were  poor  in  a certain  branch 
were  put  into  two  or  three  classes  of  that  branch.  A child  who  was 
particularly  good  in  a study  was  allowed  to  recite  that  branch  with  a 
higher  grade.  In  every  way  the  children  were  encouraged  and  not 
held  back. 

The  children  wanted  to  work,  and  to  work  hard,  and  wished  to  keep 
abreast  in  their  studies  with  the  children  of  the  other  schools.  While 
they  were  unable  to  work  hard  in  the  other  schools  on  account  of  ill 
health,  they  could  do  so  in  the  outdoor  school,  where  they  improved 
rapidly  in  health,  and  where  they  studied  under  such  favorable  con- 
ditions. 

HOUSTON,  TEX. 

Ungraded  classes. — A special  room  is  set  aside  for  “ exceptional  pu- 
pils.” To  this  room  are  sent  pupils  who  are  not  capable  of  learning 
in  the  ordinary  class  room,  and  yet  who  are  not  so  deficient  as  to  need 
to  be  committed  to  a State  institution. 

Many  of  them  are  physically  defective.  While  in  this  room  they 
have  special  medical  care  and  attention.  It  has  often  happened  that 
as  soon  as  the  child  has  received  proper  medical  treatment  he  is  able 
to  go  back  into  the  regular  room. 

Such  subjects  as  manual  training  and  school  gardening  are  especially 
emphasized.  If  a child  can  do  good  work  in  some  one  subject,  as,  for 
instance,  reading,  but  not  in  others,  an  effort  is  made  to  allow  him  to 
progress  as  rapidly  as  possible  in  the  subject  which  he  can  learn  easily, 
and  yet  to  lay  enough  stress  on  the  other  subj  ects.  In  some  instances 
the  pupil  takes  work  on  one  subject  with  the  normal  children  of  a regu- 
lar grade  room,  and  takes  work  on  another  subject  in  this  special  class. 


54 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 


INDIANAPOLIS,  IND. 

Classes  for  gifted. — For  the  particularly  able,  special  classes  are 
formed  at  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  grade,  in  which  two  years’ 
work  is  accomplished  in  a year  and  a half.  The  relation  between 
the  lower  school  and  the  high  school  is  such  that  strong  work  in  the 
last  year  and  a half  or  last  two  years  in  the  grammar  grades  secures  a 
half  year’s  credit  in  the  high  school.  These  and  other  children  may 
by  exceptionally  strong  work  in  the  high  schools  save  another  half 
year. 

For  children  strong  in  mathematics  and  language,  classes  are  formed 
at  the  beginning  of  the  eighth  grade,  in  which  Latin  and  algebra  are 
taken  in  addition  to  the  regular  work  of  the  grammar  school.  Time 
for  this  work  is  provided  for  by  diminishing  the  time  for  English  and 
arithmetic.  Strong  work  in  these  classes  secures  a half  year’s  credit 
in  the  high  school  in  Latin  and  algebra,  and  other  credits  may  be  se- 
cured by  good  work  in  other  subjects  to  make  up  about  two-thirds 
of  a term’s  high-school  work. 

Special  teacher  for  backward. — For  children  who  are  slow  at  their 
studies  and  need  more  help  than  the  regular  school-teacher  can  give, 
a special  teacher  is  provided  in  about  eight  schools  in  the  city  where 
the  need  is  greatest.  This  teacher  helps  during  the  term  from  50  to 
75  different  children.  These  children  are  almost  exclusively  in  grades 
two  to  five,  inclusive. 

Ungraded  classes. — For  children  who  are  are  on  the  border  line  of 
the  mentally  defective,  at  schools  where  there  is  a sufficient  number 
of  them  to  warrant  it  (in  grades  two  to  five,  inclusive),  a special  room 
is  set  apart  with  a special  teacher.  The  teacher’s  task  in  these 
schools  is  to  study  carefully  the  individual,  to  help  where  she  can  to 
put  the  child  on  his  school  feet,  and  restore  him  to  the  regular  school- 
room, if  possible.  The  book  work  is  given  so  far  as  the  child  can  fol- 
low it,  but  manual  occupations  of  various  kinds  are  also  introduced, 
and  an  effort  is  made  to  establish  habits  of  self-control,  etc. 

School  for  backward. — For  the  decidedly  mentally  defective  children, 
two  schools  have  been  established  on  opposite  sides  of  the  city.  Spe- 
cially trained  teachers  have  been  placed  in  charge  of  these  schools. 
Membership  is  not  allowed  to  exceed  16  pupils  each.  The  work  that 
is  commonly  pursued  by  schools  of  this  character  is  pursued  there — 
manual  occupations,  habit-forming  exercises,  and  such  book  work 
as  can  be  given. 

Disciplinary  classes. — For  confirmed  truant  and  delinquent  boys  a 
special  school  is  provided.  Here  manual  training  is  emphasized,  and 
special  standards  of  discipline  are  maintained. 

Industrial. — In  certain  districts  of  the  city,  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  conducted  under  the  departmental  plan  of  instruction, 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  WORK  DONE  IN  CITY  SCHOOLS. 


55 


from  one-third  to  one-half  of  the  time  for  both  girls  and  boys  is  given 
to  industrial  work.  The  regular  book  work  occupies  the  balance  of 
the  time.  The  pupils  hold  as  high  standard  as  they  ever  have  held 
in  their  book  work,  although  they  are  giving  considerably  less  time 
to  it.  This  kind  of  specialization  will  be  extended  from  two  schools 
the  current  year  to  three  schools  next  year.  Several  other  districts 
in  the  city  would  like  to  have  it  introduced  as  fast  as  the  authorities 
see  their  way  to  doing  it. 

The  expense  for  this  kind  of  instruction  is  approximately  $6  a pupil 
more  than  the  exclusively  book-work  plan. 

The  general  plan  of  development  of  this  kind  of  work  involves 
adapting  the  industrial  phases  of  the  work  to  the  life  of  the  commu- 
nity in  which  the  school  exists ; therefore  the  lines  of  activity  are  dif- 
ferent in  different  schools. 

JOPLIN,  MO. 

Individual  assistance. — Teachers  of  first-grade  classes  dismiss  all 
pupils  less  than  7 years  of  age  at  11  and  3 o'clock,  and  spend  the  re- 
maining time  working  with  the  older  pupils.  Teachers  of  second- 
grade  classes  dismiss  all  pupils  under  8 years  of  age  at  quarter  past  1 1 
and  quarter  past  3,  and  devote  the  remaining  time  to  the  older  pupils. 
This  work  with  the  older  pupils  is  not  on  the  regular  lessons,  but  on 
back  work  or  such  irregular  work  as  will  bring  up  retarded  pupils  or 
help  others  on  to  the  next  higher  grade.  Above  the  second  grade  the 
work  with  retarded  pupils  is  done  mostly  by  pupil  teachers  who  de- 
vote one-third  of  their  time  to  this  work. 

Special  rooms,  superior  as  to  light  and  ventilation,  are  set  aside 
for  the  physically  defective.  Weaklings  are  kept  in  cool  rooms  and 
given  special  exercises  conducive  to  health. 

LINCOLN,  NEBR. 

Classes  for  gifted. — Provision  is  made  for  unusually  gifted  children 
by  placing  them  in  a special  room  after  the  completion  of  the  sixth 
grade.  In  this  school  during  two  years  they  complete  the  work  of 
the  elementary  school  and  also  the  first  year  of  high-school  work. 

A plan  is  being  worked  out  whereby  the  dull  and  deficient  children 
will  receive  proper  attention. 

LOS  ANGELES,  CAL. 

Ungraded  classes — Parental  schools — Classes  for  deaf  and  dumb. — 
Special  classes  include  the  following:  Ungraded  rooms  open  to  ail* 
elementary  school  children  who  are  at  a disadvantage  in  the  grades; 
special  ungraded  rooms  open  to  truants  and  incorrigibles ; foreign  un- 
graded rooms  for  the  newly  arrived  immigrants;  a detention  house 
and  parental  republic  at  the  service  of  the  juvenile  court;  one  trade 


5G  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 

class,  giving  work  in  carpentry,  sewing,  and  cooking,  the  pupils  de- 
voting half  a day  to  the  study  of  books  and  half  a day  to  industrial 
training;  two  classes  for  deaf  and  dumb,  taught  by  oral  method; 
and  one  day  nursery.  This  last  is  housed  in  a building  furnished  by 
the  school  department  and  standing  on  ground  furnished  by  the 
school  department,  but  in  all  other  respects  it  is  in  charge  of  the 
Parent-Teacher  Association  of  the  city.  It  takes  the  babies  of  poor 
people  and  takes  care  of  them  during  the  school  day.  It  is  located 
in  a Russian  settlement  where  poverty  compels  the  parents  to  go  out 
to  work.  The  school  law  compels  the  older  children  to  go  to  school. 
This  would  leave  the  baby  at  home  or  else  compel  an  older  child  to 
bring  the  baby  to  school.  Out  of  necessity  has  grown  the  above- 
mentioned  day  nursery. 

LYNN,  MASS. 

Individual  assistance . — In  all  of  the  larger  graded  schools  special 
teachers  are  employed  who  work  with  backward  pupils  and  also  with 
exceptionally  capable  pupils.  There  are  special  classes  for  foreign 
children.  In  these  classes  are  found  children  of  all  ages  who  are  just 
learning  the  rudiments  of  English. 

MILWAUKEE,  WIS. 

Classes  for  the  blind. — In  each  of  3 schools,  situated  in  3 different  sec- 
tions of  the  city,  a room  is  set  aside  for  the  use  of  the  blind  pupils,  who 
come  in  charge  of  parents  or  guides,  on  the  street  cars,  or  otherwise,  as 
their  parents  arrange.  Those  who  live  long  distances  from  the  school 
usually  come  in  charge  of  a brother  or  a sister  or  a little  friend  of 
school  age,  who  accompanies  the  blind  child  as  a regular  pupil,  and 
who  usually  enters  the  school  in  which  the  class  for  blind  children  is 
taught. 

The  blind  children  gather  first  in  the  room  specially  provided  for 
them;  they  then  go  to  the  regular  schoolrooms,  where  they  remain 
during  the  opening  exercises  of  the  classes  to  which  they  belong. 
After  the  opening  they  return  to  the  special  room  to  study  their 
lessons.  At  recitation  time  in  any  class  the  blind  children  who  belong 
to  that  class  go  from  their  special  room  to  the  regular  class  room  and 
there  take  part  in  the  lesson  as  the  seeing  children  do.  They  use  the 
same  textbooks,  which  are  printed  for  them  in  point  letters  (American 
Braille  being  the  point  system  used),  reading  or  spelling  or  solving 
the  question  in  arithmetic  in  their  turn.  After  the  recitation  is  com- 
pleted the  blind  pupils  return  to  the  special  room  and  there  do  their 
studying  under  the  oversight  of  the  special  teacher  for  the  blind. 
One  of  these  has  charge  of  each  of  the  rooms  and  acts  as  helper  and 
special  teacher. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  WORK  DONE  IN  CITY  SCHOOLS. 


57 


The  number  of  pupils  which  the  teacher  of  such  a group  can  care 
for  properly  is  from  six  to  eight,  this  depending  somewhat  on  the 
age  of  the  children  and  on  other  considerations. 

These  schools  are  under  the  direct  management  of  the  board  of 
school  directors,  according  to  the  provisions  of  an  act  passed  by  the 
Wisconsin  Legislature.  This  act  authorizes  the  establishment  of 
day  classes  for  the  blind  in  connection  with  the  public  schools  of 
cities  and  provides  that  for  each  pupil  in  average  daily  attendance 
in  such  cases  the  State  shall  pay  to  the  school  board  maintaining  such 
a school  the  sum  of  $200  per  year.  This  sum  is  to  be  used  for  de- 
fraying the  expenses  of  instruction,  including  salaries  of  teachers,  cost 
of  books  and  materials  for  manual  training  and  other  lessons,  and  to 
pay  car  fare  for  children  who  live  long  distances  from  the  school. 
It  is  also  used  to  cover  the  cost  of  instruction  in  some  industrial 
employment  or  in  music,  according  to  the  aptitudes  of  the  different 
pupils. 

Classes  for  subnormal. — A class  for  exceptional  children  has  been 
used  as  an  experiment  station  to  ascertain  in  just  what  way  it  is 
practicable  to  deal  with  children  who  are  somewhat  subnormal 
intellectually,  and  to  establish  rules  for  guidance  in  deciding  what 
children  can  profitably  be  instructed  in  classes  of  this  kind.  Early 
provision  will  be  made  for  the  entire  300  or  more  now  in  the  schools. 

Ungraded  classes — Non- English  speaking. — There  are  12  ungraded 
classes.  They  are  primarily  classes  of  opportunity.  They  are  not 
designed  for  dull  or  stupid  or  unruly  or  subnormal  pupils;  they  are 
intended  chiefly  for  children  who  are  considerably  above  the  age  of  the 
classes  in  which  they  are  found  and  who  should  have  given  to  them 
some  opportunity  to  make  up  the  lost  ground  and  to  get  into  a class 
with  children  of  their  own  age  and  general  attainments.  These 
classes  are  much  used  for  young  foreigners  who  do  not  have  a knowl- 
edge of  English;  for  boys  and  girls  who  come  in  from  other  schools 
or  from  other  cities,  and  whose  teaching  has  been  of  a different  kind, 
so  that  they  do  not  fit  into  the  regular  grades  of  the  schools ; for  boys 
and  girls  who  have  been  out  of  school  or  who  have  had  poor  educa- 
tional advantages  and  so  are  two  or  three  or  four  years  behind  the 
grade  in  which  they  should  be. 

The  ungraded  classes  are  used  to  some  extent  also  for  apparently 
average  pupils  who  have  not  been  able  to  get  along  in  the  regular 
classes.  These  children,  when  put  into  the  ungraded  classes,  are  put 
there  chiefly  in  order  that  they  may  be  studied,  and  that  the  teacher 
and  the  principal  may  be  able  to  decide  what  is  the  cause  of  the  pupil's 
backwardness. 


58  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 

MINNEAPOLIS,  MINN. 

Stammerers. — A school  for  stammerers,  undertaken  by  a competent 
teacher  for  two  months,  was  so  successful  that  the  board  engaged  the 
teacher  for  an  additional  term  of  two  months  to  instruct  another  set 
of  pupils.  The  superintendent  recommends  the  continuance  of  the 
work. 

Ungraded  school. — An  ungraded  school,  centrally  located,  in  1910 
received  191  pupils  from  43  different  schools.  A pupil  sent  to  the 
ungraded  school  is  required  to  remain  at  least  one  month  before  he 
can  be  transferred  to  one  of  the  regular  buildings. 

NEWARK,  N.  J. 

Ungraded  classes. — Several  ungraded  classes  have  been  maintained, 
in  which  those  children  are  enrolled  who,  through  chronic  truancy  or 
persistent  misconduct,  are  not  considered  fit  to  remain  in  the  regular 
grades.  For  the  better  accommodation  and  training  of  these  chil- 
dren two  buildings  are  to  be  erected  on  opposite  sides  of  the  city. 
'Each  building  is  to  contain,  besides  the  principal’s  office,  two  class 
rooms  suitable  for  the  accommodation  of  25  pupils  each,  a gymna- 
sium, shop,  and  shower  baths.  A kitchen  and  proper  dining-room 
facilities  will  also  be  provided.  The  sites  will  be  spacious  enough,  it 
is  hoped,  for  playgrounds  and  for  school  gardens. 

Both  these  buildings  are  expected  to  be  models  of  their  kind  and 
such  as  to  afford  the  boys  who  attend  these  schools  all  the  facilities 
needed  for  a rational  training.  The  shop  and  the  gymnasium  fea- 
tures are  believed  to  be  needed  to  train  the  boys  in  useful  habits  of 
industry  and  in  health  and  soundness  of  body.  The  kitchen  feature 
is  intended  chiefly  to  enable  the  teachers  in  charge  of  the  school  to 
keep  the  boys  on  the  premises  during  the  noon  intermission.  Lack- 
ing this  feature,  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  allow  the  boys  to  go 
on  the  street  in  the  noon  hour,  which  has  often  resulted  in  their  en- 
gaging in  mischief  or  in  making  themselves  a nuisance  to  the  resi- 
dents of  the  vicinity.  It  is  thought  that  their  retention  at  the  school 
during  the  whole  school  day  will  serve  to  strengthen  the  habits  of 
good  behavior  that  the  school  seeks  to  attain  as  one  of  its  main  ends. 
Again,  their  retention  at  the  school  during  the  noon  hour  will  afford 
an  opportunity  at  lunch  and  in  the  recreation  period  on  the  play- 
grounds to  teach  lessons  of  appropriate  social  behavior  which  boys 
of  this  kind  generally  lack.  Manliness  of  conduct,  fair  play,  coop- 
eration, consideration  for  the  rights  of  others,  sympathy,  kindness, 
etc.,  are  important  social  and  civic  habits  which  need  specially  to  be 
emphasized  in  a school  of  this  kind. 

Schools  for  feeble-minded  children,  for  the  blind,  for  the  deaf,  for 
the  crippled,  and  open-air  classes  for  anemic  children  are  planned. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  WORK  DONE  TN  CITY  SCHOOLS. 


59 


NEW  BEDFORD,  MASS. 

Ungraded  classes. — Ungraded  classes,  started  as  an  experiment, 
have  become  a fixed  part  of  our  organization.  While  these  classes 
are  planned  for  illiterates  and  the  course  of  study  followed  is  such  as 
will  enable  the  pupils  to  meet  the  legal  requirements  for  a work  cer- 
tificate, many  pupils  have  been  transferred  to  the  regular  grades 
and  have  done  good  work.  One  boy,  who  entered  one  of  these  classes 
three  years  ago,  is  now  in  the  freshman  class  at  the  high  school. 

NEW  HAVEN,  CONN. 

Disciplinary  classes. — Rooms  are  set  apart  for  two  classes  of  chil- 
dren, viz,  the  refractory  and  non-English  speaking.  The  rooms  for 
the  refractory  are  in  the  hands  of  men  teachers,  and  each  room  has 
from  15  to  25  pupils.  At  present  the  chief  value  of  these  rooms  is 
said  to  be  that  refractory  children  are  removed  from  other  schools. 

Non-English  speaking. — Non-Englisli-speaking  children  are  taken 
into  special  rooms  as  soon  as  they  reach  the  city.  The  ages  of  the 
children  vary  from  5 or  6 to  13  or  14.  The  number  constantly 
varies  on  account  of  the  irregularity  with  which  they  reach  the  city 
and  also  the  necessary  irregularity  with  which  they  are  promoted  to 
grade  rooms. 

NEWTON,  MASS. 

Ungraded  classes. — Special  classes  are  maintained  for  backward 
and  peculiar  children,  and  unassigned  teachers  work  with  individuals 
in  the  regular  classes  who  need  special  attention. 

NEW  YORK,  N.  Y. 

In  New  York,  when  a case  of  truancy  or  incorrigibility  develops, 
the  usual  method  of  procedure  is  as  follows:  The  boy  is  suspended 

by  the  principal,  after  giving  him  many  warnings  and  trials  under 
different  teachers.  Official  notice  is  sent  to  the  parent  and  to  the 
district  superintendent.  Parent  and  child  are  summoned  to  appear 
before  the  district  superintendent.  If  upon  investigation  it  is 
evident  that  the  parent  is  to  blame,  warning  is  given  the  parent 
that  the  next  offense  will  result  in  a summons  to  the  magistrate’s 
office  and  consequent  fine.  Whether  parent  or  boy  be  in  fault  the 
boy  is,  if  possible,  transferred  to  another  school,  the  principal  of  which 
is  informed  of  all  the  circumstances  in  order  that  he  may  place  the 
young  offender  where  he  will  receive  proper  watching  and  care.  The 
boy  is  also  required  to  present  at  the  district  superintendent’s  office 
every  Saturday  a parole  card  giving  a record  of  his  daily  attendance 
and  conduct. 

Parental  schools. — In  the  vast  majority  of  cases  this  procedure  is 
effective.  If  it  fails,  parent  and  child  are  again  summoned  to  the 


60 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 


district  superintendent’s  office  and  previous  threats  of  commitment 
to  the  parental  school  are  carried  out.  The  accommodations  at  the 
parental  schools  are  not  proportionate  to  the  school  population.  For 
this  reason  a special  disciplinary  school  is  provided.  The  same  course 
of  study  is  followed  as  in  the  regular  schools,  with  the  exception  that 
greater  emphasis  is  placed  upon  physical  training  and  manual  train- 
ing. The  school  is  large  enough  to  permit  the  same  grading  that  is 
followed  in  other  schools.  There  are  more  than  100  special  classes 
for  mental  defectives  and  23  classes  for  crippled  children.  For 
these  the  board  of  education  furnishes  rooms  and  teachers.  Nurses, 
luncheons,  medical  treatment,  and  transportation  are  furnished 
through  private  philanthropy. 

Classes  for  the  deaf  and  the  blind. — There  is  a school  for  the  deaf, 
with  an  attendance  of  160  children.  Blind  children  are  taught  in  the 
regular  classes  with  seeing  children.  Car  tickets  are  provided  for 
each  child  and  his  attendant  when  the  distance  from  his  home  to  the 
school  is  considerable.  A teacher  from  the  regular  force  gives  her 
time  to  the  blind  children  attending  a given  school,  but  after  the 
children  have  acquired  some  proficiency  in  the  use  of  the  Braille  slate 
and  Braille  typewriter  they  are  sent  to  the  regular  graded  classes. 
Books,  maps,  and  charts  in  raised  type  are  provided  by  the  school 
authorities. 

Open-air  schools. — Day  camps  or  open-air  schools  have  been  pro- 
vided on  abandoned  ferryboats  and  elsewhere  for  tuberculous  and 
anemic  children,  the  school  board  providing  teachers,  books,  and 
supplies. 

Non-English  speaking. — Classes  for  non-English-speaking  children 
accommodate  about  1,200  children.  About  1,500  are  cared  for  in 
classes  for  the  mentally  defective,  and  twice  as  many  in  classes  for 
children  who  will  shortly  reach  the  limit  of  the  compulsory-attendance 
period  and  are  preparing  to  take  their  work  certificates.  More  than 
20,000  slow  children  are  cared  for  in  so-called  “ Rapid  progress 
classes,”  in  which  they  are  given  the  advantages  of  skilled  teachers 
and  abridged  and  amended  courses  of  study. 

OAKLAND,  CAL. 

Classes  for  deaf. — Special  classes  are  maintained  for  the  deaf  and  for 
those  who  fail  to  keep  up  in  the  grade  work.  Saturday  morning 
classes  are  maintained  for  those  who  are  not  able  to  attend  school 
during  the  entire  week.  In  connection  with  medical  inspection,  free 
clinics  have  been  provided  for  the  benefit  of  those  children  whose 
parents  are  not  able  to  contribute  full  pay  for  services  rendered. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  WORK  DONE  IN  CITY  SCHOOLS. 


61 


PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 

School  for  backward. — The  first  special  school  for  the  truant  and 
incorrigible  was  established  in  this  city  in  1898.  The  number  of  such 
schools  has  grown  to  9 at  present  date.  The  first  class  for  backward 
children  in  a regular  school  was  established  in  1901.  The  number 
of  such  classes  has  grown  to  6,  and  one  school  of  6 classes  has  been 
organized  as  a special  school  for  backward  and  mentally  deficient 
children  only.  With  but  two  exceptions  the  special  schools,  though 
originally  intended  for  the  truant  and  incorrigible  only,  have  by  a 
natural  classification  of  the  pupils  attending  them  been  organized  for 
backward  and  mentally  deficient  children  also.  The  schools,  how- 
ever, are  small,  varying  in  size  from  but  2 to  a maximum  of  7 
classes,  and  make  provisions  for  only  1,000  pupils.  There  are  in  all 
23  disciplinary  classes  with  an  enrollment  of  458  boys,  and  25  back- 
ward classes  (6  of  these  are  in  regular  schools)  with  an  enrollment 
of  350  boys  and  107  girls. 


READING,  PA. 

Disciplinary  class. — Twto  schools,  one  for  pupils  physically  and  the 
other  for  pupils  socially  not  fitted  to  the  grades,  are  now  in  operation. 
Since  their  opening  in  the  spring  of  1907,  60  boys  and  girls  have  been 
enrolled  in  the  former  and  111  in  the  latter.  The  results  have  been 
gratifying.  Of  the  111  that  failed  to  attend  punctually  in  the  grades, 
48  are  now  regularly  employed,  23  have  been  returned  to  the  grades, 
13  have  been  transferred  to  other  institutions,  7 have  removed  from 
the  city,  1 has  died,  and  19  are  now  in  the  special  school.  The  effect 
of  this  school  has  been  felt  upon  the  entire  pupil  body.  Since  its 
establishment  the  number  of  suspensions  has  decreased  75  per  cent, 
and  chronic  truancy  has  lessened  80  per  cent.  In  fact,  truancy  now 
reported  is  confined  almost  entirely  to  half-day  and  day  cases. 

ROCHESTER,  N.  Y. 

Classes  for  subnormal  and  for  gifted.—  There  are  16  classes  for  sub- 
normal children  in  different  sections  of  the  city.  The  work  of  one 
supervisor  and  one  medical  inspector  is  limited  to  this  department. 
Non-English-speaking  children  and  delinquent  children  are  grouped  in 
a similar  manner.  Capable  children  in  the  eighth  grade  earn  high- 
school  credits  in  civics,  English,  algebra,  Latin,  and  German.  Seven 
teachers  devote  their  time  to  pupils  who  are  deficient  in  reading, 
arithmetic,  and  English. 

ST.  LOUIS,  MO. 

School  for  backward. — Two  classes  of  exceptional  children  receive 
special  attention — the  deaf  and  the  extremely  backward.  Children 
incapable  of  doing  either  the  kind  or  amount  of  work  that  slow 


62  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 

children  of  normal  intellect  can  do  are  brought  together  in  small  two- 
story  houses  rented  for  the  purpose.  Transportation  is  furnished  to 
those  children  whose  homes  are  not  within  walking  distance.  Each 
house  accommodates  two  classes  of  15  children  each.  There  are  two 
teachers  in  each  center,  and  a woman  attendant  who  lives  in  the 
building  and  takes  care  of  the  heating  and  cleaning. 

SALT  LAKE  CITY,  UTAH. 

Psychological  clinic. — A class  for  subnormal  children  has  been 
planned  which  will  serve  quite  as  much  the  purpose  of  a laboratory 
for  the  study  of  such  children  as  a place  for  their  instruction.  A 
teacher  of  experience,  a university  graduate  with  special  training, 
will  have  charge,  and  will  secure  the  cooperation  of  the  department 
of  psychology  and  the  department  of  medicine  of  the  State  University. 

SCHENECTADY,  N.  Y. 

Non- English  speaking. — Foreign-born  children  are  taught  in  sepa- 
rate classes  until  they  acquire  a working  knowledge  of  English,  when 
they  are  regraded  according  to  their  proficiency  in  other  subjects. 

The  number  of  children  who  are  over  age  for  their  grades  is  deter- 
mined annually.  Where  physical  defects  are  found,  the  child  is 
placed  under  the  care  of  the  board  of  health.  Where  no  physical 
defects  are  found  the  child’s  progress  is  hastened  by  placing  him 
under  a special  teacher  who  gives  her  time  to  backward  pupils. 

SOMERVILLE,  MASS. 

Dental  clinic. — In  addition  to  a class  for  children  of  less  than  normal 
mental  power  and  an  ungraded  class  in  which  children  remain  a few 
weeks  to  make  up  deficiencies,  a dental  clinic  has  been  organized 
through  the  voluntary  services  of  25  dentists  who  give  their  services 
without  charge  to  the  city  for  the  treatment  of  school  children  who 
could  not  otherwise  have  the  treatment.  While  the  results  are 
gratifying,  it  is  probable  that  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  school  board 
to  cooperate  in  some  elements  of  expense  if  the  undertaking  is  to  be 
made  permanent  and  thoroughly  satisfactory. 

SPOKANE,  WASH. 

Parental  schools. — A parental  school  is  maintained,  occupying  a 
farm  of  40  acres,  5 miles  from  the  city.  The  board  of  school  direc- 
tors bought  the  land,  cleared  it,  erected  for  the  accommodation  of  25 
boys  a cottage  containing  dormitories,  kitchen,  dining  room,  laundry, 
attendance  rooms,  library,  manual- training  rooms,  lavatories,  etc. 
They  also  provided  for  a schoolhouse,  detached  barns,  chicken  houses, 
ice  house,  reservoir,  electric-light  plant,  irrigation  system,  wells,  etc. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  WORK  DONE  IN  CITY  SCHOOLS. 


63 


The  boys  have  a teacher  for  the  regular  school  work,  and,  in  addi- 
tion to  this,  receive  instruction  in  woodwork,  gardening,  and  horti- 
culture. 

A fine  stream  traverses  the  property,  affording  facilities  for  swim- 
ming, boating,  irrigation,  and  ice  supply. 

The  boys  are  committed  by  the  superior  court  on  recommendation 
of  the  attendance  department  of  the  public  schools. 

The  life  on  the  farm  in  almost  every  case  works  a complete  trans- 
formation of  the  boys,  because  it  puts  them  in  proper  environment  and 
gives  them  the  right  interests. 

Though  in  operation  but  one  year  (1910)  the  school  is  crowded. 
More  cottages  will  be  added  very  soon. 

Ungraded  classes. — In  the  city  there  is  an  ungraded  class  of  boys 
living  at  home  who  do  not  fit  into  the  regular  school  organization. 
These  boys  receive  individual  instruction  to  a large  extent  and  con- 
siderable manual  training.  It  is  planned  to  give  a still  greater  pro- 
portion of  shopwork  to  these  boys. 

The  results  of  this  class  have  been  most  encouraging  because  the 
boys  have  been  given  new  interest  where  before  they  had  none. 

The  establishment  of  a school  for  subnormal  and  other  defective 
children  is  contemplated. 

SPRINGFIELD,  MASS. 

Ungraded  classes. — Five  rooms  are  set  apart  for  children  who  are 
backward  in  one  or  more  studies  and  for  children  who  can  not  speak 
English.  The  enrollment  per  room  is  limited  to  20  pupils. 

Classes  for  subnormal. — One  special  class  is  maintained  for  mentally 
defective  children.  The  membership  is  limited  to  14.  Low-grade 
cases  are  not  admitted.  The  hours  of  attendance  are  5;  3 in  the 
morning  and  2 in  the  afternoon.  Car  tickets  are  furnished  to  those 
pupils  whose  homes  are  not  within  walking  distance.  Approximately 
two-thirds  of  the  day  is  given  to  physical,  manual,  and  sense- 
training work.  Kindergarten  methods  and  materials  are  used  for 
those  who  need  them,  and  the  regular  work  done  in  Grades  I and  II 
is  attempted,  viz,  reading,  writing,  spelling,  number,  drawing,  singing, 
telling  of  time,  story-telling,  and  dramatization,  the  emphasis  being 
laid  on  object  teaching  and  personal  experience. 

The  teacher  of  this  class  for  defective  children  has  had  special 
training  for  her  work,  and  she  is  frequently  called  upon  to  examine 
retarded  children  in  the  various  schools  of  the  city  and  to  deter- 
mine, if  possible,  the  reason  for  their  retardation. 

Arrangements  have  been  completed  for  maintaining  an  open-air 
school  for  anemic  children  on  the  grounds  of  a centrally  located 
school  building.  The  enterprise  is  cooperative,  the  Association  for 


04  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 

the  Prevention  of  Tuberculosis  furnishing  the  tent,  the  extra  cloth- 
ing, the  food,  and  the  care,  and  the  school  committee  supplying  the 
regular  school  equipment  and  the  instruction. 

WILLIAMSPORT,  PA. 

Flexible  grading. — The  schools  are  divided  into  fast  and  slow  divi- 
sions. A particularly  slow  division  is  taught  as  a special  class. 

Work  for  physically  and  mentally  defective  children  is  contem- 
plated, but  not  yet  definitely  planned. 

WOONSOCKET,  R.  I. 

Non-English  speaking. — Two  classes  have  been  established  for  the 
instruction  of  non-English-speaking  children  in  which  51  children 
have  been  enrolled.  Thirteen  understood  practically  no  English,  10 
understood  a little,  and  the  others  had  been  in  the  city  schools  two  or 
three  years,  but  seem  to  have  made  but  little  progress.  Each  school- 
room has  a map  of  the  United  States  and  the  American  flag. 
The  books  are  the  same  as  those  used  in  the  evening  schools  and  were 
prepared  especially  for  non-English-speaking  pupils.  Objects  and 
pictures  are  freely  used  and  as  the  new  words  are  learned  the  pupils 
are  taught  to  use  them  in  sentences  and  responses.  Besides  reading 
the  pupils  have  had  conversation,  dictation,  spelling,  numbers,  map 
questions,  and  language  work. 

Of  the  seven  most  advanced,  one  came  direct  from  France  and 
understood  no  word  of  English.  Another  of  those  making  good 
progress  had  come  here  only  a few  weeks  before  entering  school. 

The  children  seem  to  be  interested,  and  most  of  them  learn  very 
rapidly.  Many  of  them  go  to  work  as  soon  as  they  are  14,  and  they 
seem  to  want  to  learn  as  much  English  as  they  can  before  leaving 
school. 

WORCESTER,  MASS. 

In  the  reclassification  of  the  special  and  ungraded  classes  in  the 
Worcester  schools  there  has  been  an  attempt  to  classify  for  the  present 
as  follows: 

Non-English  speaking. — Those  of  normal  ability  having  a knowledge 
of  subjects  in  their  own  language,  but  who,  because  foreign  bom, 
have  not  a command  of  English.  Where  two  classes  existed  in  the 
same  location  they  have  been  redivided  according  to  age,  separating 
the  older  from  the  younger  children.  For  these  the  stress  is  on  the 
English  language,  ability  to  read  and  write  it,  and  the  special  class  is 
a grading  room,  whence  the  pupil  soon  passes  to  a regular  class. 
It  is  a question  whether  these  should  be  included  among  the  so-called 
special  classes. 


DESCRIPTIONS  OF  WORK  DONE  IN  CITY  SCHOOLS. 


65 


Ungraded  class. — Children  of  normal  ability  but  temporarily  re- 
tarded in  one  or  more  subjects  by  some  of  the  previously  mentioned 
causes.  For  such  the  special  class  is  a clearing  house,  whence  they 
pass  to  a regular  grade. 

Class  for  feeble-minded. — Children  slow  to  understand,  of  naturally 
inferior  intellectual  ability,  so  constituted  nervously  as  to  be  unable 
to  profit  by  mass  teaching;  their  progress  slow  but  steady. 

Class  for  mental  defectives. — In  addition  to  these  last  are  those  so 
deficient  as  to  be  entirely  incapable  of  profiting  by  ordinary  school 
methods,  yet  it  is  the  task  of  the  school  to  make  the  most  of  existing 
mentality. 

Class  for  the  physically  defective. — A class  of  normal  children  suffer- 
ing retardation  because  of  some  physical  defect,  such  as  seriously  de- 
fective vision  or  hearing. 

Classes  for  gifted. — In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  exceptionally  ca- 
pable children  are  brought  together  into  convenient  centers,  where 
they  take  up  extra  studies  of  high-school  grade  along  with  those  of 
elementary  grade,  thus  shortening  the  high-school  course. 

5092°— Bull.  14—11 5 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


THE  SELECTION  AND  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS. 

The  best  advice  that  can  be  given  to  the  superintendent  of  schools 
who  appreciates  the  necessity  of  organizing  special  classes,  and  who 
is  desirous  of  introducing  them,  is  to  proceed  with  that  he  finds 
nearest  to  hand.  It  would  be  a mistake  for  him  to  wait  until  he  has 
ascertained  the  whole  number  of  backward  or  of  physically  and  other- 
wise exceptional  children,  and  then  attempt  to  introduce  a complete 
organization  to  meet  the  needs  of  all.  The  number  of  such  children 
will  be  found  to  be  much  larger  than  the  superintendent  has  dreamed; 
the  expense  will  be  much  greater  than  the  school  board  will  be  likely 
to  assume  in  connection  with  a new  enterprise  in  education.  More- 
over, it  would  be  impossible  to  find  anywhere  in  the  United  States  a 
sufficient  number  of  adequately  trained  teachers  to  meet  the  needs 
of  the  large  number  of  different  types  of  exceptional  children. 

In  one  school  system  it  might  be  desirable  to  begin  with  a school 
for  the  deaf,  in  another  with  a school  for  crippled  children,  in  another 
for  disciplinary  cases — depending  upon  the  immediate  and  most  press- 
ing necessity  in  each  school  system.  In  most  communities  schools  for 
truants  and  disciplinary  cases  have  been  relatively  more  firmly  estab- 
lished than  schools  for  other  types  of  exceptional  children.  This  is 
undoubtedly  because  of  the  bad  effect  of  these  “moral”  cases  upon 
class-room  discipline. 

Our  advice  would  be  to  organize  one  class  at  a time,  to  organize  it 
with  reference  to  the  needs  of  the  children  who  have  been  discovered 
in  the  school  system,  and  to  organize  it  with  some  reference  to  the 
special  teacher  who  is  to  have  charge  of  it.  The  best  provision  to 
make  for  the  teaching  is  to  assign  some  member  of  the  school  system, 
perhaps  a teacher  of  experience  in  primary  work,  who  has  shown  an 
aptitude  for  the  handling  of  individual  cases.  There  is  a difference 
between  class-room  instruction  and  individual  teaching.  Many 
admirable  class-room  teachers,  perhaps  even  the  best  of  them,  will 
not  be  especially  serviceable  as  teachers  of  individual  cases.  The 
teacher  must  have  her  mind  on  the  physical  and  mental  make-up  of 
each  child,  and  her  interest  must  be  not  in  the  teaching  of  school 
branches  but  in  getting  the  child  to  make  the  next  step  forward. 

The  best  training  of  these  teachers  must  come  from  actual  expe- 
rience. Perhaps  as  good  a plan  as  any  is  to  select  a good  teacher, 
66 


SELECTION  AND  TRAINING  OE  TEACHERS. 


67 


give  her  a limited  number  of  children,  and  let  her  work  out  her  own 
salvation,  for  the  first  year  at  all  events.  After  she  has  had  some 
experience  with  such  work,  so  that  she  knows  her  limitations  and 
knows  to  some  extent  what  she  needs,  it  would  be  well  for  her  to  begin 
to  add  to  her  professional  equipment. 

The  subjects  in  which  she  most  needs  instruction  are  hygiene,  physi- 
ology, psychology  (with  special  reference  to  the  various  types  of 
defective  children),  and,  so  far  as  these  are  known,  the  best  methods 
of  conducting  the  work  with  different  types  of  children.  It  is  not 
to  be  expected  that  any  one  teacher  can  fit  herself  for  work  with  all 
classes  of  children.  For  example,  one  teacher  may  be  especially  well 
equipped  for  articulation  work;  whereas  another  teacher  may  be 
poorly  equipped  for  this  work  and  yet  be  very  successful  with  the 
ordinary  backward  cases. 

Special  training  should  be  given  to  those  teachers  who  are  going  to 
do  what  is,  after  all,  the  most  important  work  for  exceptional  chil- 
dren— the  training  of  those  children  who  have  fallen  behind  their 
grades,  but  who  are  yet  capable  of  catching  up.  What  is  needed  here 
is  hurry-up  work,  forcing  work;  and  the  teacher  requires  unusual 
teaching  ability  and  a special  equipment.  What  is  needed  for  this 
kind  of  work  is  not  a knowledge  of  the  methods  of  training  feeble- 
minded children,  but  a knowledge  of  exnert  methods  of  encouraging 
normal  mental  development. 

There  is  no  one  institution  which  offers  all  of  the  varied  training 
which  a teacher  of  exceptional  children  may  require.  The  first 
training  offered  for  public-school  teachers  of  backward  children,  so 
far  as  we  know,  was  offered  by  the  department  of  psychology  of  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  in  the  year  1897,  in  the  summer-school 
course.  Before  this,  teachers  had  been  trained  for  the  teaching  of 
deaf  children  in  the  public  schools,  notably  in  Chicago  and  Milwaukee. 
Since  then  the  Vineland  (N.  J.)  Training  School  for  Feeble-minded 
Children  has  put  its  resources  at  the  disposal  of  the  teachers  of  this 
country  and  is  doing  admirable  work.  All  this  and  more  is  needed. 
The  public  schools  of  this  country  require  a training  school  for 
teachers  where  all  lines  of  special  work  will  be  adequately  represented. 
Science — many  different  branches  of  science — and  practice  with  all 
the  common  types  of  exceptional  children  must  afford  highly  gifted  and 
well-trained  teachers  the  means  of  adding  to  their  professional  equip- 
ment what  will  make  of  them  “ educational  experts,”  who  will  render 
service  to  their  communities  not  only  as  the  teachers  of  exceptional 
children  but  as  the  advisers  of  ordinary  teachers  and  administrative 
officers  and  as  contributors  to  what  has  been  termed  “ orthogenics  ” — 
the  science  which  deals  with  the  study  and  treatment  of  mental  and 
physical  defects  obstructing  and  retarding  normal  development. 


68  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 

Cities  reporting  but  not  stating  any  provision  for  exceptional  children. 

Alabama. — Florence,  Gadsden,  Gifard,  Huntsville,  New  Decatuf,  Seltoa,  Talladega. 
Arkansas. — Paragoul  d . 

California . — N apa . 

Colorado. — Canon  City. 

Connecticut. — N orwich,  Southington . 

Florida. — Pensacola,  Tampa. 

Georgia . — Albany,  Americus,  Elberton,  Rome,  Savannah. 

Illinois. — Alton,  Belleville,  Blue  Island,  Champaign,  Charleston,  Clinton,  Edwards- 
ville,  Elgin,  Freeport,  Galena,  Jacksonville,  Litchfield,  Kankakee,  Mendota,  Mon- 
mouth, Mount  Carmel,  Normal,  Ottawa,  Taylorville. 

Indiana. — Alexandria,  Bedford,  Bluffton,  Garrett,  Gas  City,  Jeffersonville,  Law- 
renceburg,  Linton,  Logansport,  Madison,  Montpelier,  Portland,  Rushville,  Warsaw. 

Iowa—  Albia,  Cedar  Falls,  Crexton,  Fort  Dodge,  Keokuk,  Mason  City,  Missouri 
Valley,  Oelwein,  Oskaloosa,  Washington. 

Kansas. — Arkansas  City,  Cherryvale,  Concordia,  Galena,  Independence,  Rosedale. 
Kentucky. — Frankfort,  Madison ville. 

Louisiana. — Lake  Charles,  Monroe,  Shreveport. 

Maine. — Belfast,  Gardiner,  South  Portland. 

Maryland. — Salisbury. 

Massachusetts. — Blackstone,  Middleborough. 

Michigan. — Albion,  Coldwater,  Holland,  Ionia,  Marshall,  Niles,  St.  Joseph. 
Minnesota. — Moorehead. 

Mississippi. — Columbus,  Corinth,  McComb,  Meridian,  Vicksburg. 

Missouri. — Boonville,  Independence,  Maryville,  Rich  Hill,  Springfield. 

Montana. — Anaconda,  Helena. 

Nebraska. — North  Platte. 

New  Hampshire. — Exeter,  Franklin,  Keene,  Rochester. 

New  Jersey. — Hackensack. 

New  York. — Ballston  Spa,  Bath,  Corning,  Lyons,  Matteawan,  Medina,  Middletown, 
Oneida,  Ossining,  Oswego,  Owego,  Plattsburg,  Potsdam,  Seneca  Falls,  Tonawanda, 
Waterloo,  Wells  ville. 

North  Carolina. — Burlington,  Concord. 

North  Dakota. — Bismarck,  Minot. 

Ohio. — Alliance,  Defiance,  Piqua,  Troy,  Wapakoneta,  Washington,  Wellsville, 
Wooster,  Xenia. 

Oklahoma. — Perry,  Shawnee. 

Oregon. — Baker. 

Pennsylvania. — Ashland,  Bloomsburg,  Carbondale,  Catasauqua,  Clearfield,  Coates- 
ville,  Columbia,  Conshohocken,  Dickson  City,  Lock  Haven,  McKees  Rocks,  Middle- 
town,  Millvale,  Northampton,  Oil  City,  Peckville,  Pitcairn,  Pottsville,  Renovo, 
Rochester,  Sharon,  Tamaqua,  Tarentum,  Towanda,  Waynesboro,  Wilkinsburg. 

Rhode  Island. — Coventry,  North  Kingston,  Pascoag,  Warren,  Warwick. 

South  Carolina. — Chester,  Florence,  Laurens,  Rock  Hill. 

South  Dakota. — Aberdeen. 

Tennessee . — Bristol . 

Texas. — Beaumont,  Corsicana,  Ennis,  Gainesville,  Greenville,  Hillsboro,  Martin, 
Palestine,  Sherman,  Temple,  Waxahachie. 

Virginia. — Fredericksburg,  Suffolk. 

Washington . — Bellingham . 

West  Virginia. — Clarksburg,  Wheeling. 

Wisconsin. — Baraboo,  Waukesha. 


Statistical  summary  of  cities  making  provision  for  exceptional  children. 


CITIES  PROVIDING  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN.  69 


Provision  for — 

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Statistical  summary  of  cities  making  provision  for  exceptional  children — Continued. 


10 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 


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CITIES  PROVIDING  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL,  CHILDREN 


71 


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Cities  making  provision  for  exceptional  children  ( indicated  hy  X) — Continued. 


72  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 


Provision  for— 

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Cities. 

Calif  or  nia— Continued . 

Santa  Parham 

ll 

1C 

I ee 

II 

!CC 

! s 
IE 

)C 
I e! 

! c 

; c 

ice 

a 

) c 

|g 

ite 

1* 

Colorado: 

Boulder 

U 

a 

a 

C 
' a 

! p 
i e 

IE 

Denver 

Tveadville 

Pueblo 

Pueblo  (district 

No.  n 

. ee 

)TZ 

a 

Trinidad  _ 

1 

i 

!J 

Connecticut: 

Ansonia 

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ji 

|| 
I pc 

Bristol  _ _ 

> 

F- 

il 

ii 

ip 

l! 

ip 

•c 

1 

Ip 

L 

c 

l! 

ll 

Meriden.  

Middletown 

New  Britain 

I e 
;> 
ip 

'[z 

ii 

iJ 

IP 

L 

ii 

South  Manchester 

Stamford 

| 
1 E 

1 c 

i 

4 

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Si 

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Winsted 

District  of  Columbia: 
Washington 

CITIES  PROVIDING  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN 


73 


x :xx 


x xxx 


x x 


xxxx 


xx  : :xx 


xx 


xxx 


xx 


x xxx  :x 


xxx 


x :xxxxx 


xxx 


xxx 


xx 


xx 


XX 


XX 


XX 


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Cities  making  provision  for  exceptional  children  ( indicated  by  X) — Continued. 


74 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS, 


Provision  for — 

'SOIUip  IBXU9Q 

•spajap  joj 
uoipuiuiB 

-X9  IBOISXqj 

XX 

XX 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

XX 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

XXX 

X 

xxxx 

X 

XXX 

X 

•uotpads 
-UI  i B O i p 9 H 

XX  XXXXXXXXXX 

xxxxxxxx 

xxxxxxxxx 

X X 

•jBuuouqns  araojj 

•quma 

'Ajopbjj 

-si  jo  9iqi3iJJ00ux 

•paidduo 

•sjadsq  'SJ9 
-J91U4S  ‘SJ9J9inUIB^g 

• jgqoeoi.  dpq-jeioads 

X 

•spoqos  uoi^boba 

•uajpjiqo  payiS  joj 

XX 

X 

XX 

X 

•uajpjiqo 

Sui  J9^U9  - 9 i B I JOJ 

X 

X 

XXX 

X 

•oi^dapda 

•IBix 

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((*uoixBnm;uoo„ 

X 

X 

X 

qBnoixBOOA 

X 

X 

XX 

X 

X 

X 

•sjooqos 

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X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

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•sjooqos 

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X 

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X 

- 

X 

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•9Aiq.09J9a 

X 

XX 

X 

X 

X 

*pjBAV3[OBa 

X 

XX 

X 

XXX 

XX 

XX 

•;U9nbUII9Q 

X 

XX 

X 

X 

Cities. 

Illinois— Continued. 

TTrhana. 

P 

1 

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Indiana: 

Anderson 

c 

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Iowa: 

Atlantic 

CTTTES  PROVIDING  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN.  75 


X 

X 

X 

x : 

X 

xxxxxxx  ix  ix  ix  : : :xx  : i : ix  i ix  : : : 

X 

xxxxx  x ix  xxx 

xxxxx  ixxxx  ixxxx  ix  i ixxxx  i ixxx  ix  ixxx  xxxxxxxx  x ix  xxx 


x 


x 


x : : : :::::::::::::::::  :x  : : : : :x 


x :::::::::::  x ::  : : : : : x : : : : : x 


:x  : : 

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i i ix  i i 

i ix  ix  i 

ix 

jxx  i i i i i 

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: : : : x : 

: : : :x  : 

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: :xx  : : : 

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; ^2  : ; : : : : : q : o i d 3 ^ : : : 

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Cities  making  provision  for  exceptional  children  ( indicated  by  X) — Continued. 


76 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS, 


1 Provision  for— 

1 

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X 

X 

x : 

:x 

XX 

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•sjadsq  ‘sia 
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X 

:x 

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X 

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•uajpqqo 

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X 

*0i^d9iida 

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,/noi^nmiuoQ,, 

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XX 

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Cities. 

ine — Continued . 
Rath 

TCrewer 

Brnnswick 

j 

1.2 

I* 

id 

1 

Houlton 

Lewiston 

Oldtown 

Portland 

Saco 

Westbrook 

LI 

b^ 

Baltimore 

Cumberland 

& 

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junnersi 

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Barnstable 

Belmont... 

joeveriy 

Boston. 

Braintree 

Brockton 

d> 

id 

Canton 

Chelmsford 

Chelsea 

m.;  

Milieu  pw 

Clinton 

CITIES  PROVIDING  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN. 


77 


x : :x 


x : :x  : :x 


x :x 


xx 


xxxxx  : :xx  :x  :xxx  : :xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx; 


xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx. 


x : : :x 


:::  :x  :x  ::  :xx  :::::::  :x  :::::::  :xx  :::  :xx  :::  :x  :::::::::  : 
: : :xx  : :x  : :x  : : : : :x  : jxxxx  : :x  : :x  : : :x  : :xx  :x  :x  : : : jxx  : :x  : : 


xxx  :::::::::::  :x 


Cities  making  'provision  for  exceptional  children  (indicated  hy  X)— Continued. 


78 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 


‘SOJUtp 


:x  : :x 


•s;o3j9p  jo; 
uoi;b  U I UI  B 
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XXXXXXXXXXX 


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XXXXX  XX 


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•uoipjiqo 

Sin jo;uo  - o \ b i joj 


•oi^dondg; 


:x  :x 


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•uot;,Bnm;uol), 


•XBUOiq.BOOA 


: :xx  : : :x 


:x  :x 


•siooqos 

;qSiu  ‘sjouSiojo;  joj 


:xx  :xxx  :x  : : :x  :xx  :x 


:xx 


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if  Bp  ‘sjouSiojo;  joj_ 


•JiB-uodo 


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X X 


xxx  : :x  :::::::  ;x  ::::::::  :x  :x  xx 


xx 


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CITIES  PROVIDING  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN, 


79 


X 

X 

X 

XX 

X 

X 

X 

X 

XX 

xxxx 

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X 

X 

XX 

X 

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XX 

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X 

X 

XX 

X 

X 

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Cities  making  'provision  for  exceptional  children  ( indicated  by  X ) — Continued . 


80  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 


Provision  for — 

•somip  JB^U9Q 

x : 

x : 

x : 

x : 

x : 

X 

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uon^  u I UI B 
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x : 

xxx  : 

xxx 

XX 

x : 

xx  : 

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X 

XX  XXX 

xxxxx 

XX 

XX 

xxxxxx 

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•jeuijouqns  onion 

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X 

X 

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gUU9^U9  - 9 i B 1 JO  J 

X 

X 

X 

X 

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Cities. 

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CITIES  PROVIDING  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN 


81 


XX 


xxx  ::  :x  ::::::::::  :x  :xx 


xx 


x x x : xx 


xxx  xx 


xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx 


X X XX  XX 


XXX  XX 


xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx 


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5092° — Bull.  14-11- 


Cities  making  provision  for  exceptional  children  ( indicated  hy  X) — Continued. 


82 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 


•soimp  liuuaci 


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p{3ru  ‘sjaaSiajoj  joj 


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X 

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CITIES  PROVIDING  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN 


83 


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Cities  making  provision  for  exceptional  children  ( indicated  by  X) — Continued. 


34 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 


Provision  for — 

•sopqp  iB^uaa 

XX 

XXX 

X 

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Cities. 

Ohio— Continued. 

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i 

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CTTIES  PROVIDING  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN, 


85 


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86 


PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS, 


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CITIES  PROVIDING  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN, 


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Cities  making  provision  for  exceptional  children  ( indicated  hy  X) — Continued. 


88  PROVISION  FOR  EXCEPTIONAL  CHILDREN  IN  SCHOOLS. 


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BRIEF  BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Ayres,  Leonard  P. : Laggards  in  our  schools.  New  York:  Charities  Publication  Com- 
mittee. 1909.  236  pp.  $1.50. 

A study  of  the  administrative  and  statistical  phases  of  retardation  and  elimination  in  city  school 
systems. 

Fernald,  Walter  E.:  The  history  of  the  treatment  of  the  feeble-minded.  Proceedings 
of  the  National  Conference  of  Charities  and  Correction.  1898.  203  pp. 

Best  general  study  of  the  history  of  the  movement. 

Henderson,  Charles  R. : An  introduction  to  the  study  of  the  dependent , defective , and 
delinquent  classes,  and  of  their  social  treatment.  Boston:  D.  C.  Heath  & Co.  1909. 
404  pp.  $1.50. 

Maennel,  B.:  Auxiliary  schools  of  Germany.  Washington:  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education.  Bulletin  No.  3,  1907. 

For  free  distribution. 

Nors  worthy,  Naomi:  Psychology  of  mentally  deficient  children.  New  York:  Science 
Press.  1906.  Ill  pp. 

Seguin,  Edward:  Idiocy  and  its  treatment  by  the  physiological  method.  New  York: 
Science  Press.  1907.  457  pp. 

Shields,  Thomas  E.:  Making  and  the  unmaking  of  a dullard.  Washington:  Catholic 
Education  Press.  1909.  296  pp.  $1. 

Tredgold,  A.  F.:  Mental  deficiency . London.  1908.  391  pp. 

This  is  the  latest  and  one  of  the  best  books  on  the  subject. 

Ward,  Lester  F.:  Applied  psychology . Boston:  Ginn  & Company.  1906.  384  pp. 
$2.50. 

Chapters  VIII,  IX,  and  X deal  with  the  development  of  the  supernormal  mind. 

MAGAZINES. 

Journal  of  Educational  Psychology.  Baltimore:  Warwick  & York.  Monthly, 
except  July  and  August.  $1.50  per  year. 

This  journal  is  a clearing  house  for  the  exchange  of  information  upon  all  that  concerns  the  relation 
of  psychology  to  education.  (About  sixty  pages  per  number.) 

The  Psychological  Clinic.  West  Philadelphia:  Psychological  Clinic  Press. 
Monthly,  except  July,  August,  and  September.  $1.50  per  year. 

The  object  of  this  journal  is  the  study  and  treatment  of  mental  retardation  and  deviation  among 
children.  It  is  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  exceptional  child.  (About  thirty  pages  per  number.) 

The  Training  School.  Vineland,  N.  J.  Monthly,  except  July  and  August.  $1 
per  year. 

Devoted  to  the  interests  of  children  requiring  special  care  and  training.  The  organ  of  the  Training 
School  for  Backward  and  Feeble-minded  Children,  Vineland,  N.  J.  (About  sixteen  pages  per 
number.) 


89 


INDEX. 


Abnormality,  8. 

Age  and  grade  tables,  for  determining  retarded 
children,  23-25. 

American  school  systems,  work  done  for  excep- 
tional children,  42-65,  68,  69-88;  Baltimore,  Md., 
42,  43;  Bayonne,  N.  J.,  43;  Boston,  Mass.,  43,  44; 
Calumet,  Mich.,  44;  Cambridge,  Mass.,  45;  Cam- 
den, N.  J.,  45;  Chicago,  111.,  45-47, 48;  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  48-50;  Cleveland,  Ohio,  50,  51;  Denver, 
Colo.,  51;  Detroit,  Mich.,  51;  Fitchburg,  Mass., 
51,  52;  Hartford,  Conn.,  52,  53;  Houston,  Tex.,  53; 
Indianapolis,  Ind.,  54,  55;  Joplin,  Mo.,  55;  Lin- 
coln, Nebr.,  55;  Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  55,  56;  Lynn, 
Mass.,  56;  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  56,  57;  Minneapolis, 
Minn.,  58;  Newark,  N.  J.,  58;  New  Bedford, 
Mass.,  59;  New  Haven, Conn.,  59;  Newton,  Mass., 
59;  New  York  City,  59,  60;  Oakland,  Cal.,  60; 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  61;  Reading,  Pa.,  61;  Roch- 
ester, N.  Y.,  61;  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  61,  62;  Salt  Lake 
City,  Utah,  62;  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  62;  Somer- 
ville, Mass.,  62;  Spokane,  Wash.,  62,  63;  Spring- 
field,  Mass.,  63,  64;  Williamsport,  Pa.,  64;  Woon- 
socket, R.  I.,  64;  Worcester,  Mass.,  64, 65. 

Backward  children,  education,  first  introduced  to 
American  teachers,  12. 

Balliet,  T.  M.,  and  class  for  backward  children,  12. 
Baltimore,  Md.,  special  classes  for  epileptic  chil- 
dren, 14;  work  done  for  exceptional  children, 

42.  43. 

Batavia  plan,  grading  and  promotion,  37, 38. 
Bayonne,  N.  J.,  work  done  for  exceptional  children, 

43. 

Bibliography,  89. 

Blind,  classes,  city  school  systems,  34,  35;  classes, 
Milwaukee,  Wis.,  56,  57;  training,  9. 

Boston,  Mass.,  class  for  backward  children,  12; 
house  of  refuge,  9;  work  done  for  exceptional 
children,  43,  44. 

Bright  children,  17, 18. 

Brooklyn  teachers’  association,  grading  and  promo- 
tion plans,  36,  38. 

Bryan,  superintendent,  and  statistics  of  retarda- 
tion, 13. 

Calumet,  Mich. , work  done  for  exceptional  children, 

44. 

Cambridge,  Mass.,  grading  and  promotion,  37, 39; 

work  done  for  exceptional  children,  45. 

Camden,  N.  J.,  and  retardation  of  pupils,  13;  work 
done  for  exceptional  children , 45. 

Chicago,  111.,  classes  for  backward  children,  12; 
grading  and  promotion,  37;  large-school  plan  of 
grading,  39;  work  done  for  exceptional  children, 
45-48. 

Child,  individualization,  7,  8. 

Cincinnati,  Ohio,  work  done  for  exceptional  chil- 
dren, 48-50. 


City  school  systems,  inquiry  regarding  exceptional 
children  prepared  by  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education,  31,  32;  medical  inspection,  35;  meth- 
ods for  determining  extent  and  degree  of  retarda- 
tion, 23-30;  provision  for  environmentally  excep- 
tional children,  35;  provision  for  exceptional  chil- 
dren, 31-35,  42-65,  68,  statistical  summary,  69-88; 
provision  for  mentally  exceptional  children,  33, 34; 
provision  for  morally  exceptional  children,  32,  33; 
provision  for  physically  exceptional  children,  34, 
35. 

Classification  of  exceptional  children,  19-22. 
Cleveland,  Ohio,  early  education  of  backward  chil- 
dren, 12;  work  done  for  exceptional  children,  50, 51. 
Compulsory  education,  12. 

Crippled  children,  classes  for,  city  school  systems, 
34,  35. 

Deaf,  classes,  Chicago,  111.,  46,  47;  city  school  sys- 
tems, 34,  35;  Detroit,  Mich.,  51;  New  York  City, 
60. 

Deaf-mutes,  training,  8,  9. 

Degenerate  children,  19,  20. 

Dental  clinics,  35;  Baltimore,  Md.,  42,  43;  Somer- 
ville, Mass.,  62. 

Denver,  Colo.,  work  done  for  exceptional  children, 
51. 

Detroit,  Mich.,  work  done  for  exceptional  children, 
51. 

Dumb,  classes,  city  school  systems,  34,  35. 

Elmira,  N.  Y.,  age  and  grade  table  for  determining 
retarded  children,  24. 

England,  prison  reform,  9. 

Environmentally  exceptional  children,  provision 
for,  city  school  systems,  35. 

Epee,  Abbe  de  1’,  and  case  of  child  idiocy,  10;  and 
training  of  deaf,  8,  9. 

Exceptional  child,  discovery,  7-15. 

Farrell,  Elizabeth,  and  class  for  deficient  children, 

12. 

Feeble-minded  children,  education  of,  and  Edward 
Seguin,  11. 

Fitchburg,  Mass.,  work  done  for  exceptional  chil- 
dren, 51,  52. 

Flexible  grading,  Williamsport,  Pa.,  64. 

Germany,  and  education  of  retarded  children,  11, 12. 
Gifted  children,  problem,  14, 15. 

Grading,  flexible,  Baltimore,  Md.,  42;  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  50. 

Grading  and  promotion,  Batavia  plan,  37,  38;  Cam- 
bridge plan,  39;  large-school  plan,  Chicago,  39; 
New  York,  39;  North  Denver  plan,  38;  with  ref- 
erence to  needs  of  exceptional  child,  36-41. 

I Hall,  superintendent,  and  school  for  backward  chil- 
dren, 12. 

Harris,  W.  T.,  and  flexibility  of  grading,  36,  and 
I problem  of  the  gifted  child,  14, 15. 


91 


92 


TNDEX, 


Hartford,  Conn.,  work  done  for  exceptional  chil- 
dren, 52,  53. 

Hartwell,  C.  S.,  grading  and  promotion  plans,  36. 

Houses  of  refuge,  an  experiment  in  special  educa- 
tion, 9, 10. 

Houston,  Tex.,  work  done  for  exceptional  children, 
53. 

Idiocy  and  retardation,  10-14. 

Indianapolis,  Ind.,  work  done  for  exceptional  chil- 
dren, 54,  55. 

Institutional  and  public  school  case,  distinction,  19, 

20. 

Institutional  cases,  grouping,  21,  22. 

Institutional  life,  modem  criticism,  21. 

Itard,  J.  M.  G.,  and  case  of  child  idiocy,  1,  10. 

Joplin,  Mo.,  work  done  for  exceptional  children,  55. 

Kilpatrick,  Van  E.,  grading  and  promotion,  36. 

Laggard  children,  data  regarding,  17. 

Large-school  plan,  grading  and  promotion,  39. 

Letter  of  transmittal,  3. 

Lincoln,  Nebr.,  work  done  for  exceptional  children, 
55. 

Los  Angeles,  Cal.,  work  done  for  exceptional  chil- 
dren, 55,  56. 

Lynn,  Mass.,  work  done  for  exceptional  children,  56. 

Massachusetts,  training  schools  for  feeble-minded 
children,  11. 

Medical  inspection  of  schools,  12;  city  school  systems, 
35. 

Mentally  exceptional  children,  provision  for,  city 
school  systems,  33,  34. 

Milwaukee,  Wis.,  work  done  for  exceptional  chil- 
dren, 56,  57. 

Minneapolis,  Minn.,  work  done  for  exceptional  chil- 
dren, 58. 

Moral  imbeciles,  segregation  in  special  institutes, 
19,  20. 

Morally  exceptional  children,  provision  in  city 
school  systems,  32,  33. 

Napoleonic  wars  and  neglected  children,  9. 

Neglected  children,  deprived  of  natural  protectors 
by  Napoleonic  wars,  9. 

New  Bedford,  Mass.,  work  done  for  exceptional 
children,  59. 

New  Haven,  Conn.,  work  done  for  exceptional  chil- 
dren, 59. 

New  Jersey  training  school,  18. 

New  York  City,  classes  for  backward  children,  12; 
large-school  plan  of  grading,  39;  time  in  school, 
26-28;  work  done  for  exceptional  children,  59,  60. 

Newark,  N.  J.,  work  done  for  exceptional  children, 

58. 

Newton,  Mass.,  work  done  for  exceptional  children, 

59. 

Non-English-speaking  children,  provision  for,  city 
school  systems,  35. 

Normal  and  bright  children,  17. 

North  Denver  plan,  grading  and  promotion,  38. 

Oakland,  Cal.,  work  done  for  exceptional  children, 

60. 

Open-air  classes,  city  school  children,  34;  Boston, 
Mass.,  44;  Cambridge,  Mass.,  45;  Chicago,  III.,  47, 
48;  Hartford,  Conn.,  52,  53;  New  York  City,  60. 


Pennsylvania,  University  of,  training  of  teachers  of 
backward  children,  67. 

Philadelphia,  Pa.,  class  for  backward  children,  12; 
house  of  refuge,  9;  work  done  for  exceptional  chil- 
dren, 61. 

Physically  exceptional  children,  provision  for,  city 
school  systems,  14,  34,  35. 

Pereire,  J.  R.,  and  training  of  deaf,  8. 

Pestalozzi,  J.  II.,  work  of,  9. 

Pinel,  Philippe,  and  case  of  child  idiocy,  10. 

Portland,  Me.,  class  for  backward  children,  12. 

Prison  reform,  England,  9. 

Progress  standard,  26-28. 

Promoted  and  nonpromoted  pupils,  records,  29. 

Promotion  and  grading,  with  reference  to  needs  of 
exceptional  child,  36-41. 

Providence,  R.  I.,  classes  for  truants  and  backward 
children,  12. 

Pueblo  plan,  grading  and  promotion,  37,  40. 

Reading,  Pa.,  work  done  for  exceptional  children, 
61. 

Reform  schools,  9,  10. 

Repeaters,  26. 

Retardation,  analysis  of  term,  12-14;  data  regard- 
ing, 17;  method  of  discovering,  28-30. 

Retardation  and  idiocy,  10-14. 

Retarded  children,  education  in  Germany,  11,12. 

Rickoff,  Andrew,  and  education  of  backward  chil- 
dren, 12. 

Rochester,  N.  Y.,  work  done  for  exceptional  chil- 
dren, 61. 

St.  Louis,  Mo.,  work  done  for  exceptional  children, 
61,  62. 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  work  done  for  exceptional 
children,  62. 

Schenck,  August,  and  education  of  backward  chil- 
dren, 12. 

Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  work  done  for  exceptional  chil- 
dren, 62. 

School  population,  proportion  composed  of  excep- 
tional children,  16-18. 

Seguin,  Edward,  on  feeble-mindedness,  11. 

Socialization  of  public-school  work,  7,  8. 

Somerville,  Mass.,  work  done  for  exceptional  chil- 
dren, 62. 

Spokane,  Wash.,  work  done  for  exceptional  chil- 
dren, 62,  63. 

Springfield,  Mass.,  class  for  backward  children,  12; 
work  done  for  exceptional  children,  63  , 64. 

Stammerers,  classes  for,  city  school  systems,  34,  35. 

Talented  children,  17,  18. 

Teachers,  selection  and  training,  66,  67. 

Thirteen-year-old  children,  method  of  locating,  25. 

Time  in  school,  26-28;  New  York  City,  26-28. 

Vineland,  N.  J.,  training  of  teachers  of  backward 
children,  67. 

Waukegan,  111.,  school  for  backward  children,  12. 

Williamsport,  Pa.,  work  done  for  exceptional  chil- 
dren, 64. 

Woonsocket,  R.  I.,  work  done  for  exceptional  chil- 
dren, 64. 

Worcester,  Mass.,  work  done  for  exceptional  chil- 
dren, 64,  65. 


UNITED  STATES  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 

BULLETIN,  1911,  NO.  15 WHOLE  NUMBER  462 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM 
OF  CHINA  AS  RECENTLY 
RECONSTRUCTED 

By  HARRY  EDWIN  KING 

VICE  PRESIDENT  OF  THE  PEKING  UNIVERSITY 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
191 1 


CONTENTS. 


Letters  of  transmittal 

Introduction 

Chapter  I.— The  growth  of  modern  education  in  China  up  to  1898 

Tung  Wen  College 

Auxiliary  schools 

I Hsueh  Kuan  established — Foochow  Arsenal  naval  schools 

Government  telegraph  college  at  Tientsin 

Opposition  to  reforms  in  education 

Science  placed  on  a par  with  classical  learning  in  metropolitan 

examinations 

Yung  Wing  and  the  Chinese  Educational  Commission 

Military  medical  college  in  Tientsin 

Tientsin  University 

Nan  Yang  College 

Western  learning  becomes  popular 

Peking  Reform  Club 

Educational  influence  of  Ivuang  Hsu 

Chapter  II. — Education  from  1898  to  1900 — Reforms  and  counter  reforms. 

The  Emperor  and  his  famous  edicts 

Imperial  University  ordered  to  be  established 

Wen  Chang  abolished 

Scholars  seek  western  learning 

Emperor  reproves  his  ministers  for  delay 

Bureau  of  agriculture  established — Agricultural  schools 

Provision  for  national  schools 

Dr.  Martin  appointed  president  of  the  Imperial  University 

“ Traitors  in  Camp,”  warned  by  edict 

Government  translation  bureau 

Chinese  schools  to  be  established  abroad 

Training  school  for  translators 

Coup  d’etat 

Counter  reforms  of  Empress  Dowager 

Chapter  III. — Development  of  modern  education  from  1900  to  1906 

Hanlin  Academy  to  pursue  new  course  of  study 

Inducements  offered  returned  students 

Provision  for  modern  education  system 

Effect  of  Boxer  troubles 

Provincial  colleges  in  1901-2 

Plans  for  abolishing  old  system  of  examinations 

The  new  educational  system  outlined 

Edict  regarding  Chinese  students  studying  abroad 

Ministry  of  education  created 

Commissioners  sent  abroad 

Tientsin  University  rebuilt 

Middle,  primary,  and  night  schools 


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CONTENTS. 


Chapter  IV. — Controlling  agencies  of  the  educational  system 43 

Ministry  of  education,  departments 43 

Duties  of  ministry  of  education 44 

Provincial  board  of  education — duties  of  commissioners 45 

Educational  commissioners  in  foreign  countries 46 

Supervisory  boards  of  primary  schools 47 

Lecture  halls 48 

Chapter  V. — Primary  education 49 

Kindergartens 49 

Lower  primary  schools — courses  of  study 50 

Higher  primary  schools 54 

Summary  of  results  of  primary  schools  in  Chihli  Province 56 

Chapter  VI. — Middle  schools,  provincial  colleges,  and  universities 58 

Middle  schools — where  and  how  established 58 

Paotingfu  middle  school 61 

Statistics  of  middle  schools  in  Chihli  Province 61 

Provincial  colleges 62 

Chihli  Provincial  College 66 

Universities 67 

College  of  Chinese  classics 69 

College  of  literature 70 

College  of  medicine  and  agriculture 71 

College  of  engineering  and  commerce 72 

Tientsin  University  and  Shansi  University 72 

Examinations  and  rewards  of  university  graduates 74 

Chapter  VII. — Normal,  technical,  and  miscellaneous  schools 75 

Normal  schools  and  colleges 75 

Technical  schools  and  colleges 79 

Miscellaneous  schools 81 

Provincial  colleges  of  languages  at  Nanking,  Tientsin,  Hupei,  and 

Manchuria 83 

Law  schools 84 

Medical  schools , 84 

Nobles’  schools 85 

Military  and  naval  schools 86 

Customs  training  college — School  of  finance 86 

“ Hsutsai  Kuan ; ” police  high  school ; detective  school ; reformatory 

school  _ 87 

Model  prisons — Indemnity  scholarship  school 88 

“ Colleges  for  the  preservation  of  the  Old  Learning  ” — Female  educa- 
tion  89 

Chapter  VIII. — Chinese  students  studying  abroad 92 

Students  in  Japan 92 

Effect  of  the  Chinese  exclusion  laws 95 

Students  in  the  United  Kingdom  and  Europe 95 

Students  in  the  United  States 96 

Imperial  metropolitan  examinations  for  returned  students 98 

Summary 101 

Bibliography 104 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


Department  of  the  Interior, 

Bureau  of  Education, 

W ashington,  D.  C.,  September  #,  1911. 

Sir:  I have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a monograph  on  The 
Educational  System  of  China  as  Recently  Reconstructed,  by  Dr. 
Harry  Edwin  King,  vice  president  of  the  Peking  University.  This 
monograph  was  originally  submitted  to  the  faculty  of  the  depart- 
ment of  literature,  science,  ar^d  the  arts  of  the  University  of  Michi- 
gan, and  accepted  in  partial  fulfillment  of  the  requirements  for  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy.  Dr.  King’s  information  was  de- 
rived largely  from  his  personal  observation  during  long  residence  in 
China,  supplemented  by  translations  of  Chinese  documents.  This 
work  was  accomplished  with  the  assistance  of  Chinese  teachers  and 
students,  some  of  whom  have  since  become  associated  with  Dr.  King 
as  instructors  in  the  Peking  University.  I recommend  its  publica- 
tion as  a number  of  the  bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Education. 

Very  respectfully, 


P.  P.  Claxton,  C bmiwissioner. 


The  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 


. 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA  AS 
RECENTLY  CONSTRUCTED. 


INTRODUCTION. 

When  we  think  of  China,  with  a history  dating  back  more  than 
4,000  years,  with  a national  literature  not  excelled  by  that  of  any 
other  ancient  people,  a system  of  government  conducted  by  her  ablest 
scholars,  chosen  for  more  than  12  centuries  by  competitive  examina- 
tions, we  are  not  surprised  to  find  her  characterized  by  a spirit  of 
self-confidence.  By  reason  of  her  early  development  in  culture  and 
in  government,  she  became  the  teacher  of  neighboring  countries,  and 
invariably  compelled  her  victor  to  adopt  her  language,  literature, 
customs,  and  laws,  literally  absorbing  the  conqueror  and  making  him 
lose  himself  among  her  people. 

With  her  4,277,170  square  miles  of  territory,  occupying  geograph- 
ically one  of  the  most  favored  portions  of  the  globe,  having  such  a 
diversity  of  climate  and  such  fertile  soil,  she  has  been  able  to  provide 
not  only  the  necessities  but  also  many  of  the  luxuries  of  life,  and  has 
made  content  her  400  millions  of  people. 

Secluded  by  sea,  mountain,  and  desert  from  contact  with  outside 
nations,  she  has  been  left  alone  to  develop  her  own  social,  moral, 
intellectual,  and  governmental  institutions.  To  quote  Capt.  Brink- 
ley  : “ No  other  nation  has  preserved  its  type  so  unaltered ; no  other 
nation  has  developed  a civilization  so  completely  independent  of  any 
extraneous  influences;  no  other  nation  has  elaborated  its  own  ideas 
in  such  absolute  segregation  from  alien  thoughts;  no  other  nation 
has  preserved  the  long  stream  of  its  literature  so  entirely  free  from 
foreign  affluents;  no  other  nation  has  ever  reached  a moral  and 
national  elevation  comparatively  so  high  above  the  heads  of  con- 
temporary States.”  1 

China  has  a right  to  glory  in  her  ancient  civilization,  which  has 
produced  some  of  the  most  learned  sages  the  world  has  ever  known. 
Her  longevity  has  been  due  largely  to  the  teachings  of  her  ancient 
sages,  her  reverence  for  the  past,  her  educational  system,  with  its  one 
object  to  provide  able  men  for  the  State,  and  her  civil -service  ex- 
aminations, which  determined  who  were  worthy  to  rule. 


1 Oriental  Series:  Japan  and  China.  Vol.  X,  p.  1. 


7 


8 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


Confucius  warned  his  disciples  to  “ walk  in  trodden  paths,”  and 
these  loyal  disciples  have  proclaimed,  “ What  Confucius  teaches  is 
true;  what  is  contrary  to  his  teaching  is  false;  what  he  does  not 
teach  is  unnecessary;”  and  Kang  Hsi  (1662-1723)  also  urged  his 
people  to  “ discard  strange  doctrines  in  order  to  glorify  the  orthodox 
teaching.” 

The  competitive-examination  system  has  done  more  than  anything 
else  to  make  the  officials  and  literati  oppose  the  introduction  of 
“ western  learning.”  Under  the  old  educational  regime  China  can 
not  be  said  to  have  possessed  any  Government  schools.  All  educa- 
tion was  left  to  private  effort,  but  literary  attainment  was  decided  by 
the  Government  through  its  system  of  competitive  examinations,  and 
rewarded  by  official  recognition.  Coming  into  forced  contact  with 
European  powers,  China  has  slowly  discovered  the  fact  that  in  order 
to  preserve  her  national  existence  she  must  modify  her  educational 
system,  and  instead  of  devoting  all  her  attention,  as  formerly,  to  the 
study  of  the  classics,  she  now  seeks  also  to  understand  the  literature, 
sciences,  arts,  laws,  and  governments  of  western  nations. 

It  is  not  the  province  of  this  thesis  to  enter  into  a discussion  of  the 
old  system  of  education  nor  to  attempt  to  treat  the  excellent  educa- 
tional work  done  in  the  mission  schools  and  universities — a work  that 
has  up  to  date  been  the  most  efficient  of  all  educational  work  done  in 
the  Empire.  It  has  been  a great  object  lesson  and  a great  factor  in 
hastening  on  the  new  education  in  China.  To  it  is  due  more  than  to 
any  other  cause  the  establishment  of  Government  schools  for  girls. 
It  has  furnished  many  native  teachers  for  the  Government  schools, 
and  many  of  the  presidents  of  the  first  Government  colleges  and 
universities  have  been  men  who  had  been  engaged  in  missionary 
education.  Among  them  are  the  well-known  names  of  Drs.  Martin, 
Tenney,  Ferguson,  Hayes,  and  Richards,  and  Messrs.  Duncan  and 
Soothill. 

We  purpose  first  to  trace  the  growth  of  the  first  national  educa- 
tional institutions  and  the  struggle  over  the  introduction  of  modern 
education  into  China  before  the  formation  of  the  ministry  of  edu- 
cation. 

Second,  to  treat  of  the  present  educational  system  as  outlined  by 
the  ministry  of  education. 


CHAPTER  I. 


THE  GROWTH  OF  MODERN  EDUCATION  IN  CHINA 

UP  TO  1898. 

China’s  contact  with  foreign  nations,  the  misunderstandings  and 
conflicts  she  encountered,  ending  often  in  unsuccessful  wars,  con- 
vinced her  finally  that  she  had  need  to  learn  from  the  western  world. 

Dr.  Martin  tells  us  that  “ within  less  than  a year  from  the  close  of 
hostilities  in  1860  large  bodies  of  Chinese  troops  might  have  been 
seen  learning  foreign  tactics  under  foreign  drillmasters  on  the  very 
battle  grounds  where  they  had  been  defeated.  Arsenals,  well  sup- 
plied with  machinery  from  foreign  countries,  were  put  in  operation 
at  four  important  points,  and  navy  yards  were  established  at  two 
principal  seaports  where  native  mechanics  were  taught  the  construc- 
tion of  steam  gunboats.” 1 

The  treaty  of  1860  called  into  being  the  “ tsung-li-yamen  ” or 
“ foreign  office.”  One  of  the  provisions  of  the  treaty  required  that 
all  dispatches  for  the  period  of  three  years  should  be  accompanied  by 
a Chinese  translation,  thus  giving  the  Chinese  Government  time  to 
provide  competent  native  interpreters.  Almost  immediately  after- 
wards the  yamen  memoralized  the  Throne  advocating  the  establish- 
ment of  a school  for  the  training  of  official  interpreters.  Now  for 
the  first  time  it  dawned  upon  the  minds  of  Chinese  officials  that 
unless  they  became  conversant  with  foreign  affairs,  and  understood 
foreign  languages  and  literature,  it  would  be  impossible  to  protect 
the  nation  from  becoming  the  victim  of  crafty  imposition.  This  led 
to  the  establishment  of  the  Tung  Wen  Kuan  in  Peking  in  1862. 
Prior  to  this  in  1861  Prince  Kung  had  sought  to  secure  as  teachers 
Chinese  competent  to  give  instruction  in  foreign  languages.  Failing 
in  this,  he  was  forced  to  seek  the  aid  of  foreigners.  The  Tung  Wen 
Kuan,  though  connected  with  the  tsung-li-yamen,  was  placed  under 
the  direction  of  Mr.  Robert  Hart,  the  inspector  general  of  maritime 
customs.  An  English  department  was  first  established,  with  a class 
of  about  10  students.  The  next  year  French  and  Russian  depart- 
ments were  added,  later  a German  department,  and  by  1899  a*  Jap- 
anese department  also.  During  the  four  years  following  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Tung  Wen  Kuan,  the  “ new  education  ” had  made 
such  progress  that  the  tsung-li-yamen  again  presented  a memorial  to 


1 Lore  of  Cathay,  p.  16. 


9 


10 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


the  Throne  in  which  occurred  these  words : “ It  is  plain  that  it  is 
impossible  to  do  otherwise  than  to  pursue  the  study  of  western  knowl- 
edge.” This  memorial  received  the  imperial  sanction  December  30, 
1866,  and  the  school  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a college.  The  mem- 
bership, previously  limited  to  30,  was  now  increased  to  120.  At  first 
languages  only  had  been  taught,  now  a scientific  department  was 
added,  and  the  chairs  of  chemistry,  physics,  mathematics,  and  astron- 
omy were  established.  International  law  was  taught  by  Dr.  IV.  A.  P. 
Martin,  who  in  1868  had  been  called  to  that  professorship,  and  in 
1869  was  appointed  the  first  president  of  the  college — an  office  ably 
filled  by  him  for  25  years.  The  progress  made  during  that  period 
was  largely  due  to  his  scholastic  attainments,  his  extensive  transla- 
tions, and  his  executive  ability,  influencing  its  entire  life  of  nearly 
40  years. 

In  the  beginning  students  were  selected  only  from  the  Manchus  or 
from  Chinese  families  who  had  been  adopted  by  the  conquerors  of 
the  Mings  in  1644.  Later  on  the  doors  of  the  college  were  opened 
to  members  of  the  Hanlin  Academy,  but  these  supreme  scholars  of 
China  scorned  to  sit  at  the  feet  of  the  west,  and  being  supported  by 
the  president  of  the  academy,  who  was  also  the  Emperor’s  teacher, 
they  haughtily  refused  to  become  members  of  the  college.  Unable 
to  secure  students  from  the  higher  literati,  they  had  to  be  content 
with  recruits  of  lower  degree. 

In  1896  the  full  course  of  study  extended  over  eight  years.  The 
first  three  were  given  exclusively  to  languages,  and  the  remaining 
five  were  devoted  to  securing  scientific  and  general  knowledge 
through  the  medium  of  those  foreign  languages  they  had  pursued. 
It  was  not  usual  for  a student  to  attempt  more  than  one  foreign 
language.  Classes  of  about  30  students  were  formed,  who  were  ex- 
pected to  devote  one-half  of  each  day  to  Chinese  and  the  remainder 
of  the  day  to  the  language  chosen  and  to  scientific  study.  The  col- 
lege was  in  session  for  the  entire  year,  with  the  exception  of  a short 
vacation  at  Chinese  new  year  and  during  a few  days  in  the  warmest 
part  of  summer.  Sundays  were  holidays  for  the  foreign  teachers 
oniy. 

The  college  provided  all  its  students  with  free  tuition,  food,  and 
clothing,  and  in  addition  each  received  a monthly  allowance  from 
the  Government;  this  amount  was  increased  or  decreased  according 
to  the  student’s  proficiency  in  examinations.  Written  examinations 
were  held  at  the  end  of  each  month,  and  examinations  of  three  days’ 
duration  at  the  end  of  each  year,  the  latter  being  always  held  in  the 
presence  of  the  ministers  of  foreign  affairs.  At  each  examination, 
monthly  or  yearly,  prizes  to  the  amount  of  from  40  to  60  taels  were 
distributed  as  an  encouragement  to  effort.  Once  in  three  years  was 
held  the  “ great  examination  ” for  determining  the  awarding  of 


GROWTH  OF  MODERN  EDUCATION. 


11 


official  distinction.  Receiving  this  distinction  did  not  necessarily 
remove  the  student  from  the  college.  After  performing  his  official 
duties  at  the  yamen,  which  were  usually  but  nominal,  he  was  allowed 
to  return  to  the  college  and  continue  his  studies  as  a resident  gradu- 
ate; but  he  must  hold  himself  in  readiness  to  fill  any  official  post  to 
which  he  might  be  appointed. 

In  1896  the  faculty  consisted  of  1 native  professors,  10  assistants, 
and  10  foreign  instructors,  including  the  president  of  the  college. 
There  were  120  students,  averaging  30  years  of  age.  Up  to  that  time 
about  1,000  students  had  been  enrolled  in  the  college. 

Some  of  the  students  secured  positions  in  Government  schools 
and  arsenals;  two  became  tutors  in  English  to  the  Emperor  Kuang 
Hsu;  some  became  secretaries  or  interpreters  to  foreign  embassies; 
others  were  appointed  as  consuls  or  vice  consuls,  while  at  least  four 
represented  their  Government  abroad. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that  Tung  Wen  College  played  an  important 
part  in  helping  forward  the  cause  of  modern  education. 

Soon  after  the  establishment  of  the  Tung  Wen  College  the  tsung- 
li-yamen  established  two  auxiliary  schools.  One  was  located  at 
Shanghai,  having  two  departments,  one  in  French  and  the  other  in 
English,  enrolling  about  30  students  in  each  department.  The  other 
school,  established  in  1864,  was  located  at  Canton.  By  imperial 
edict  it  was  to  furnish  instruction  in  English  and  Chinese  to  20 
Manchu  and  Banner  boys.  In  1870  this  school  sent  14  students  to 
the  Tung  Wen  College  at  Peking  for  further  study.  Of  these,  in 
1880,  5 had  retired,  3 had  been  appointed  abroad,  and  6 were  still 
in  the  college.  Up  to  1880  no  more  students  had  been  promoted 
from  that  school  to  the  college ; and  these  boys  who  had  entered  the 
school  at  17  grew  to  manhood,  married,  and  had  families  of  their 
own,  and  were  still  pursuing  their  foreign  studies. 

In  1897  Russian  and  Japanese  departments  were  opened,  and  in 
1900  a French  department  was  added.  In  1904  there  were  40 
students  in  the  Russian,  37  in  the  Japanese,  and  42  in  the  French 
department. 

This  Tung  Wen  school  was  in  1903  amalgamated  with  another 
school  under  the  name  of  I Hsueh  Kuan. 

The  Foochow  Arsenal  naval  schools,  which  had  their  beginning 
in  1867,  were  very  prosperous  under  the  management  of  Mr.  Prosper 
Giquel,  and  have  supplied  China  with  some  of  her  best  naval  officers. 
In  1880  the  English  school  had  about  50  students  divided  between 
the  naval  and  the  mechanical  branches.  The  course  of  four  and 
one-half  years  included  the  subjects  of  English,  analytic  geometry, 
algebra,  trigonometry,  navigation,  and  geography.  The  students 
received  a monthly  stipend  of  $4. 


12 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


The  French  school  enrolled  about  40  students  in  four  divisions. 
The  subjects  taught  were  French,  arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry, 
trigonometry,  analytical  geometry,  calculus,  and  mechanical  engineer- 
ing. The  students  likewise  received  $4  per  month. 

The  Chinese  Imperial  Naval  College  at  Nanking  was  established 
in  1890.  During  the  first  six  years  about  120  cadets  had  been  enrolled, 
and  in  1896  80  cadets  were  in  attendance,  averaging  19  years  of  age. 
Foreign  instructors  in  navigation  and  engineering  were  employed,  as 
well  as  several  native  assistants.  The  students  were  boarders  and 
drew  Government  pay.  English  was  taught  and  the  college  was 
doing  good  work,  but  after  the  war  with  Japan  it  received  a new 
stimulus  to  progress. 

At  Wuchang  was  established  in  1892  the  Government  mining  and 
engineering  college  of  the  Hupei  board  of  mines.  Its  20  students 
received  instruction  from  1 foreigner  assisted  by  an  able  corps  of 
native  teachers. 

The  Imperial  Northern  Government  Telegraph  College  at  Tientsin 
was  established  in  1879.  Its  superintendent  up  to  recent  date  was 
Mr.  C.  H.  O.  Poulson.  Native  teachers  were  employed.  In  1896  50 
students  were  enrolled,  varying  in  age  from  16  to  22.  They  were 
divided  into  four  classes  and  received  a monthly  pay  of  from  3 to  10 
taels,  according  to  their  rank.  Students  entering  with  a good  founda- 
tion in  English  and  mathematics  could  complete  the  course  of  study 
in  4 or  5 years.  During  the  first  16  years  300  students  were  sent  out, 
having  completed  the  entire  course  of  study. 

Not  a few  of  the  more  intelligent  Chinese  had  been  gaining  some 
knowledge  of  mathematics  and  science  through  the  medium  of  works 
that  had  been  translated  by  the  early  Catholic  missionaries,  and  there 
were  among  them  those  who  were  thirsting  for  more  knowledge  and 
felt  that  the  entire  educational  system  needed  reorganization.  The 
subject  was  widely  discussed  and  bitterly  opposed,  as  is  shown  by  the 
memorials  establishing  some  of  the  above-named  schools.  These 
memorials  sternly  repudiated  the  notion  that  they  were  seeking  to 
introduce  new  ideas  borrowed  from  foreigners,  as  appears  from  the 
following  citation : “ The  idea  that  it  is  wrong  to  abandon  Chinese 
methods  and  follow  in  the  steps  of  Europeans  may  also  be  dilated 
upon.  It  is  to  be  remarked  that  the  germ  of  western  science  is,  in 
fact,  originally  borrowed  from  the  heaven-sent  element  of  Chinese 
knowledge.  The  eyes  of  western  philosophers,  having  been  turned 
toward  the  east,  and  the  genius  of  their  men  being  minutely  pains- 
taking and  apt  for  diligent  thought,  they  have  succeeded  in  pursuing 
the  study  to  new  results.  For  these  they  have  usurped  the  name  of 
science  brought  from  over  the  sea,  but  in  reality  their  methods  are 
Chinese  methods.  This  is  the  case  with  astronomy  and  mathematics, 


GROWTH  OF  MODERN  EDUCATION. 


13 


and  it  is  equally  so  with  the  other  sciences.  China  has  originated 
the  methods  which  Europeans  have  received  as  an  inheritance.” 1 

As  evidence  that  it  has  not  been  considered  a disgrace  for  a scholar 
to  receive  manual  training  in  the  application  of  the  theories  of  sci- 
ence they  refer  in  the  same  documents  to  their  sacred  books.  But 
they  added  the  following  apology:  “The  study  now  urged  is  the 
study  of  theory;  that  is  to  say,  it  is  the  scholar’s  duty  to  acquire 
knowledge  through  scientific  analysis  without  compulsion  upon  men 
of  letters  and  officers  of  government  to  take  hold  personally  of  me- 
chanical pursuits.  Can  doubt  further  exist  ? ” The  new  movement 
was  making  slow  progress.  The  importance  of  wider  dissemination 
of  the  new  learning  was  making  thinking  men  desirous  of  reforms. 
In  1869’ the  viceroy  of  Fookien  memoralized  that  a knowledge  of 
mathematics  should  be  required  for  the  Government  civil-service 
examinations.  The  memorial  failed  to  receive  the  royal  sanction,  and 
in  1875  the  viceroy  of  Chihli,  Li  Hung  Chang,  made  a second  peti- 
tion, adding  physical  sciences.  This  likewise  failed  to  receive  the 
sanction  of  the  Government. 

Meanwhile  attempts  were  made  to  introduce  mathematics  into  the 
provincial  examinations,  which  doubtless  showed  that  the  new  learn- 
ing was  acquiring  favor  more  rapidly  with  the  literati  of  the  country 
than  with  the  Peking  authorities. 

In  1874  an  examiner  of  mathematics  accompanied  the  commis- 
sioner of  education  to  Hunan,  but  no  candidates  appeared.  In  1885 
a few  candidates  were  examined  in  Shantung,  but  it  was  not  until 
1887  that  the  Government  yielded,  and  by  an  imperial  decree  these 
subjects  were  added  to  those  required  at  the  metropolitan  examina- 
tion. The  following  year,  at  the  triennial  examination  held  in 
Peking,  for  the  first  time  in  Chinese  history  students  of  science 
were  placed  on  a par  with  those  of  classical  learning.  Sixty  candi- 
dates presented  themselves,  only  32  of  whom  were  considered  ad- 
vanced enough  to  be  admitted  to  the  examination,  and  only  1 obtained 
the  degree.  A writer  of  the  time  remarks:  “No  one  can  possibly 
overestimate  the  importance  of  the  effect  upon  the  future  history  of 
China.  This  first  and  only  man  promoted  to  the  second  literary 
rank  for  his  knowledge  of  science  is  the  sure  leader  of  a great  host 
in  days  to  come.  The  thin  edge  of  the  wedge  has  been  driven  into 
the  competitive  system,  which  in  the  end  will  rive  asunder  the  old 
wall  of  Chinese  conservatism,  liberalizing  the  minds  of  the  literati 
and  setting  them  forward  in  the  path  of  progress.”2 

It  was  after  the  Tientsin  massacre  (1870)  that  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment, through  Tseng  Kuo  Fan’s  representations,  consented  to  Yung 

1 “ The  new  education  in  China,”  by  L.  W.  Pilcher.  The  Chinese  Recorder,  1889,  pp. 
305-310. 

2 November  number  of  the  Chinese  Recorder,  pp.  89,  90. 


14 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


Wing’s  plan  to  educate  Chinese  youth  in  the  United  States.  It  was 
during  his  undergraduate  days  at  Yale  (1850-1854)  that  he  con- 
ceived the  plan  of  organizing  a Chinese  educational  commission.  In 
August,  1871,  by  imperial  edict,  $1,500,000  were  appropriated  to 
send  120  students  to  the  United  States  for  15  years.  Yung  Wing 
and  an  assistant  were  appointed  commissioners  in  charge  of  them 
for  that  period.  Four  yearly  installments  of  30  students  each,  the 
youngest  to  be  not  less  than  12  and  the  oldest  not  more  than  15  years 
of  age.  They  were  selected  from  respectable  homes,  required  to  pass 
a medical  examination,  also  an  examination  in  Chinese,  and  in  Eng- 
lish in  case  they  had  studied  it.  All  candidates  had  to  attend  a 
preparatory  school  in  Shanghai  for  at  least  one  year  before  leaving 
for  the  United  States.  The  parents  were  required  to  sign  papers 
stating  their  willingness  for  their  sons  to  go,  and  consenting  to 
their  remaining  in  the  United  States  for  15  years,  and  that  the 
Government  was  not  to  be  held  responsible  for  any  accident  that 
might  happen  to  any  of  them.  The  Government  was  to  pay  all 
their  expenses  while  absent,  to  give  them  a suitable  outfit,  and  to 
provide  Chinese  teachers  to  instruct  them  in  the  Chinese  classics  while 
in  the  United  States.  The  preparatory  school  for  preparing  these 
four  installments  was  established  at  Shanghai  under  the  supervision 
of  Liu  Kai  Sing.  Nine-tenths  of  the  students  came  from  the  south  of 
China.  In  the  summer  of  1872  the  first  installment  reached  the 
United  States,  and  were  distributed  in  families  living  near  Spring- 
field,  Mass.  Before  this,  in  1871,  Tseng  Kuo  Fan  died  and  Li  Hung 
Chang  succeeded  him  on  the  educational  commission.  In  1874  Vice- 
roy Li  recommended  the  building  of  a substantial  headquarters  for* 
the  Chinese  educational  commission  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
next  year  the  new  building  was  erected  at  Hartford  and  occupied. 

In  1876  Yung  Wing,  contrary  to  the  advice  of  some  of  his  friends, 
accepted  the  appointment  of  associate  minister  to  the  United  States, 
Peru,  and  Spain.  His  last  act  in  connection  with  the  educational 
commission  was  to  make  application  to  the  United  States  Govern- 
ment to  permit  some  of  the  Chinese  students  to  enter  the  Government 
military  and  naval  academies.  He  received  the  following  reply: 
“ There  is  no  room  provided  for  Chinese  students.”  1 

For  reasons,  which  it  is  not  necessary  to  relate,  the  Chinese  Govern- 
ment recalled  these  students  in  1881.  At  that  time  the  majority  of 
them  were  either  in  scientific  schools  or  in  colleges,  and  all  but  two 
were  undergraduates. 

In  1882  Dr.  Yung  Wing  returned  to  China  to  try  to  persuade  the 
Government  to  permit  the  older  students  to  return  to  the  United 
States  and  complete  their  studies,  but  in  vain. 


1 My  Life  in  China  and  America,  p.  207. 


GROWTH  OF  MODERN  EDUCATION. 


15 


For  some  time  after  their  return  to  China,  the  students  received 
no  official  recognition.  Subsequently  “ about  14  were  sent  to  each 
of  the  naval  academies  at  Foochow  and  Tientsin.  Over  20  were  ap- 
pointed to  the  service  of  the  imperial  telegraph  administration. 
Eight  were  placed  in  the  viceroy’s  (Li  Hung  Chang)  medical  school 
at  Tientsin,  under  the  care  of  Dr.  Mackenzie.  About  the  same  num- 
ber were  sent  to  Kaiping,  and  also  to  the  torpedo  service  at  Taku.  Of 
the  remaining  28,  6 went  back  to  the  United  States,  about  10  were 
left  in  Shanghai,  and  the  rest  scattered  here  and  there.”  1 

The  tsung-li-yamen,  unwilling  to  establish  a medical  college  in 
connection  with  the  Tung  Wen  College,  appointed  Dr.  Dudgeon,  of 
the  London  mission,  Peking,  professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology 
in  the  college.  It  was  left  for  the  viceroy,  Li  Hung  Chang,  to  open 
the  first  Government  medical  college  in  China.  In  November,  1893, 
the  military  medical  college  was  established  in  Tientsin,  too  late  to 
be  of  any  practical  help  in  the  war  that  followed. 

In  1887  Li  Hung  Chang,  through  a suggestion  of  Mr.  Detring, 
commissioner  of  customs,  formulated  the  idea  of  establishing  a uni- 
versity in  Tientsin.  With  funds  contributed  by  both  Chinese  officials 
and  Europeans  a large  building  was  constructed  on  the  river  bank 
below  in  the  European  settlement.  Dr.  Charles  D.  Tenney  was  called 
to  the  presidency,  but  for  some  reason  Viceroy  Li  did  not  proceed 
further,  and  the  building  remained  empty  for  eight  years.  It  was 
not  until  1895,  after  the  war  with  Japan,  and  upon  the  promise  of 
the  customs  taotai  at  Tientsin  to  finance  the  institution  with  funds 
from  the  telegraph  administration,  the  China  Merchants’  Steamship 
Navigation  Co.,  and  the  customs  taotai’s  yamen,  that  imperial  sanc- 
tion was  given  for  the  organization  of  the  Tientsin  University.  Dr. 
Tenney,  who  during  these  years  of  waiting  had  been  conducting  a 
private  school  at  Tientsin,  now  entered  upon  his  duties  as  president, 
and  Mr.  Tsai  Shao  Chi,  formerly  a Yale  student,  became  the  first 
Chinese  director.  The  Government  at  that  time  having  no  secondary 
schools,  a preparatory  department  with  a four-years’  course  in  Eng- 
lish and  elementary  mathematics  was  organized  in  connection  with 
the  university  to  prepare  students  to  enter  the  collegiate  department. 
A four-years’  course  was  arranged  in  the  four  schools  of  civil  engi- 
neering, mechanical  engineering,  mining,  and  law.  In  order  to 
organize  classes  without  delay  in  these  special  departments,  students 
who  had  made  preparation  in  the  private  schools  of  Tientsin,  Shang- 
hai, and  the  British  Government  schools  of  Hongkong  were  entered 
in  the  lower  classes.  The  first  class  graduated  in  the  early  spring 
of  1900. 

With  the  Boxer  outbreak  the  students  were  sent  to  their  homes. 
Later  came  the  seizure  and  occupation  of  the  university  buildings  by 


1 Educational  number,  East  of  Asia  Magazine,  p.  112. 


16 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


the  German  military  forces,  and  the  life  of  the  first  Tientsin  uni- 
versity was  thus  ended. 

The  next  important  educational  institution  to  be  established  was 
the  Nan  Yang  College  at  Shanghai  in  1897.  The  plan  originated  by 
Sheng  Hsuan  Huai  was  to  found  a college  where  students,  having 
already  received  the  elements  of  a Chinese  education,  could  take  a 
thorough  course  in  English  and  western  science,  and  at  the  same 
time  prepare  for  the  Government  competitive  examinations.  An 
annual  grant  of  100,000  taels  was  subscribed  by  the  Chinese  Mer- 
chants’ Steamship  Navigation  Co.  and  the  Imperial  Chinese  Tele- 
graph Co.,  each  giving  50,000  taels.  These  pledges  having  been 
confirmed  in  a memorial  to  the  Throne,  an  imperial  decree  was  issued 
authorizing  the  establishment  of  the  college.  Dr.  John  C.  Ferguson, 
president  of  the  Nanking  University,  became  the  first  president,  and 
was  authorized  to  purchase  a site  and  erect  the  necessary  buildings ; 
these  were  completed  in  1899.  The  institution  had  three  depart- 
ments, a primary,  preparatory,  and  a commercial  school,  each  with 
a three  years’  course  of  study.  Mr.  Lattimer,  a former  instructor 
in  the  college,  has  written : u No  graduate  of  the  commercial  school 
would  find  much  difficulty  in  gaining  admission  to  the  freshman 
class  of  an  American  college  after  a year’s  study  in  the  United 
States.”1  Since  the  resignation  of  Dr.  Ferguson  in  the  autumn  of 
1901,  the  administration  of  the  school  has  been  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  the  Chinese  officials,  though  American  teachers  have  formed  a 
part  of  the  teaching  staff.  In  1905  the  college  was  made  a school  of 
technology  and  commerce  and  placed  under  the  control  of  the  min- 
istry of  commerce,  and  in  April,  1907,  it  became  an  imperial  poly- 
technic college  under  the  administration  of  the  ministry  of  posts  and 
communication. 

During  this  period  Chang  Chih  Tung  attempted  to  institute  some 
reforms  by  introducing  western  education  at  Wuchang,  the  capital. 
Colleges  of  agriculture,  language,  mechanics,  mining,  and  military 
science  were  organized.  Professors  were  invited  from  America, 
Belgium,  England,  France,  Germany,  and  Russia.  Many  of  them 
were  enthusiastic,  expecting  to  organize  modern  colleges  and  teach 
according  to  modern  methods.  But  the  two  Cornell  University 
graduates  who  were  called  to  conduct  the  agricultural  college  found 
that  no  provisions  had  been  made  for  the  college,  and  when,  after 
long  delays,  the  work  was  begun,  it  was  hedged  in  on  all  sides  by 
conservatism.  The  American  instructors,  though  receiving  good  sal- 
aries, chafed  under  the  restraints  and,  unwilling  to  fritter  away  their 
time,  resigned. 

The  disastrous  defeat  in  the  China- Japanese  war  convinced  China 
that  she  must  make  some  reforms  in  education  or  never  regain  her 

xThe  South  China  Collegian,  July  1,  1905,  p.  123. 


GROWTH  OF  MODERN  EDUCATION. 


17 


place  as  the  first  power  in  the  east.  Many  of  her  literati,  scholars 
having  the  highest  degrees,  sought  instruction  in  western  learning 
by  attending  missionary  schools  and  colleges,  by  employing  private 
teachers,  by  forming  clubs,  and  through  the  private  reading  of  all 
the  translations  of  western  books  available.  Even  the  Emperor, 
Kuang  Hsu,  who  for  years  had  been  studying  English,  now  became 
so  interested  in  western  science  and  learning  that  he  had  his  eunuchs 
searching  out  and  bringing  to  him  all  the  translations  of  books  on 
western  learning  that  could  be  found,  among  them  being  the  Bible, 
portions  of  which  he  is  known  to  have  read.  Never  before  had  there 
been  such  a demand  in  China  for  the  new  education.  By  1896  all 
schools  where  western  science  and  language  were  taught  were  over- 
crowded with  pupils.  Even  young  and  inexperienced  students  found 
it  easy  to  obtain  lucrative  positions  as  private  teachers.  At  this  time 
many  Peking  officials,  some  quite  advanced  in  age,  matriculated  in 
the  preparatory  department  of  the  Peking  University  for  the  pur- 
pose of  beginning  the  study  of  the  English  language.  Special 
classes  were  formed  to  accommodate  them.  The  older  men,  though 
famous  for  their  Chinese  learning,  had  passed  the  age  when  men  can 
easily  learn  a foreign  tongue.  It  was  often  not  only  amusing,  but 
pathetic  as  well,  to  witness  their  vain  efforts  to  speak  the  language 
distinctly.  The  great  majority  of  these  older  men,  finding  the  lan- 
guage so  much  more  difficult  to  acquire  than  they  had  anticipated, 
after  a few  months  of  hard  work,  became  discouraged  and  retired. 
Some  persisted,  and  though  never  becoming  fluent  speakers,  were 
able  to  make  good  Chinese  translations  from  English.  Excellent 
results  were  obtained  by  a number  of  the  younger  men,  all  of  whom 
were  Government  graduates,  some  having  the  second  degree  (“  chu 
jen,”  or  master  of  arts),  and  two  were  Hanlins  (LL.  D.),  members  of 
the  imperial  academy.  So  anxious  were  these  brilliant  scholars  to 
acquire  a knowledge  of  western  learning  from  an  American  teacher 
that  they  thought  it  no  disgrace  to  sit  side  by  side  with  boys  their 
pigmies  in  classical  learning ; a marked  contrast  to  the  Hanlins,  who, 
in  the  sixties,  had  refused  to  study  foreign  languages  in  the  Tung 
Wen  College. 

There  were,  however,  men  of  vision  among  the  literati  and  officials. 
They  saw  that  reforms  alone  could  save  their  nation  and  they  sought 
to  bring  them  about.  In  a short  time  a Chinese  reform  club,  having 
at  first  a membership  of  about  30,  was  organized  in  Peking.  Its  main 
object  was  the  translation  of  newspapers  and  books  into  Chinese. 
The  newspapers  were  circulated  among  the  Chinese  officials  that  they 
might  become  acquainted  with  western  methods  and  conditions.  The 
books  were  the  best  that  could  be  found  on  science,  literature,  and 
law,  and  were  to  be  at  the  disposal  of  any  who  might  desire  to  read 
them.  It  being  contrary  to  Chinese  law  for  any  company  of  Chinese 
9561°— 11 2 


18 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


to  meet  to  discuss  Government  matters,  in  less  than  a month  after 
the  establishment  of  the  club  the  Emperor  was  memorialized  on  the 
subject,  and  he  caused  the  place  of  meeting  to  be  sealed ; later  on,  re- 
ceiving another  memorial  in  favor  of  the  club,  he  restored  it,  but 
made  it  a Government  institution,  nominating  his  teacher,  Sun  Chia 
Nai,  president,  and  retaining  the  former  board  of  managers.  The 
Emperor  and  many  of  the  officials  promised  to  give  liberally  toward 
its  support. 

Reform  clubs  then  sprang  up  all  over  China.  Their  membership 
consisted  largely  of  the  younger  members  of  the  literati;  scholars 
who  had  been  trained  abroad  or  in  the  modern  schools  of  China,  and 
a few  of  the  members  had  been  in  consular  or  diplomatic  service 
abroad. 

The  “ Cassini  convention,”  1 the  territorial  advance  of  Germany, 
Russia,  England,  and  France,  the  articles  that  filled  the  foreign  news- 
papers and  periodicals  on  the  break-up  of  China,  the  partition  of 
China  among  the  European  powers,  and  like  questions  of  the  day, 
aroused  the  Chinese  as  nothing  had  done  before.  They  saw  their 
helpless  condition  and  realized  that  something  must  be  done,  and 
that  soon. 

It  was  known  throughout  the  Empire  that  the  Emperor  had  been 
devoting  all  the  time  he  could  get  to  the  study  of  those  works  that 
would  both  qualify  him  to  rule  wisely  his  people  and  to  make  prepa- 
ration to  enter  upon  reforms  that  would  place  his  country  alongside 
the  leading  powers  of  the  world.  To  show  the  influence  of  this  study 
upon  his  people,  we  quote  from  Prof.  Headland : “ I doubt  if  any 
Chinese  monarch  has  ever  had  a more  far-reaching  influence  over  the 
minds  of  the  young  men  of  the  Empire  than  Kuang  Hsu  had  from 
1895  till  1898.  * * * The  fever  for  reading  the  same  books  that 

Kuang  Hsu  had  read  was  so  great  as  to  tax  to  the  utmost  the  presses 
of  the  port  cities  to  supply  the  demand,  and  the  leaders  of  some  of  the 
publication  societies  feared  that  a condition  had  arisen  for  which  they 
were  unprepared.  Books  written  by  such  men  as  Drs.  Allen,  Mateer, 
Martin,  Williams,  and  Legge  were  brought  out  in  pirated  photo- 
graphic reproductions  by  the  book  shops  of  Shanghai  and  sold  for 
one-tenth  of  the  cost  of  the  original  work.  Authors,  to  protect  them- 
selves, compelled  the  pirates  to  deliver  over  the  stereotype  plates  they 
had  made,  on  penalty  of  being  brought  before  the  officials  in  litiga- 
tion if  they  refused.  But  during  the  three  years  the  Emperor  had 
been  studying  these  foreign  books,  hundreds  of  thousands  of  these 
young  scholars  had  been  doing  the  same,  preparing  themselves  for 
whatever  emergency  the  studies  of  the  young  Emperor  might  bring 
about.” 2 

1 Tn  1896,  through  this  treaty,  Russia  secured  from  China  territorial  and  railway  con- 
cessions in  Manchuria. 

2 Court  Life  in  China,  pp.  132,  133. 


CHAPTER  II. 


EDUCATION  FROM  1898  TO  1900— REFORMS  AND  COUNTER 

REFORMS. 

In  1898  Emperor  Kuang  Hsu  entered  upon  the  greatest  revolution 
in  the  history  of  China,  by  issuing  his  famous  edicts,  which  em- 
bodied the  great  principles  of  all  the  reforms  that  have  since  been 
instituted  in  China.  Memorials  were  sent  in  by  men  holding  the 
highest  rank  and  influence,  advocating  these  reforms,  and  while 
Kang  Yu  Wei  is  accredited  with  originating  the  most  sweeping  of 
the  reforms,  yet  we  must  remember  that  there  were  men  of  the  type 
of  Sun  Chia  Nai  and  Chang  Chih  Tung  who  were  in  full  sympathy 
with  the  Emperor.  In  China’s  Only  Hope,  Chang  Chih  Tung 
advocates  many  of  the  radical  changes  that  the  Emperor  hoped  to 
institute. 

The  Emperor,  in  replying  to  some  of  his  old  conservative  ministers 
who  were  urging  him  to  conform  strictly  to  the  ancient  institutions 
and  reject  all  suggestions  of  a new  regime,  says:  “Let  us  ask  what 
other  country  except  our  own  is  there  that  is  laboring  under  such 
difficulties,  because  of  being  behind  the  times.  * * * Our 

scholars  are  without  solid  and  practical  education ; our  artisans 
are  without  scientific  instructors;  when  compared  with  other  coun- 
tries we  soon  see  the  glaring  difference  between  our  strength  and 
the  strength  of  others;  and  when  we  compare  the  ready  wealth  of 
this  Empire  with  that  of  other  countries,  the  difference  is  still 
greater  to  our  detriment.  * * * Changes  must  be  made  to 

accord  with  the  necessities  of  the  times.”  1 That  he  had  no  intention 
of  ruthlessly  casting  aside  all  doctrines  of  the  past,  he  goes  on  to 
say : “ Let  us,  keeping  in  mind  the  morals  of  our  sages  and  wise  men, 
make  them  the  basis  on  which  to  build  new  and  more  adA^antageous 
foundations.”  Then,  advocating  the  necessity  of  reform,  he  con- 
tinues: “We  must  also  select  such  subjects  of  western  knowledge  as 
shall  keep  us  in  touch  with  the  times,  and  diligently  study  and  prac- 
tice them  in  order  to  place  our  country  abreast  with  other  countries. 
Let  us  cast  off  from  us  the  empty,  impractical,  and  deceiving  things 
which  obstruct  our  forward  progress,  and  strive  with  one-hearted- 
ness  and  energy  to  improve  upon  all  things  that  we  have  learned; 

1 This  and  the  following  quotations  are  taken  from  The  Emperor  Kuang  Hsu’s  Reform 
Decrees,  1898.  Reprinted  from  The  North  China  Daily  News. 


19 


20 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


let  us  eliminate  the  crust  of  neglect  that  has  accumulated  on  our 
system,  and  cast  away  the  shackles  which  bind  us;  in  a word,  let  us 
evolve  useful  things  out  of  those  which  hitherto  have  been  useless, 
and  let  us  seek  able  instructors  to  fashion  the  materials  in  our  pos- 
session. With  these  objects  in  view,  let  us  strive  toward  advance- 
ment and  progress.” 

On  the  same  day,  June  11,  he  ordered  the  establishment  of  a great 
university  in  Peking  that  should  be  a model  for  the  capitals  of  the 
Provinces  to  copy,  and  commanded  his  ministers  and  the  princes  to 
provide  speedily  for  its  inception.  After  stating  that  “ all  who  de- 
sire will  be  given  all  the  privileges  and  instruction  the  new  Univer- 
sity of  Peking  can  provide,”  the  edict  closes  with  these  final  declara- 
tions : “ We  earnestly  hope  that  all  will  eagerly  take  advantage  of  the 
modern  education  now  open  to  them,  so  that  in  time  we  may  have 
many  able  and  willing  helpers  in  the  great  and  arduous  work  before 
us,  of  putting  our  country  on  a level  with  the  best  of  the  western 
powers.  Let  everyone  listen  to  and  obey  these,  our  sincere  and 
earnest  words,  and  let  it  be  known  that  this  edict  is  specially  issued 
to  all  our  subjects.”  Two  days  later,  June  13,  Hsu  Chih  Ching,  a 
recorder  of  the  Hanlin  Academy,  recommended  to  the  Emperor’s 
favorable  notice  Kang  Yu  Wei,  known  as  “ Kang,  the  Modem  Sage 
and  Reformer,”  a third-class  secretary  of  the  ministry  of  works,  as 
being  a man  “ of  deep  learning  and  exceptional  ability  and  progres- 
sive ideas.”  Dr.  Arthur  Smith  says  of  him : “ He  had  the  welfare 
of  China  deeply  at  heart,  and  had  studied  its  conditions  and  the 
possible  methods  of  reform  until  he  had  clear  and  definite  ideas  of 
what  could  be  done  and  of  what  ought  to  be  done.” 

Kang  had  written  two  books,  The  Reforms  of  Russia  and  The  Re- 
forms of  Japan,  which  he  sent  to  the  Emperor.  These  were  fol- 
lowed later  by  a memorial  urging  the  Emperor  to  be  firm  and  not 
delay  bringing  about  reforms.  Mr.  Kang’s  introduction  to  his  Im- 
perial Majesty  was  largely  due  to  Weng  Tung  He,  the  Emperor’s 
tutor,  who  had  been  devoting  considerable  attention  to  Mr.  Kang 
and  had  become  deeply  impressed  with  his  ability.  June  16,  Kang 
was  granted  an  imperial  audience,  which  is  reported  to  have  lasted 
two  hours,  and  to  have  so  deeply  impressed  the  Emperor  with  the 
needs  and  methods  of  reforms  as  to  inspire  him  to  issue  his  famous 
edicts  of  that  summer.  An  edict  was  issued  June  23  that  abolished 
the  “Eight-Legged  Essay,”  called  the  “Wen  Chang,”  which  was 
the  standard  for  Government  examinations.  “ The  Wen  Chang  is 
a style  of  composition  of  ancient  and  arbitrary  origin  which 
stretches  the  elastic  thought  upon  a cruel  rack.  The  eight  legs 
upon  which  the  essay  stands  are  as  rigid  as  if  cut  out  of  wood  with 
a saw.  The  number  of  characters  (words)  and  for  the  most  part 


EDUCATION  FROM  1898-1900. 


21 


their  meaning  and  purport  in  each  leg  must  agree  with  those  in  the 
corresponding  leg.  The  least  slip  would  be  fatal  to  success.  To 
make  these  numbers  correspond  required  the  unceasing,  untiring, 
and  indefatigable  labor  of  years,  and  the  strain  of  the  continued 
agonizing  effort  during  the  three  days  of  incarceration  in  the  damp, 
cheerless  cell  is  something  awful.”  1 It  was  pointed  out  that  in  the 
time  of  Kang  Hsi  the  Wen  Chang  had  been  abandoned  and  short 
essays  substituted  instead;  that  though  this  lasted  but  a short  time, 
yet  it  made  the  reign  celebrated  for  its  number  of  learned  and 
brilliant  scholars  who  proved  their  worth  in  a practical  manner; 
that  they  had  the  ability  to  search  and  compare  ancient  lore  with 
that  of  their  own  times.  It  declared  that  learning  had  declined  by 
scholars  sticking  to  the  classical  style,  that  it  had  produced  fraudu- 
lent practices  in  the  system  of  examinations,  that  no  man  desired 
to  be  learned  beyond  the  requirement  for  the  degree  for  which  he 
wished  to  be  examined.  “ To  this  deplorable  state  have  we  now 
come.  But  to  attain  solid  and  practical  education,  adequate  to  the 
times  we  live  in,  we  must  cast  away  all  empty  and  obsolete  customs, 
nor  can  we  advance  true  talent  by  following  the  old  regime.”  In 
the  future  all  the  examinations  for  the  chu  jen  and  chin  shih  are  to 
be  conducted  according  to  the  new  requirements.  “We  have  been 
compelled  to  issue  this  decree  because  our  examinations  have  de- 
generated to  the  lowest  point,  and  we  see  no  other  way  to  remedy 
matters  than  by  changing  entirely  the  old  methods  of  examinations 
for  a new  course  of  competition.  Still  scholars  must  not  forget  to 
study  the  Confucian  analects  and  the  classics  as  the  root  of  their 
education,  from  whence  they  are  to  write  short  practical  essays 
suitable  to  the  times  we  live  in.  Let  us  all  try  to  reject  empty  and 
useless  knowledge  which  has  no  practical  value  in  the  crisis  we  are 
passing  through.” 

In  commenting  upon  this  decree,  Dr.  Arthur  Smith  writes : u By 
a stroke  of  his  pen  the  progressive  and  enlightened  young  Emperor 
revolutionized  the  stream  of  Chinese  thought,  long  since  semistag- 
nant,  and  opened  new  channels.  * * * There  is  a strong  proba- 

bility that  if  there  had  been  no  political  counteraction  the  new 
scheme  might  have  been  put  into  operation  without  serious  opposi- 
tion and  with  far-reaching  and  beneficent  effects,  for  there  was 
already  a large  minority  of  thinking  men  throughout  the  Empire 
who  profoundly  felt  the  necessity  of  a change  of  some  sort  and  would 
have  gladly  followed  an  imperial  leader. 

“ It  is  true  that  not  a few  foreigners  ignored  or  decried  the  reform 
movement  as  the  mere  effervescence  of  a handful  of  brainless  enthu- 
siasts, whose  zeal  outran  their  knowledge — dreamers,  not  practical 

1 The  Educational  Conquest  of  the  Far  East,  p.  135. 


22 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


men.  But  there  are  others  whose  occupation  gave  them  ample  oppor- 
tunity of  obtaining  incontestable  evidence,  who  affirm  that  it  was  a 
national  and  intellectual  movement  that  permeated  the  Provinces  and 
moved  the  mind  of  the  nation.  * * * A renaissance  had  begun.”  1 

Immediately  after  the  publication  of  this  decree  telegrams  from 
the  most  distant  Provinces  of  the  Empire  began  to  arrive  at  Peking 
University  from  students  wishing  to  matriculate  and  secure  accom- 
modation in  our  university  dormitories.  Hanlin  and  chu  jen  came 
to  have  outlined  courses  of  study  for  them  to  pursue  at  the  university. 
Private  schools  of  foreign  science  and  literature  were  opened  in  Pe- 
king and  other  cities.  Scholars  came  offering  me  large  salaries  if 
I would  take  charge  of  their  schools,  and  when  they  found  they  could 
not  secure  my  services,  begged  me  to  engage  them  instructors  from 
abroad.  Never  can  I forget  those  happy,  enthusiastic  students,  their 
eyes  sparkling  as  they  told  me  of  the  Emperor’s  edicts  and  revealed 
to  me  their  future  plans  of  study.  How  hopeful  they  were  for  the 
future  of  their  country ! Surely  “ their  ideas  were  changed,  and 
their  ideals  were  changing.  This  reform  movement  shook  the  Em- 
pire.” 2 In  a month’s  time  some  of  these  students  were  in  hiding  to 
escape  the  vengeance  of  the  Empress  Dowager. 

On  the  26th  of  June  a decree  was  issued  reproving  the  ministers 
and  princes  for  dela}dng  to  make  reports  of  plans  for  the  new  uni- 
versity, and  commanding  “ all  concerned  to  hasten  on  with  their 
consultations  and  report  with  all  speed,”  with  “ no  more  unmeaning 
delays  in  the  matter.”  Following  this  is  a decree  threatening  pun- 
ishment to  all  who  in  future  delayed  to  carry  out  the  imperial  com- 
mands. A bureau  of  agriculture  was  established  by  imperial  decree 
on  July  4,  and  persons  able  to  do  so  were  commanded  to  translate 
western  books  on  agriculture,  which  were  to  be  used  as  textbooks  in 
the  agricultural  schools  and  colleges  soon  to  be  established.  On 
September  12  a decree  provided  for  agricultural  schools  to  be  modeled 
after  the  Kiangyin  school.  July  6 a memorial  of  Hu  Ping  Chih, 
governor  of  Shansi,  suggested  changing  the  military  examinations 
and  allowing  graduates  of  the  newly  established  western-learning 
schools  to  compete  for  the  chu  jen  and  chin  shih.  The  ministry 
of  war  and  the  tsung-li-yamen  were  commanded  to  deliberate  and 
report  on  the  same.  The  day  following  a decree  virtually  established 
patent  and  copyright  laws  for  China,  and  rewards  were  to  be  given 
those  writing  practical  and  useful  books  and  to  those  inventing  arti- 
cles of  use,  machinery  and  the  like.  The  foreign  office  was  com- 
manded to  draw  up  the  necessary  rules  and  regulations.  On  July  13, 
the  yamen’s  report  having  been  made  and  accepted,  the  scheme  was 
put  into  operation.  On  July  11  appeared  an  edict  concerning  educa- 


1 China  in  Convulsions,  vol.  1,  pp.  136-137. 

2 Ibid.,  p.  138. 


EDUCATION  FROM  1898-1900. 


23 


tion  of  the  greatest  importance,  which  looked  toward  the  establishing 
of  a national  system  of  modem  schools  for  the  joint  study  of  Chinese 
and  western  literature  and  science.  Provisions  were  to  be  made  for 
establishing  schools  and  colleges  in  the  provincial  capitals,  prefec- 
tural  cities,  departmental  and  district  cities,  all  to  lead  up  to  the 
imperial  university  at  Peking.  All  the  rules  and  regulations  for 
governing  these  institutions  were  to  be  furnished  by  imperial  uni- 
versity authorities,  and  the  rules  and  regulations  were  commanded 
to  be  observed. 

All  schools  which  had  been  established  by  public  subscriptions, 
such  as  charity  schools  or  local  public  schools,  were  to  introduce 
western  studies  into  their  curriculum.  The  educational  funds  were 
to  come  from  the  telegraph  administration,  the  China  Merchants’ 
Steamship  Navigation  Co.,  the  Wei  Sing  Lottery  at  Canton,  and 
perquisites  of  local  and  petty  officials  which  had  recently  been  turned 
over  to  the  Government ; also  rewards  were  to  be  given  persons  mak- 
ing any  public  subscriptions  toward  the  establishment  or  support  of 
schools  or  colleges.  Provision  was  made  for  translation  bureaus  for 
the  translation  of  foreign  books  into  Chinese,  which  were  to  be  dis- 
tributed among  the  schools  for  the  use  of  the  pupils.  To  save  ex- 
penses, all  temples  belonging  to  the  people  not  recorded  by  the  min- 
istry of  rites  were  ordered  turned  into  schools  for  the  instruction  and 
spread  of  western  and  Chinese  learning.  “By  advocating  reforms 
in  this  direction  the  minds  of  the  masses  will  be  enlightened  by  edu- 
cation, and  whatever  they  may  learn  will  be  of  the  useful  and  practi- 
cal kind,  and  thus  our  ambition  to  nourish  talent  and  ability  for  the 
good  of  our  Empire  shall  be  accomplished.  Let  this  edict  be  dis- 
tributed far  and  wide  for  the  information  of  all  our  subjects.” 

July  16  the  Emperor  accused  his  conservative  ministers,  delaying 
the  carrying  out  of  his  decree,  of  ingratitude  for  the  honors  conferred 
upon  them,  and  warned  them  that  if  in  the  future  he  found  the  same 
laziness  in  aiding  him  in  his  attempts  at  reforms  they  should  bear 
the  weight  of  his  righteous  indignation. 

July  20  a decree  proclaimed  the  regulations  for  the  new  examina- 
tions. Calligraphy  was  no  longer  to  hold  such  importance  in  the 
examinations.  “ What  we  really  aim  at  now  is  to  give  a practical 
education  to  our  scholars,  and  hereafter  successful  candidates  for 
literary  degrees  will  not  be  selected  for  their  fine  penmanship,  but 
for  their  practical  knowledge  of  the  subjects  in  which  they  shall  be 
examined  in  future.”  The  ministry  of  rites  was  given  the  permission 
to  recommend  to  the  Emperor  any  subject  that  they  deemed  necessary 
to  be  incorporated  in  the  examinations.  The  Emperor,  July  25,  com- 
manded copies  of  Chang  Chih  Tung’s  Essays  on  Exhortations  to 
Study,  to  be  distributed  by  the  grand  council  to  the  various  viceroys 
and  governors  with  instructions  to  reproduce  as  many  copies  as 


24 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


possible  for  dissemination  among  the  students  and  scholars  of  the 
country.1  The  establishment  of  schools  and  colleges  as  feeders  to 
the  imperial  university  was  ordered  by  a decree  of  July  29.  August 
4 five  preparatory  schools  were  ordered  established  in  the  city  of 
Peking  to  prepare  chu  jen,  chin  shih,  and  Hanlin,  living  outside  of 
the  city,  for  their  entrance  examinations  into  the  new  university. 
On  the  9th  of  the  same  month  an  outline  of  the  scope  of  work  to  be 
done  in  the  imperial  university,  with  regulations  and  rules  modeled 
after  those  of  the  Japanese  and  European  universities,  was  presented 
by  Sun  Chia  Nai,  the  director  general  of  the  university,  and  approved 
by  the  Throne.  A site  was  selected  and  Dr.  W.  A.  P.  Martin  was 
appointed  president  of  the  imperial  university.  “ In  recognition  of 
his  previous  services,”  says  the  edict,  “and  to  encourage  him  to  further 
effort,  we  hereby  grant  him  the  brevet  button  of  the  second  rank  as 
a special  honor.  The  board  of  civil  appointments  is  commanded  to 
take  note  of  this.” 2 Sun  Chia  Nai  memorialized  the  Throne,  urging 
the  establishment  of  a Government  newspaper,  citing  that  it  would 
be  “ similar  to  the  ancient  custom  of  officials  calling  upon  the  people 
for  poems  and  literary  essays  in  order  to  find  out  the  thoughts  filling 
the  minds  of  the  masses  at  the  time  under  them.”  He  goes  on  to 
suggest  that  “ it  will  be  most  important  to  grant  liberty  and  license 
to  newspapers  to  write  freely  and  succinctly  on  all  topics  whether 
advantageous  or  disastrous  to  the  country,  thereby  giving  warning 
notes  and  assisting  those  in  power  to  know  how  to  remedy  matters 
and  the  like.  These  newspapers,  moreover,  could  translate  the  news 
and  editorials  of  foreign  newspapers  for  the  enlightenment  and 
knowledge  of  officials  and  merchants,  students  and  people,  of  what 
is  going  on  in  other  countries.  Such  newspapers  would  then  be  more 
than  valuable  not  only  to  local  administration  but  also  to  enlighten 
all  as  to  what  is  proper  in  regard  to  foreign  intercourse.”  The  me- 
morialist further  suggested  that  money  be  set  aside  for  the  support 
of  this  newspaper  in  the  future.  The  memorial  was  approved,  and 
the  Chinese  Progress,  published  at  Shanghai,  was  made  the  Govern- 
ment official  organ  and  money  set  aside  for  its  future  needs.  Viceroys 
and  governors  were  commanded  to  secure  subscriptions  from  “ all 
civil  and  military  officers  .under  their  several  jurisdictions,  various 
bureaus,  colleges  and  schools,  in  fact  all  who  wished  to  subscribe  to 
the  Chinese  Progress  newspaper,  and  send  said  lists  to  the  Govern- 
ment book-printing  bureaus.”  Not  only  was  liberty  granted  all 
newspapers,  but  they  were  commanded  “ to  write  broadly  and  plainly 
and  in  a liberal  spirit  on  all  subjects  affecting  the  welfare  of  the 
Empire;  * * * nor  should  they  refrain  from  writing  boldly 

against  all  frauds  and  misgovernment,  thereby  preventing  us  from 


1 China’s  Only  Hope. 

2 This  honor  requires  Dr.  Martin  to  be  addressed  as  “ ta  jen,”  or  “ your  excellency.” 


EDUCATION  FROM  1898-1900. 


25 


learning  the  exact  truth  and  facts.  Kang  Yu  Wei  was  requested  to 
codify  regulations  and  rules  for  the  guidance  of  editors  of  news- 
papers in  accordance  with  those  governing  editors  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, which  were  to  be  “ sent  to  Sun  Chia  Nai,  who  shall  then  present 
the  same  for  our  approval.” 

The  following  day  the  Emperor  issued  a long  decree  informing  his 
people  of  his  “ heart’s  desires,”  urging  them  to  comprehend  his  re- 
forms and  to  give  him  their  loyal  support.  Realizing  that  there  were 
traitors  in  the  camp,”  he  warns  them : “ Beware  how  you  put  on  a 
false  mask,  pretending  on  your  face  to  be  eager  to  embrace  the  practi- 
cal way  but  in  your  hearts  determining  to  disobey  our  commands, 
and  thereby  thwarting  our  most  earnest  wishes.  We  can  not  forgive 
such  hypocrites,  who  will  only  cause  delay  and  embarrassment  to  our 
schemes  for  our  country’s  welfare.”  He  then  points  to  Chen  Pao 
Chen,  governor  of  Hunan,  as  worthy  of  imitation.  u Observe  how 
earnestly  he  has  worked  for  reform,  see  how  by  constant  effort  he 
has,  as  it  were,  hammered  the  advantages  of  practical  modern  reform 
into  the  minds  of  the  gentry  and  literati  of  that  Province  and  has 
brought  them  to  join  him  in  his  efforts  in  that  direction.  You  should 
all  strive  to  follow  that  governor’s  practical  earnestness  and  diligent 
energy.”  Young  men  of  ability  are  needed  to  fill  important  posts, 
and  the  high  ministers  are  commanded  to  search  out  and  “ recom- 
mend to  us  those  who  are  really  brilliant  and  practical  in  their  talent 
and  we  will  at  once  appoint  such  to  posts  where  they  may  assist  us 
in  our  great  scheme  of  reform;  but  we  shall  not  hesitate  to  punish 
those  who  recommend  to  us  useless  men.  We  see  no  other  way  to 
benefit  the  country  unless  we  set  earnestly  to  work  in  changing  the 
present  stagnant  state  of  affairs,  and  you  all  must  sympathize  with 
our  troubles  and  extreme  difficulties  in  getting  things  done  in  the 
proper  way.” 

On  the  same  day  commands  were  given  Wang  Wen  Shao  and 
Chang  Yin  Huan  to  look  after  the  establishment  of  efficient  schools 
for  training  men  in  the  administration  of  railways  and  mines,  also 
schools  for  the  education  of  men  competent  to  command  the  navy. 

August  16  a Government  translation  bureau  was  authorized  to  be 
established  at  Shanghai,  with  Liang  Chi  Chao,  M.  A.,  ex-editor  of  the 
Chinese  Progress  Magazine,  in  charge,  “ for  putting  into  Chinese 
western  works  on  science,  arts,  literature,  and  textbooks  for  schools 
and  colleges,”  especially  for  supplying  the  needs  of  the  imperial  uni- 
versity. Printing  machines  and  American  textbooks  were  to  be  pur- 
chased, and  appropriations  were  made  to  meet  the  expense  of  the 
bureau. 

August  19  a decree  approved  the  joint  memorial  of  the  Viceroy 
Chang  Chih  Tung  and  Governor  Chen  Pao  Chen,  of  Hunan,  con- 
cerning the  mode  of  procedure  to  be  observed  in  Government  ex- 


26 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


animations,  and  commanded  the  board  of  rites  (li  pu)  to  notify  all 
provincial  high  authorities  to  make  the  necessary  changes  in  the 
curriculum  of  studies  in  all  the  schools  and  colleges  in  accordance 
with  the  accepted  regulations.  The  palace  examinations  for  the 
Haul  in  degree  were  for  the  time  being  abolished.  The  next  day  the 
ministry  of  war  were  commanded  to  make  suggestions  for  reforms 
in  the  military  examinations.  August  21,  as  a result  of  sugges- 
tions made  by  Kang  Yu  Wei,  embodied  in  a memorial  sent  to  the 
Emperor,  all  viceroys  and  governors  were  commanded  to  establish 
in  each  of  their  respective  Provinces  a branch  bureau  of  agriculture, 
arts,  and  commerce,  and  to  report  by  telegraph  the  date  of  its 
establishment.  On  the  same  day  it  was  ordered  that  “ ministers 
and  consuls  abroad  should  establish  schools  for  teaching  Chinese 
literature  to  the  sons  of  Chinese  doing  business  in  foreign  countries, 
especially  in  the  British  Empire  and  Japan,”  and  that  the  ministers 
to  Great  Britain  and  France  should  engage  competent  interpreters 
and  put  into  Chinese  the  most  important  books  on  science  of  gov- 
ernment, textbooks  for  schools,  and  the  like,  for  the  instruction  of  all 
officials  in  the  Empire,  and  great  care  should  be  taken  that  they 
retain  elegance  and  clearness  in  diction,  and  keep  to  the  strict  mean- 
ing of  the  originals.  Such  books  were  to  be  from  time  to  time 
presented  by  the  tsung-li-yamen  to  the  Emperor  for  perusal. 

August  26,  through  the  memorial  of  the  grand  secretary,  Sun 
Chia  Nai,  Liang  Chi  Chao,  M.  A.,  was  granted  permission  to  estab- 
lish a training  school  for  translators  in  Shanghai.  On  the  same  day 
the  Emperor  severely  reprimanded  the  two  viceroys,  Liu  Kun  Yi 
and  Tan  Chung  Lin,  of  the  Liang  Kiang  (including  Kiangsu,  An 
Hui,  and  Kiang  Si),  and  Liang  Kuang  (including  Kuangsi  and 
Kuang  tung)  Provinces,  for  delay  in  carrying  out  the  reforms  as 
commanded,  and  hereafter  they,  according  to  edict  of  the  27th  of 
August,  are  to  reply  by  telegrams.  He  urged  Jung  Lu,  viceroy  of 
Chihli,  to  be  the  first  to  institute  reforms  as  an  example  to  others. 

September  8 a medical  college,  to  be  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
imperial  university,  was  ordered  established. 

September  12  provision  was  made  for  the  2,000  former  directors 
of  studies  in  the  prefectural  and  district  cities,  who  had  been  thrown 
out  of  employment  by  the  abolition  of  the  Wen  Chang  and  the 
establishment  of  modem  schools  throughout  the  Empire;  these  men 
were  to  be  appointed  tutors  of  Chinese  classics  in  the  new  colleges 
and  schools.  On  the  same  day  imperial  sanction  was  given  for  the 
establishment  of  a newspaper  in  Peking  after  the  model  of  the 
Chinese  Progress.  In  another  edict,  of  the  same  day,  the  Emperor 
again  explains  the  need  of  the  reforms  he  is  instituting.  He  would 
have  his  people  know  that  his  entire  thought  is  for  the  good  of  the 
nation,  that  as  western  learning  has  brought  happiness  and  prosperity 


EDUCATION  FROM  1898-1900. 


27 


to  other  lands,  so  he  would  institute  reforms,  that  his  people  might 
enjoy  the  same  blessings.  He  would  have  them  appreciate  the  danger 
of  their  situation.  “The  nations  around  us  are  gathering  about  us; 
they  have  come  to  take  away  what  we  can  not  keep;  we  are  trying 
to  prevent  this;  * * * we  are  fighting  hard  to  conquer  in  order 

to  bestow  the  highest  blessings  upon  our  beloved  children.”  He  com- 
manded that  all  the  reform  edicts  since  June  11  should  be  printed  and 
read  by  the  officials  to  all  the  people,  believing  that  when  once  the 
whole  people  understood  the  benefits  accruing  from  these  reforms 
that  they  themselves  would  work  to  carry  them  out,  “ Then  will  we 
have  a strong  China  and  a happy  and  contented  people.” 

On  September  19  provision  was  made  for  a compendium  of  the 
treaties  to  be  printed  for  future  distribution  among  all  subordinate 
officers  in  the  Provinces,  so  that  they  might  study  them  thoroughly 
and  so  not  display  ignorance  when  called  upon  in  regard  to  inter- 
national matters.  Provision  was  made  for  establishing  middle  schools 
in  the  capital  to  feed  the  imperial  university.  The  students  were 
all  to  be  Government  graduates  selected  by  competitive  examinations, 
and  funds  were  provided  for  their  support.  Permission  was  also 
granted  to  establish  a college  of  western  learning  in  Peking  “ for  the 
special  education  of  sons  of  metropolitan  officers  from  Sze  Chuan 
and  for  such  licentiates  from  Sze  Chuan  as  may  be  staying  in  the 
capital.”  The  college  was  to  be  supported  by  private  funds  already 
subscribed. 

On  September  21  occurred  the  coup  d’  etat.  The  Emperor  became 
a prisoner,  never  again  to  sit  on  the  throne.  The  Empress  Dowager 
seized  the  regency,  which  she  held  until  the  day  of  her  death,  and 
reactionary  influences  for  a time  gained  full  sway.  Some  of  the 
reformers  were  executed,  degraded,  or  banished,  while  others  sought 
safety  in  flight  or  concealment.  Of  all  the  reforms  of  that  summer 
the  imperial  university  alone  withstood  the  storm  of  reaction.  It 
had  a capital  of  5,000,000  taels,  but  the  president  had  scarcely  had 
time  to  organize  the  institution,  secure  a competent  faculty,  and 
collect  200  or  300  students,  before  all  were  dispersed  by  the  Boxer 
uprising.  Later  on  all  were  relieved  of  their  offices  by  the  Chinese 
chancellor. 

On  September  21  the  Chinese  Progress  and  other  official  news- 
papers were  suppressed,  “ because,”  as  expressed  by  the  edict,  “ they 
offer  no  advantages  * * * and  will  only  be  instruments  to  stir  up 
discontent  and  restlessness.  * * * The  Peking  Imperial  Uni- 

versity is  allowed  to  remain,  but  those  schools  intended  to  be  estab- 
lished in  prefectural,  subprefectural,  and  district  cities  are  com- 
manded to  be  held  in  abeyance.”  The  edict  authorizing  the  use  of 
temples,  monasteries,  and  nunneries  for  school  purposes  “ is  hereby 
revoked  and  the  present  inmates  allowed  to  remain  there  as  usual.” 


28 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


On  the  9th  of  October,  by  edict,  the  Empress  restored  the  composi- 
tion of  Wen  Chang  at  the  literary  examinations  and  returned  “ to 
the  usual  methods  instituted  by  our  ancestors,”  which  were  to  be  ob- 
served in  future.  “ The  system  of  special  recommendation  of  men 
of  learning  and  talent  recently  inaugurated  is  also  prohibited  from 
this  day.  * * * As  newspapers  serve  only  to  excite  the  masses 

to  subvert  the  present  order  of  things,  and  the  editors  thereof  are 
composed  mainly  of  the  dregs  of  the  literati,  no  good  can  be  served 
by  the  continuance  of  these  dangerous  instruments  against  the  public 
peace.  We  hereby  command  our  viceroys  and  governors  of  Provinces 
to  suppress  and  confiscate  all  newspaper  offices  within  their  juris- 
diction, to  arrest  the  editors  concerned,  and  to  have  them  punished 
to  the  utmost  extent  of  the  laws.  * * * The  labors  of  the  head 

bureau  of  agriculture,  commerce,  and  the  arts  at  Peking,  having  been 
so  far  abortive,  there  appears  to  be  no  necessity  for  its  existence 
any  further  in  the  capital,  and  we,  therefore,  hereby  abolish  that 
institution.” 

October  11,  feeling  secure  on  the  Dragon  Throne,  she  began  her 
edicts  by  using  the  first  person  singular,  as  “ I,  the  Empress  Dowager, 
hereby  issue  the  following  decree.”  On  this  date  was  issued  a pro- 
scription against  all  reform  clubs  and  similar  associations,  claiming 
their  object  was  not  to  exhort  men  to  be  good  and  virtuous,  but 
primarily  to  disturb  the  peace,  and  she  commanded  the  viceroys  and 
governors  of  the  Provinces  “ to  search  diligently  for  members  of 
these  associations  and  punish  them  according  to  their  respective 
responsibilities  as  chiefs  or  followers.”  The  sentence  against  chiefs 
and  principal  members  of  secret  societies  (which  the  above  were 
not)  was  immediate  decapitation,  while  the  less  responsible  were 
usually  banished.  Their  property  was  to  be  confiscated  to  the  Gov- 
ernment. No  leniency  was  to  be  shown,  and  “ traitors  will  then 
learn  to  fear  and  tremble  when  they  see  their  companions  thus 
punished.”  At  the  same  time  Jung  Lu  was  made  the  supreme  head 
of  all  the  military  forces  guarding  Peking,  and  the  power  of  life 
and  death  over  them  was  conferred  upon  him  by  edict  of  the  Empress 
Dowager. 

November  1 she  proclaimed  her  love  for  things  medieval  by  restor- 
ing the  old  order  of  affairs  in  the  military  examinations.  “ I,  the 
Empress  Dowager,  am  of  the  opinion  that,  as  the  military  examina- 
tions of  students  for  degrees  by  the  lifting  of  heavy  stone  weights, 
manipulations  of  the  great  sword,  and  archery  on  horseback  and  on 
foot,  are  merely  a form  to  go  through  in  order  to  obtain  the  three 
degrees — chin  shih,  licentiate,  and  chu  jen — and  have  nothing  to  do 
with  service  in  the  army ; this  form  should  be  still  retained  in  mili- 
tary examinations,  and  I hereby  command  that  viceroys  and  gov- 


EDUCATION  FROM  1898-1900. 


29 


ernors  and  other  officers  follow  the  old  order  of  things  hitherto 
existing.” 

On  the  13th  of  November  the  orthodox  way  of  conducting  the 
literary  examinations  was  restored,  as  indicated  by  the  following 
quotations  from  the  edict : “ I,  the  Empress  Dowager,  Tze  Hsi 
Tuan  Yu  * * * to  set  at  rest,  once  for  all,  the  present  uncer- 

tainty that  has  been  caused  by  the  Emperor’s  recent  reform  meas- 
ures in  the  above  direction,1  now  as  the  Empire  has  always  pros- 
pered and  flourished  under  the  old  regime  * * * there  is  in- 

deed no  necessity  for  making  any  changes  in  the  curriculum  of 
literary  examinations  that  has  hitherto  always  obtained.”  The  edict 
commands  all  literary  examiners  and  literary  chancellors  and  in- 
tendent  graduates  to  “ keep  to  the  orthodox  way.”  This  retrograde 
policy  culminated  in  the  Boxer  outbreak,  which  nearly  wrecked  the 
nation  and  made  the  Empress  a fugitive.  After  her  return  to  power 
she  cast  her  lot  with  the  progressives,  she  reenacted  and  enlarged 
upon  many  of  Kuang  Hsu’s  edicts,  and  started  the  country  again  on 
a great  work  of  educational  reform. 


1 Concerning  the  abolishing  of  the  Wen  Chang  (“  Eight-legged  Composition  ”). 


CHAPTER  III. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MODERN  EDUCATION  FROM 

1900  TO  1906. 

A decree  of  June  5,  1901,  granted  the  memorial  of  Sun  Chia  Nai, 
president  of  the  Hanlin  Academy,  who  complained  that  the  members 
of  the  academy,  instead  of  studying  such  subjects  as  would  prepare 
them  for  appointments  abroad  and  other  Government  offices,  spent 
their  time  in  trivial  matters,  such  as  composing  poetry  and  other 
things  which  to-day  are  perfectly  useless,  and  suggested  that  they 
devote  themselves  to  the  study  of  the  principles  of  government, 
mathematics,  chemistry,  and  other  technical  subjects;  and  also  that 
each  member  should  be  allowed  to  select  any  such  subject  as  he  might 
desire,  and  furthermore  that  he  be  permitted,  if  he  desired,  to  enter 
the  Pei  Yang  Ta  Hsueh  Tang,  Tientsin  University,1  or  the  Nan  Yang 
College.  The  memorial  being  granted,  Sun  Chia  Nai  was  ordered  to 
draw  up  a list  of  subjects  to  be  studied. 

July  8 of  that  year  the  Empress  Dowager  issued  a decree  com- 
manding all  Chinese  diplomatic  ministers  to  keep  a lookout  for 
young  Chinese,  sons  of  merchants,  who  had  shown  special  ability  and 
talent  while  studying  in  schools  and  colleges  in  foreign  countries 
and  had  graduated  with  honor,  and  possessed  diplomas  in  their 
various  professions.  These  young  men  were  to  be  sent  to  China  to 
undergo  an  official  examination,  and  one  of  the  three  Chinese  degrees 
is  to  be  conferred  upon  each  according  to  the  extent  of  knowledge 
shown  by  the  examination.  Strictest  impartiality  in  selecting  these 
men  was  to  be  observed.  The  following  month,  August  29,  she 
reissued  the  substance  of  Kuang  Hsu’s  edict  abolishing  the  wen 
chang  in  the  examinations  for  literary  degrees.  She  also  abolished 
the  old  examination  for  military  degrees,  and  September  11  com- 
manded that  military  schools  on  a modern  basis  be  established 
throughout  the  Empire,  and  as  there  are  military  schools  in  Tientsin, 
Nanking,  Wuchang,  and  Chinan,  the  Viceroys  Li  Hung  Chang,  Liu 
Kun  Yi,  Chang  Chih  Tung,  and  Yuan  Shih  Kai  were  ordered  to 
lose  no  time  and  draw  up  regulations  for  the  new  military  schools. 

September  14  she  issued  the  great  edict,  which  commanded  all  the 
provincial  shu  yuan  or  examination  agencies  in  the  capital  cities  to 

1 The  Tientsin  University  was  not  reopened  until  April,  1903. 


30 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MODERN  EDUCATION. 


31 


be  turned  into  ta  hsueh  tang  or  universities  modeled  after  the  im- 
perial university  at  Peking;  in  every  fu  and  chou  there  was  to  be 
established  chung  hsueh  tang,  or  middle  schools,  and  in  every  hsien 
or  district  hsiao  hsueh  tang,  or  elementary  schools,  while  many  yang 
hsueh  tang,  or  primary  schools,  were  to  be  established  in  larger  num- 
bers. The  course  of  study  was  to  include  the  Chinese  classics  (four 
books  and  five  classics),  Chinese  history  and  principles  of  govern- 
ment, and  foreign  science. 

Three  days  later  was  published  the  edict  regulating  the  sending 
of  students  to  be  educated  abroad,  “ Commanding  the  viceroys  and 
governors  of  other  Provinces  of  the  Empire  to  follow  the  example 
of  Viceroys  Liu  Kun  Yi  of  the  Liang  Kiang,  Chang  Chih  Tung 
of  the  Hu  Kuang,  and  Kuei  Chum  of  Szo  Chuan,  in  sending  young 
men  of  scholastic  promise  and  ability  abroad  to  study  any  branch 
of  western  science  or  art  best  suited  to  their  abilities  and  tastes,  so 
that  they  may  return  in  time  to  China  and  place  the  fruits  of  their 
knowledge  at  the  service  of  the  Empire.  Upon  the  return  of  a stu- 
dent from  abroad  with  his  diploma,  proving  the  completion  of  his 
studies,  he  may  present  himself  before  the  viceroy  or  governor  and 
literary  chancellor  of  his  native  Province  for  examination,  and,  if 
approved  of,  may  then  be  recommended  to  the  ministry  of  foreign 
affairs  for  employment,  and  subsequently  memorialized  to  the  Throne 
for  promotion  by  said  ministry.  The  various  expenses  of  the  educa- 
tion abroad  of  said  students  shall  be  paid  by  the  viceroys  or  gov- 
ernors of  the  young  men’s  native  Provinces,  on  account  of  the 
imperial  exchequer.  Any  student  desiring  to  go  abroad  to  study 
at  his  own  expense  may  obtain  an  official  dispatch  from  his  viceroy 
or  governor  introducing  the  said  student  to  the  Chinese  minister 
accredited  to  the  country  where  the  said  student  wishes  to  obtain 
his  education,  requesting  said  minister  to  take  charge  of  the  young 
men  and  render  any  needful  help  required.  These  private  students 
may,  if  they  so  desire,  be  treated  on  the  same  privileged  terms  as  are 
to  be  accorded  those  who  have  been  sent  abroad  at  Government 
expense,  and  may  also  be  granted  literary  degrees  of  chu  jen  (M.  A.) 
or  chin  shih  (Ph.  D.),  like  the  others,  should  they  prove  their  knowl- 
edge of  Chinese  literature  equal  to  the  attainment  of  such  high 
degree.” 

Yuan  Shih  Kai  in  1901  secured  the  services  of  Dr.  W.  M.  Hayes 
as  president  of  the  provincial  college  to  be  established  at  Chi  Nan 
Fu,  the  capital  of  Shantung  Province.  Dr.  Hayes  drew  up  a system 
of  rules  and  regulations  for  the  college  and  the  preparatory  schools 
of  the  Province,  which  were  to  be  under  the  control  of  the  authorities 
of  the  college.  His  Excellency  Yuan  memorialized  the  Throne 
suggesting  that  a provincial  college  should  be  located  at  Chinanfu, 
a preparatory  school  for  the  university  also  should  be  located  at  the 


32 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


capital,  and  as  soon  as  possible  other  preparatory  schools  should  be 
located  in  the  fu  and  hsien  cities.  Annexed  to  the  memorial  was  a 
copy  of  the  rules  and  regulations.  An  edict  of  November  25  ap- 
proved Yuan  Shih  Kai’s  scheme  and  ordered  the  cheng  wu  chu  to 
make  copies  of  Viceroy  Juan’s  memorial  and  his  regulations  for  col- 
leges and  schools  and  send  to  each  viceroy,  governor,  and  literary 
chancellor  for  their  information,  expecting  them  to  model  after  the 
colleges  and  schools  of  Shantung.  The  cheng  wu  chu  was  also  com- 
manded to  consult  with  the  board  of  rites  as  to  rewards  and  promo- 
tions to  be  bestowed  upon  successful  students  in  the  future.  A report 
with  regard  to  new  methods  of  education  and  the  bestowal  of  liter- 
ary degrees  upon  graduates  was  soon  made  to  the  Throne,  and  on 
December  5 the  following  decree  appeared : “ (graduates  of  the  lower 
schools,  of  promise  and  ability,  are  to  be  sent  to  the  middle  schools 
to  complete  a course  of  higher  study ; and  graduates  from  the  latter, 
selected  for  their  talents  and  ability,  are  to  be  sent  to  the  colleges 
of  their  native  Provinces  to  go  through  another  course  of  study. 
After  these  have  graduated  from  their  respective  colleges  they  are 
to  be  styled  “ students  of  the  superior  class,”  and  are  then  to  be  thor- 
oughly examined  by  their  own  viceroys  or  governors  and  literary 
chancellors,  and  the  most  promising  are  to  be  granted  passports  to 
go  to  Peking  for  reexamination  at  the  Peking  University,  after 
which  they  are  to  await  an  imperial  decree  bestowing  upon  them  the 
literary  degrees  of  chu  jen,  or  M.  A.,  and  kung  sheng,  or  senior  licen- 
tiate. The  latter  are  then  to  remain  and  again  compete  at  the  next 
examinations  for  the  chu  jen  degree.  Those  who  have  obtained  their 
chu  jen  degree  are  to  again  undergo  another  strict  examination  at  the 
Peking  University,  and  the  most  promising  are  to  be  sent  by  the  said 
university  authorities  to  the  board  of  rites.  The  said  board  will 
memorialize  the  Throne,  asking  that  some  high  ministers  of  the  court 
be  appointed  to  hold  a special  examination  of  these  chu  jen  candi- 
dates, and  a recommendation  will  then  be  presented  to  the  Throne 
asking  for  the  granting  of  the  doctor’s  degree  (chin  shih)  to  the 
successful  students.  An  examination  of  the  latter  will  then  be  held 
in  one  of  the  throne  halls,  after  which  the  successful  candidates  are 
to  be  introduced  to  the  Throne,  when  either  the  grade  of  Hanlin 
bachelor  or  secretaries  of  the  six  boards  or  secretaries  of  the  grand 
secretariat  will  be  bestowed  upon  them.”  This  edict  again  commands 
that  Yuan  Shih  Kai’s  recommendation  for  schools  and  colleges  is 
to  be  followed,  first,  in  the  provincial  college  at  the  capital;  second, 
in  middle  schools ; and,  third,  in  lower  schools. 

January  10,  1902,  a decree  was  issued  commanding  members  of  the 
Hanlin  Academy  to  diligently  study  ancient  and  modern  history  and 
politics,  also  western  learning,  i-n  order  that  they  may  be  of  future 
use  to  the  Government.  The  chancellor  of  the  academy  is  com- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MODERN  EDUCATION. 


33 


mantled  to  examine  them  every  five  months  in  their  studies  and  report 
the  results  to  the  Throne. 

On  December  1,  1902,  a decree  states  that  though  the  “ won  chang  ” 
has  been  abolished,  the  examinations  and  the  short  essays  on  cur- 
rent topics  used  at  the  recent  examinations  for  the  chu  jen  degree 
does  not  qualify  them  for  Government  service;  and  it  is  decreed  that 
not  only  the  chu  jen,  but  the  Hanlin  also,  must  hereafter  attend  the 
imperial  university,  and  each  person  must  pursue  a certain  course 
of  modern  studies,  and  those  who  successfully  complete  such  course 
of  sudy  at  the  university  shall  obtain  diplomas  allowing  them  to 
enter  the  ranks  of  expectant  officials  in  the  Province.  Those  who 
have  joined  the  public  service  shall  be  periodically  examined  in  what 
they  are  supposed  to  know  by  the  viceroys  or  governors.  The  chan- 
cellor of  the  university  is  commanded  to  draw  up  suggestions  for  a 
course  of  study  to  be  pursued  by  the  new  graduates  in  question. 

The  Boxer  troubles  closed  the  schools  in  Peking  and  Tientsin,  and 
in  the  north  and  west  of  China  all  the  schools  were  temporarily 
abandoned  for  some  months;  some  were  completely  destroyed.  No 
doubt  most  of  the  schools  outside  of  Shanghai  wTere  seriously  affected. 
Soon  after  the  Empress  Dowager  began  to  issue  her  edicts  of  reform ; 
her  viceroys  and  governors,  owing  their  appointments  to  Her  Majesty, 
were  most  willing  to  aid  her  in  carrying  out  these  measures.  The 
orders  were  first  to  establish  provincial  colleges  and  so  work  down 
to  the  lower  grades,  a method  that  later,  as  we  shall  see,  bad  to  be 
reversed. 

In  1901-2  new  colleges  were  opened  in  the  following  Provinces 
with  the  accompanying  appropriations  for  their  annual  support: 
Chekiang,  50,000  taels;  Honan,  30,000  taels;  Fookien  $50,000  Mexi- 
can; Kweichow,  20,000  taels;  Shantung,  50,000  taels;  Shansi,  50,000 
taels;  Kiangsi,  $60,000  Mexican;  Kuangtung,  100,000  taels.  Col- 
leges were  also  opened  in  Soochow  and  Chihli. 

A memorial  signed  by  Chang  Chih  Tung,  Chang  Pai  Hsi,  and 
Jung  Ching  states  that  the  sending  of  young  inexperienced  students 
to  foreign  countries  has  not  been  altogether  a success,  and  recom- 
mends that  older  and  more  learned  men  be  sent  so  that  the  Empire 
may  receive  more  help  from  their  experiences  and  study  abroad. 
The  memorial  recommends  that  Hanlin  and  princes  of  high  rank  be 
permitted  to  travel  abroad,  and  that  they  be  rewarded  by  the  Gov- 
ernment according  to  the  length  of  time  spent  abroad — first  class, 
those  that  have  spent  at  least  three  years  in  foreign  countries ; second 
class,  those  who  have  spent  two  years  in  Europe  and  America ; third 
class,  those  who  have  traveled  in  Japan  over  one  year.  Those  who 
stay  in  a foreign  country  less  than  a year  are  to  receive  no  reward 
from  the  Government.  The  object  of  sending  these  men  is  that  they 
may  examine  the  methods  of  foreign  governments,  especially  their 
9561°— 11 3 


34 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


diplomatic  policies;  examine  their  military  and  naval  regulations; 
and  study  into  their  educational  systems.  Men  of  the  highest  de- 
grees are  to  meet  foreign  men  of  distinction  and  try  to  understand 
their  customs  and  ideas.  The  men  of  lower  rank  are  to  take  notes 
of  what  has  especially  interested  them,  and  their  notebooks  upon 
return  to  China  are  to  be  handed  to  an  imperial  inspector  and  re- 
wards to  be  given  only  to  those  who  make  out  worthy  notes.  Those 
who  remained  in  universities  and  pursued  regular  courses  of  study 
would  accomplish  greater  results,  and  if  upon  their  return  they 
passed  successful  examinations  they  should  be  most  liberally  re- 
warded. Those  standing  first  should  be  granted  the  Hanlin  degree 
and  given  some  important  office ; those  who  simply  traveled  were  not 
to  receive  as  high  reward  as  those  who  studied  while  abroad;  all 
officials  traveling  abroad  would  receive  their  regular  salaries  as  an 
encouragement  to  such  travel. 

Chang  Chili  Tung  recommended  that  an  educational  board  should 
be  established,  located  at  Peking,  to  have  control  over  the  entire 
system  of  education  in  the  Empire;  that  the  imperial  university 
should  be  under  the  management  of  one  man,  to  be  called  “ tsung 
chien  tu  ” in  order  to  make  its  management  more  effective. 

August  21,  1903,  Chang  Chih  Tung,  Chang  Pai  Hsi,  and  Jung 
Ching  made  a report  on  the  enforcement  of  the  normal-school  sys- 
tem and  what  should  be  the  policy  of  the  Government  toward  the 
chin  shihs.  It  was  recommended  that  the  normal  schools  in  Peking 
should  be  raised  to  the  grade  of  a normal  college,  and  that  foreign 
languages  were  not  to  be  taught  in  schools  below  the  middle  school. 
It  had  been  planned  in  order  that  all  Hanlins,  chin  shihs,  and  chung 
shus  might  understand  some  western  learning  that  they  study  in  a 
school  called  the  “ chin  shih  kuan.”  It  was  found  not  practicable 
to  require  all  of  them  to  enter  the  school,  as  some  were  disqualified 
on  account  of  age.  So  it  was  agreed  that  all  these  scholars  under 
35  years  of  age  should  enter  the  chin  shih  kuan,  and  while  studying 
to  be  paid  salaries;  but  that  those  above  the  age  of  35,  who  wished, 
were  to  be  given  the  official  rank  of  “ chih  hsien,”  district  magistrate, 
and  were  then  to  be  given  offices  in  the  Provinces ; but  should  any  of 
these  older  students  wish  to  study  in  the  “ chin  shih  kuan  ” they 
might  do  so.  This  recommendation  received  the  imperial  sanction. 

Although  the  Pa  Ku  Wen  Chang  (Eight-Legged  Essay)  had  been 
abolished  and  the  short  essay  instituted  in  its  place,  still  the  old 
competitive  examinations  were  in  existence.  These  examinations 
were  the  very  bone  and  sinew  of  the  Chinese  constitution.  China 
without  her  examinations  was  unthinkable;  they  possessed  the  key 
to  official  life;  they  required  a thorough  knowledge  of  Chinese  liter- 
ature, and  what  the  literary  chancellor  had  been  obliged  to  know  to 
secure  his  degree  was  still  required  of  his  undergraduates.  To  be 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MODERN  EDUCATION. 


35 


successful  students  they  must  still  follow  the  old  beaten  tracks,  and 
there  was  little  or  no  time  to  give  to  modern  learning.  The  goal  of 
all  Chinese  education  had  been  for  over  1,200  years,  and  still  was, 
Government  official  recognition.  The  modern  educational  system  had 
been  in  force  two  years  and  few  modern  schools  had  been  established. 
The  people  still  clung  to  the  old  system,  and  as  long  as  it  was  in 
existence  it  would  be  next  to  impossible  to  get  the  wealthy  to  give 
toward  the  establishment  of  modern  schools,  and  without  their  volun- 
tary contributions  the  schools  could  not  exist.  The  leaders  of  reform 
saw  that  in  order  to  develop  the  modern  educational  system  the  old 
examinations  must  be  abolished.  There  were  about  1,839  degree- 
giving halls  in  the  Empire,  with  as  many  as  960,000  competing 
scholars,  and  there  were  at  least  another  million  of  students  pre- 
paring to  enter  the  lists.  It  certainly  would  be  a drastic  measure, 
resulting  in  a great  revolution,  that  would  abolish  the  examination 
system  and  destroy  the  hopes  of  2,000,000  men. 

In  the  eleventh  month  of  the  twenty-ninth  year  of  the  reign  of 
Kuang  Hsii,  Chang  Chih  Tung,  Chang  Pai  Hsi,  Jung  Ching,  and 
Yuan  Shih  Kai  presented  a memorial  to  the  Throne  advocating  the 
gradual  abolishment  of  the  old  examination  system.  They  believed 
that  unless  it  was  fully  known  that  the  old  system  was  to  be  abol- 
ished the  modern  schools  would  not  prosper.  They  pointed  out  that 
if  the  modem  system  of  schools,  as  had  been  outlined,  were  fostered 
and  supervised  by  the  viceroys  and  governors,  in  10  years  the 
colleges  would  be  able  to  furnish  numbers  of  young  men  capable  of 
doing  efficient  service  for  the  Empire.  They  offered  the  following 
suggestions  in  order  to  abolish  the  system : 

1.  For  the  degrees  of  Hanlin,  chin  shih,  and  chu  jen,  there  would 
be  held  but  three  more  examinations,  the  number  of  degrees  granted 
to  be  decreased  one-third  at  each  examination,  and  so  no  more  im- 
perial or  provincial  examinations  would  be  held  after  the  third. 

2.  For  the  hsiu  tsai  (A.  B.  degree)  there  were  to  be  held  four 
examinations  in  the  next  six  years.  The  number  of  degrees  granted 
to  be  decreased  one-fourth  at  each  examination,  abolishing  the  exami- 
nation for  A.  B.  after  the  fourth  examination. 

3.  Thereafter  the  imperial  examinations  were  to  be  restricted  to 
graduates  of  the  imperial  university.  The  chu  jen  degree  was  to  be 
conferred  upon  graduates  of  the  provincial  colleges,  and  the  hsiu 
tsai  to  be  given  by  examination  only  to  graduates  of  the  middle 
schools. 

4.  The  educational  officers  of  the  old  system  were  to  be  retained  in 
the  new  educational  system. 

5.  Men  under  30  years  of  age  having  the  degree  of  chu  jen,  or  kung 
sheng,  were  to  enter  schools.  Men  from  30  to  50  years  of  age  might 
enter  the  training  classes  in  normal  schools,  and  those  who  did  not 


36 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


wish  to  enter  the  normals  might,  after  the  three  examinations,  pre- 
sent themselves  at  a general  examination  (grace  examination),  where 
some  of  the  highest  might  be  made  chih  lisien  and  distributed  among 
the  different  Provinces,  and  those  of  good  literary  ability,  in  case 
they  are  not  made  officials,  might  be  given  positions  as  teachers  in 
the  schools,  and  after  three  years’  successful  work  might  be  rewarded 
by  the  Government. 

It  was  an  imperial  decree  of  September  2,  1905,  that  gave  the  last 
blow  to  the  old  style  of  literary  examinations.  Yuan  Shih  Kai  felt 
that  the  decree  of  gradually  abolishing  the  old  examinations  would 
delay  matters  too  much,  and  that  the  old  examinations  should  be 
abolished  at  once  in  order  to  allow  the  expansion  of  the  modern 
system  of  education,  and  so  memorialized  the  Throne.  Viceroy 
Yuan  first  pointed  out  that  it  would  not  be  violating  ancient  custom, 
but  rather  following  it,  since  “ before  the  era  of  what  is  termed  the 
Three  Dynasties  men  of  office  were  selected  from  the  schools,  and  it 
must  be  confessed  that  the  plan  produced  many  talented  men.” 
The  decree  goes  on  to  say : “It  was  indeed  a most  successful  plan 
for  the  creation  of  a nursery  for  the  disciplining  of  talent  and  the 
molding  of  character  for  our  Empire  of  China.  Indeed,  the  ex- 
amples before  us  of  the  wealth  and  power  of  J apan  and  the  countries 
of  the  west  have  their  foundation  in  no  other  than  their  own  schools. 
Just  now  we  are  passing  through  a crisis  fraught  with  difficulties, 
and  the  country  is  most  urgently  in  want  of  men  of  talent  and  abili- 
ties of  the  modern  sort.”  He  asserts  that  unless  these  old-style  ex- 
aminations be  abolished  at  once  the  people  of  this  Empire  will  con- 
tinue to  show  apathy  and  hesitate  to  join  the  modern  schools  of 
learning.  “ Hence,  if  we  desire  to  see  the  spread  of  modern  educa- 
tion by  the  establishment  of  a number  of  schools  we  must  first  abolish 
the  old  style  of  studying  for  the  examinations.  The  said  memorial- 
ist’s arguments  on  the  subject  show  the  result  of  experience  and 
knowledge,  and  we  therefore  hereby  command,  beginning  from  the 
Ping  Wu  Cycle  (1906),  all  competitive  examinations  for  the  literary 
degrees  of  chu  jen  (M.  A.)  and  chin  shih  (Ph.  D.)  after  the  old  style 
shall  be  henceforth  abolished,  while  the  annual  competitions  in  the 
cities  of  the  various  Provinces  for  the  hsiu  tsai  (B.  A.)  or  licentiate 
degree  are  also  abolished  at  once.  Those  possessing  literary  grades 
of  the  old  style  chu  jen  and  hsiu  tsai  who  obtained  their  degrees  prior 
to  the  issuance  of  this  decree  shall  be  given  opportunities  to  take  up 
official  rank  according  to  their  respective  grades  and  abilities.”  It 
states  that  the  methods  of  rewards  in  rank  and  degree  are  to  be  the 
same  as  those  formerly  given  in  the  examinations.  “We  are  certain 
that  the  official  classes  and  gentry  throughout  the  Empire,  on  learn- 
ing of  this,  will  enthusiastically  set  about  to  start  as  many  schools 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MODERN  EDUCATION. 


37 


as  possible  and  to  give  the  blessing  of  modern  education  to  every 
individual  subject  of  the  Throne.  * * * We  command  our  min- 

isters of  educations,  on  receiving  this  our  imperial  decree,  to  lose 
no  time  in  at  once  distributing  to  the  various  Provinces  the  textbooks 
that  have  been  prepared  for  schools,  so  that  we  may  have  a uniform 
system  in  teaching  in  all  our  schools.”  It  further  urges  that  pri- 
mary schools  shall  be  established  at  once  in  all  the  towns,  hamlets, 
and  villages,  and  that  the  utmost  care  be  exercised  in  the  selection  of 
teachers  for  these  schools. 

The  next  day  was  issued  an  edict  commanding  that  all  the  literary 
chancellors  in  the  various  Provinces  should  be  given  the  duty  of 
holding  examinations  and  inspecting  the  schools  of  the  Province  to 
which  each  of  them  had  been  appointed  under  the  previous  regime, 
and  that  each  should  work  in  conjunction  with  the  viceroy  or  gov- 
ernor of  the  Province  in  which  he  held  office.  The  same  day  another 
edict  commanded  that  for  the  sake  of  uniformity  the  literary  chan- 
cellors of  the  Provinces,  instead  of  remaining  under  the  board  of 
rites,  were  in  future  to  be  under  the  control  of  the  chief  commis- 
sioners of  education  (hsueh  wu  ta  chen).  The  chief  commissioners 
of  education,  Chang  Pai  Hsi,  Jung  Ching,  and  the  Viceroy  Chang 
Chih  Tung,  presented  an  elaborate  outline  for  the  educational  sys- 
tem in  China,  and  rules  and  regulations  for  the  governing  of  the 
same.  They  had  carefully  studied  the  educational  systems  of  foreign 
countries  before  preparing  their  report.  The  rapid  development  of 
Japan  and  her  successes  in  the  war  with  Russia  called  forth  the  ad- 
miration of  China,  and  Viceroy  Chang  was  especially  pro-Japanese. 
Hence  it  is  not  strange  that  the  Japanese  educational  system  was  to 
these  commissioners  the  most  attractive,  and  that  they  should  have 
developed  an  educational  system  by  grafting  the  Japanese  system 
upon  the  old  Chinese  educational  system  devoted  to  the  study  of  the 
Chinese  classics.  They  were  not  trained  in  western  learning,  and  it 
is  not  surprising  that  they  did  so  poorly,  but  that  they  should  have 
succeeded  so  well  in  outlining  a complete  system  of  education,  which 
included  kindergarten  and  orphan  schools,  lower  and  higher  primary 
schools,  middle  schools,  provincial  colleges  (higher  schools),  and  a 
national  university,  with  its  colleges  and  graduate  school.  They  also 
outlined  courses  for  normal  schools  and  colleges,  colleges  of  languages, 
the  Chin  Shih  College,  agricultural  schools  and  colleges,  and  techni- 
cal schools  and  colleges.  An  edict  of  the  eleventh  month  of  Kuang 
Hsu,  twenty-ninth  year,  approved  this  memorial. 

On  the  5th  of  September,  1905,  an  edict  was  issued  in  regard  to 
Chinese  students  studying  abroad.  It  states  that  the  viceroys  and 
governors  have  obeyed  the  command  to  send  a number  of  selected 
students  to  study  in  foreign  countries;  that  as  there  is  a very  large 


38 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


number  of  students  already  in  Japan,  a large  number  should  also 
be  sent  to  study  in  Europe  and  America,  and  “ to  those  who  are 
willing  to  cross  the  wide  oceans  in  order  to  gain  substantial  knowl- 
edge to  be  of  use  to  their  country  when  they  return  home  we  shall 
certainly  show  our  deepest  pleasure  and  commendations.”  The  min- 
isters abroad  were  to  have  charge  of  the  students  in  the  country  where 
they  were  accredited,  and  they  were  commanded  to  “ treat  the 
students  like  their  own  children  and  relatives.”  They  must  also  at 
times  examine  the  students  as  to  their  studies  and  see  that  they  lived 
orderty  lives  and  were  diligent  in  their  work.  “ Should  any  of  them 
be  in  want  of  money  to  prosecute  their  studies  or  any  be  ill,  our 
ministers  are  expected  to  give  what  pecuniary  or  other  aid  the  case 
may  demand.  * * * Let  not  our  officials  look  slightingly  on 

these  students,  but  assist  the  Throne  in  every  way  to  obtain  men  of 
ability  and  use  for  the  betterment  of  the  Empire.”  The  students 
were  reminded  that  they  should  study  with  profit  to  themselves  and 
their  country,  so  that  upon  their  return  they  might  be  of  service 
to  their  Emperor.  They  were  urged  to  make  careful  selections  of 
studies,  not  choosing  simple  ones,  nor  shirking  difficult  ones,  but 
choosing  those  subjects  which  they  were  best  fitted  to  pursue  and 
which  would  give  them  knowledge  and  ability  so  that  they  might 
upon  their  return  show  by  examination  that  they  were  qualified  to 
take  places  of  responsibility. 

It  was  after  receiving  a joint  report  from  the  ministers  of  the 
department  of  state  affairs  (cheng  wu  chu)  and  the  commissioners 
of  educational  affairs  (hsueh  wu  ta  chen)  that  the  Government 
created  the  ministry  of  education  (hsueh  pu),  December  6,  1905. 
The  following  is  a translation  of  a part  of  the  edict : 

“At  the  present  moment  schools  and  colleges  are  being  established 
in  every  Province  of  our  Empire,  and  it  has  therefore  become  neces- 
sary to  create  a department  in  the  Government  which  shall  be  at 
their  head  for  the  better  purpose  of  perfect  control.  We  therefore 
hereby  command  that  a ministry  of  education  (hsueh  pu)  be  created 
forthwith,  and  that  Jung  Ching,  assistant  grand  secretary  and  chan- 
cellor of  the  Hanlin  Academy,  be  appointed  president  of  the  new 
ministry.  We  further  appoint  Hsi  Ying  to  be  senior  vice  president, 
with  the  rank  of  an  expectant  metropolitan  officer  of  the  third  grade. 
We  further  command  that  the  duty  and  administration  work  of  the 
imperial  academy  (kuo  tse  chien)  be  amalgamated  with  the  new 
ministry.  The  newly  appointed  president  of  the  ministry  of  educa- 
tion is  also  commanded  to  confer  with  his  colleagues  as  to  whatever 
shall  be  further  needed  for  the  completion  of  the  rights  and  duties 
of  the  ministry  that  have  not  been  touched  upon  in  this  decree  and 
to  report  the  same  to  us.  With  the  inauguration  of  this  new  depart- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MODERN  EDUCATION. 


39 


ment  of  the  Government  the  members  thereof  have  the  very  impor- 
tant and  serious  duty  of  specially  seeing  to  the  encouragement  and 
nurture  of  education  throughout  the  Empire,  and  we  would  there- 
fore enjoin  upon  each  and  all  of  them  to  put  forth  their  best  effort 
to  do  their  duty  in  furthering  the  earnest  wishes  of  the  Throne  in 
this  matter,  which  shall  lead  to  the  enlightenment  and  civilization 
of  the  people  and  the  establishment  of  a universal  education  through- 
out the  country.” 

The  Chinese  Government,  realizing  the  necessity  of  coming  into 
closer  relations  with  foreign  nations  and  of  securing  a better  under- 
standing of  their  various  political  institutions,  manufactures,  com- 
merce, agriculture,  navies,  armies,  and  educational  institutions,  have 
since  1901  sent  many  delegations  of  commissioners  abroad  to  study. 

In  1904  Prince  Pu  Lun  was  appointed  commissioner  and  Wang 
Kai  Hah  vice  commissioner  to  go  on  a mission  abroad  to  visit  the  St. 
Louis  Exposition.  Prince  Pu  Lun  was  the  fifth  prince  of  the  im- 
perial blood  who  had  ever  visited  Shanghai  during  the  past  two  cen- 
turies. The  first  was  Prince  Chun,  the  present  regent,  who  in  July, 
1901,  passed  through  Shanghai  on  his  way  to  Germany  to  apologize 
for  the  murder  of  Baron  Von  Ketteler,  German  minister,  in  June, 
1900.  The  second  was  Prince  Tsai  Chen,  son  and  heir  of  Prince 
Ching,  who  in  May,  1902,  was  on  his  way  to  England  as  special  am- 
bassador to  congratulate  King  Edward  on  His  Majesty’s  coronation. 
The  third  and  fourth  princes  were  the  sons  of  Prince  Su,  who  in  the 
summer  of  1902  were  on  a trip  to  the  Straits  Settlements  and  the 
Osaka  Exhibition  in  company  with  the  Mongol  prince  Kharachin. 
Again,  in  the  fall  of  1905,  “ the  five  high  commissioners,”  composed  of 
Duke  Tsai  Tse,  Hsu  Shih  Chang,  Tai  Hung  Tze,  Tuan  Fang,  and  Li 
Sheng  Te,  were  commissioned  to  visit  Japan,  the  United  States,  Eng- 
land, France,  Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  Russia,  Italy,  and  Belgium. 
China  had  for  so  long  shut  herself  up  in  her  complacency  against 
the  whole  world  that  these  commissions,  composed  of  some  of  China’s 
greatest  men,  should  be  sent  abroad  to  study  western  education,  agri- 
culture, and  jurisprudence,  with  the  hope  of  finding  something  that 
would  revolutionize  and  build  up  China  into  one  of  the  world’s  great 
powers  took  the  Occident  by  surprise.  The  results  have  more  than 
justified  the  expenditure  and  truly  demonstrated  to  the  world  that 
China  is  in  earnest  in  her  effort  to  reform  her  educational,  industrial, 
economic,  and  constitutional  systems.  During  the  period  of  reor- 
ganization of  education  from  June  1,  1901,  to  the  time  of  the  abolish- 
ing of  the  old  system  of  examinations,  September  2,  1905,  as  is  in- 
dicated by  the  contents  of  the  edict  of  that  date,  modern  schools  were 
not  being  established  as  rapidly  as  the  Government  desired.  In  some 
Provinces  little  if  any  attention  had  been  given  the  subject,  and  in 


40 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


some  others  where  half-hearted  attempts  had  been  made  the  schools 
were  of  necessity  poorly  organized,  the  management  was  in  the  hands 
of  unqualified  men,  and  the  teachers  had  little  or  no  knowledge  of 
pedagogy  and  western  learning.  There  were  three  or  four  Provinces 
that  had  made  a more  earnest  attempt.  Chili  Province  at  this  time 
took  the  lead  in  educational  matters.  In  a measure  this  was  due  to 
her  location,  being  the  metropolitan  Province,  although  the  schools 
of  Peking  are  not  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Province,  having  an 
independent  educational  board,  but  the  rapid  development  of  the 
schools  was  very  largely  due  to  the  energetic  measures  and  good 
administration  of  the  viceroy,  Yuan  Shih  Kai.  He  had  a clear  con- 
ception of  what  was  needed,  understood  how  to  organize,  and  was 
wise  enough  to  employ  Dr.  Tenney  to  supervise  the  schools  of  the 
Province  during  the  first  period  of  reconstruction.  In  May,  1902, 
Viceroy  Yuan  established  a provincial  board  of  education  at  Pao- 
tingfu,  with  the  object  of  having  it  supervise  all  the  schools  in  the 
Province.  Hu  Yueh  Fan  was  appointed  tu  pan  (director).  At  the 
same  time  there  were  eight  other  officers  connected  with  the  board. 
The  administration  was  divided  into  three  departments,  special 
science,  general  educational,  and  translation  and  publication.  March, 
1903,  a printing  press  was  added  to  the  board’s  outfit,  and  a few 
months  later  the  department  of  translation  and  publication  added 
six  more  officers  to  its  staff,  superintendent  of  map  drawing,  proof 
reader,  accountant,  publisher,  translator,  and  copyist. 

By  May,  1904,  lecture  halls  were  opened,  where  lectures  were  given 
under  the  supervision  of  the  board  of  education.  The  lectures  were 
given  with  the  hope  of  educating  the  public  along  the  lines  of  reform 
and  progress  in  the  new  system  of  government,  industry,  and  edu- 
cation. These  halls  are  open  every  night,  Sundays  excepted,  when 
four  half-hour  lectures  are  given  by  able  men.  By  the  end  of  1905, 
18  lecture  halls  had  been  opened  in  the  Province.  The  provincial 
college  at  Paotingfu  was  organized  in  the  spring  of  1902.  Its  work 
was  quite  elementary,  similar  to  that  now  required  of  the  middle 
schools.  In  1904  it  had  a teaching  staff  consisting  of  two  Europeans 
and  six  Chinese,  who  were  formerly  students  of  the  Tientsin  Uni- 
versity and  the  Tientsin  Naval  College.  In  1902  a normal  school 
was  established  at  Paotingfu  under  Japanese  instructors.  Its  ob- 
ject was  to  train  teachers  to  take  charge  of  the  primary  schools.  In 
1904  the  school  enrolled  between  400  and  500  students,  who  were 
mostly  of  advanced  age,  many  if  not  most  of  whom  had  Chinese 
degrees. 

The  Tientsin  University  (Pei  Yang  Ta  Hsueh  Tang)  was  reopened 
in  April,  1903,  having  been  rebuilt  on  the  site  of  the  ruined  arsenal 
at  Hsiku,  situated  about  5 miles  outside  of  Tientsin  city.  The  stu- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  MODERN  EDUCATION. 


41 


dents  entering  at  that  time  were  compelled  to  devote  two  years  to 
preparatory  work.  In  August,  1905,  classes  were  formed  in  the 
technical  departments  of  law,  civil  engineering,  and  mining.  In 
1906  members  of  the  advanced  class  were  sent  to  the  United  States 
to  complete  their  education. 

It  was  realized  that  middle  schools  must  be  established  throughout 
the  Provinces  as  feeders  to  the  Tientsin  University  and  provincial 
college.  Dr.  Tenney,  president  of  the  university,  began  their  organi- 
zation in  some  of  the  fu  and  chou  cities,  and  by  the  spring  of  1904 
had  14  such  schools  organized,  with  an  average  of  about  50  students 
in  each  school.  These  schools  were  scattered  over  the  Province  from 
the  extreme  north  on  the  borders  of  Mongolia  to  the  extreme  south  of 
the  Province  not  far  from  the  Yellow  River.  The  Chinese  examina- 
tion halls  (shu  yuan)  were  reconstructed  for  these  middle  schools, 
and  as  a rule  are  very  suitable  and  commodious.  Former  students 
of  the  Tientsin  University  were  intrusted  with  the  teaching  in  these 
schools,  and  were  very  successful,  often  showing  much  enthusiasm 
in  the  work.  All  the  schools  had  athletic  grounds,  and  the  students 
were  required  to  take  physical  exercise  daily  as  a part  of  their  work. 
We  are  told  by  Dr.  Tenney  that  the  gentry  often  looked  askance  at 
the  innovation,  but  the  fear  of  the  viceroy  compelled  them  to  tolerate 
it.  In  1904  orders  were  given  to  establish  a middle  school  in  each 
fu  of  the  Province,  and  in  each  hsien  was  to  be  established  a higher 
primary  school,  and  the  smaller  places  were  to  organize  lower  pri- 
mary schools.  At  this  date  students  were  selected  and  sent  to  Japan 
for  study  in  normal  schools;  upon  their  return  they  were  expected 
to  teach  in  the  schools  of  Chihli  Province.  In  order  to  save  expense 
the  three  departments  of  the  educational  board  were  united  in  one 
department  in  October,  1904.  In  April,  1905,  the  board  was  moved 
from  Paotingfu  to  Tientsin,  where  it  is  still  located,  having  many 
buildings  in  spacious  and  beautiful  grounds.  That  year  the  board 
was  divided  into  seven  departments,  accounts,  special  sciences,  gen- 
eral education,  supervision,  technical,  map  drawing,  and  one  in 
charge  of  students  studying  in  foreign  countries. 

At  this  time  night  schools  were  opened  giving  officials  an  oppor- 
tunity to  study  English.  The  students  sent  the  year  before  to  study 
in  the  normal  schools  in  Japan,  having  completed  a short  course, 
returned  to  Tientsin  and  were  distributed  among  the  fu  cities  to 
teach ; and  more  students  were  sent  abroad  to  study. 

During  this  period  other  schools  had  been  established  in  the  Prov- 
ince. At  Paotingfu  an  agricultural  college  was  established  in  1902, 
a medical  college  in  1904,  a political  science  school  in  1905.  A mili- 
tary and  a Japanese  language  school  were  also  established.  An 
industrial  school  and  an  army  medical  school  were  established  in 


42 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


Tientsin.  The  Educational  Directory  for  China,  1905,  gives  the 
following  report  of  the  middle  schools  of  Chihli  Province  under 
Dr.  Tenney,  superintendent: 


Name  of  schools. 

Chinese 

teachers. 

.Pupils. 

Name  of  schools. 

Chinese 

teachers. 

Pupils. 

Tientsin 

6 

90 

Shen  Chow 

2 

30 

Chao  Chou 

3 

50 

| Shen  Te 

4 

60 

Chengting 

4 

60 

Ta  Ming 

4 

50 

Chi  Chou 

3 

40 

Ting  Chou 

2 

30 

Ho  Chien 

4 

60 

Tsun  Hua 

2 

30 

Hsuan  Hua 

4 

50 

1 Yung  Ping 

4 

50 

I Chou 

Je  Ho 

2 

4 

30 

60 

Total 

52 

750 

Kuang  Ping 

4 

60 

English  is  taught  in  all  the  middle  schools. 

By  January,  1906,  there  were  in  Chihli  Province  35  lecture  halls, 
8 technical  and  special  schools,  21  normal  schools,  24  middle  schools, 
and  166  boys’  higher  primary  schools. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


CONTROLLING  AGENCIES  OF  THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM. 

The  educational  system  in  China,  as  we  have  seen  by  studying  the 
growth  of  modern  education,  rests  upon  imperial  decrees.  The  con- 
trolling authority,  therefore,  has  been  intrusted  to,  first,  the  minis- 
try of  education,  with  its  headquarters  at  Peking,  and,  second,  the 
provincial  boards  of  education  and  other  local  officers.  As  shown 
in  the  previous  chapter,  the  ministry  of  education  (hsueh  pu), 
created  December  6,  1905,  by  imperial  decree,  has  at  its  head  a 
president  and  two  vice  presidents.  These  are  assisted  by  five  depart- 
ments, three  of  which  are  subdivided  into  three  bureaus,  and  the 
other  two  into  two  bureaus  each.  Each  department  has  a senior 
secretary  in  charge,  and  each  bureau  a second-class  secretary  and  one 
or  two  second-class  assistant  secretaries. 

The  first  department  is  the  department  of  general  supervision 
(tsung  wu  szu),  and  is  composed  of  the  following  bureaus:  First, 
bureau  of  secret  and  important  documents  (chi  yao  ke),  and,  as  its 
name  indicates,  it  has  charge  of  all  secret  and  important  documents, 
prepares  memorials  and  documents  for  the  ministry  of  education, 
has  the  supervision  and  recommendation  of  educational  officials  to  be 
promoted  or  degraded.  Second,  bureau  of  records  (an  tu  ke),  which 
receives  and  files  all  records  and  reports  from  the  educational  boards 
of  the  Province.  Third,  bureau  of  textbooks  (shen  ting  ke),  which 
has  the  supervision,  inspection,  and  approving  of  all  textbooks,  and 
the  preparing  and  providing  suitable  ones  for  the  schools  of  the 
Empire. 

The  second  department  is  the  department  of  professional  education 
(chuan  men  szu),  and  is  composed  of:  First,  the  bureau  of  instruc- 
tion of  professional  education  (chuan  men  chiao),  which  looks  after 
the  establishing  of  universities,  provincial  colleges,  and  professional 
schools  of  law,  political  science,  and  the  like ; it  also  has  charge  of  the 
examination  of  private  professional  schools  as  to  their  standard, 
rank,  and  privileges,  and  makes  reports  concerning  them  to  the 
ministry  of  education.  Second,  the  bureau  of  administration  of 
professional  education  (chuan  men  szu),  which  is  to  protect  and 
encourage  professional  education;  to  examine  all  professional  asso- 
ciations and  to  reward  those  who  are  worthy;  to  have  charge  of 
museums,  observatories,  and  the  weather  bureau,  and  to  have  charge 
of  all  students  studying  in  foreign  countries. 

. \ 


43 


44 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


The  third  department  is  the  department  of  general  education 
(pu  tung  szu) , and  is  composed  of : First,  the  bureau  of  normal  educa- 
tion (shih  fan  chiao  yu  ke),  which  has  charge  of  all  normal  schools; 
deaf,  dumb,  and  blind  schools,  women’s  normal  schools,  and  domestic 
education,  as  to  their  schedules,  rules,  regulations,  administrative 
officers,  teaching  staff,  and  the  like.  Second,  the  bureau  of  secondary 
education  (chung  teng  chiao  yu  ke),  which  has  charge  of  middle 
schools  for  boys  and  girls,  and  all  other  schools  of  the  same  rank,  as 
to  their  studies,  rules,  regulations,  administration,  teaching  staff,  and 
the  like.  Third,  the  bureau  of  primary  education  (hsiao  hsueh  chiao 
yu  ke),  which  looks  after  the  interests  of  all  the  primary  schools,  has 
charge  of  the  halls  for  promoting  education  (chuan  hsueh  so)  ; also 
of  kindergartens  and  all  elementary  schools. 

The  fourth  department  is  the  department  of  technical  education 
(shih  yeh  szu)  composed  of:  First,  the  bureau  of  instruction  in 
technical  education  (shih  yeh  chiao  wu  ke),  which  has  charge  of 
the  agricultural,  industrial,  and  commercial  schools;  also  of  all 
technical  schools,  as  to  their  rules,  regulations,  administration, 
students,  teaching  staff,  etc.  Second,  the  bureau  of  administration 
of  technical  education  (shih  yeh  shu  wu  ke),  which  is  to  examine 
into  the  conditions  of  technical  education  in  the  Provinces  and  to 
devise  ways  and  means  for  promoting  and  supporting  the  same. 

The  fifth  department  is  the  department  of  finance  (hui  chi  szu) 
and  is  composed  of:  First,  the  bureau  for  the  receiving  and  disburs- 
ing of  funds  (tu  chih  ke),  which  has  the  preparing  of  the  budget 
for  the  ministry  of  education  and  for  the  Provinces  and  also  has 
charge  of  all  the  finances  of  the  ministry  of  education  and  makes 
reports  of  the  same;  it  also  has  charge  of  all  property  connected 
with  the  ministry  of  education.  Second,  the  bureau  of  buildings 
(chien  chu  ke),  which  looks  after  the  buildings  of  all  schools, 
libraries,  and  museums  of  schools  directly  under  the  supervision  of 
the  minister  of  education;  also  examines  the  architectural  plans  for 
all  schools  in  China.  Third,  the  bureau  of  miscellaneous  affairs 
(szu  wu  ting),  which  has  charge  of  the  seal  of  the  ministry  of  edu- 
cation and  stamps  all  papers ; superintends  the  buildings  and 
grounds  of  the  ministry  of  education,  day  and  night,  and  is  in 
charge  of  all  the  servants  connected  with  the  ministry  of  education. 

The  ministry  of  education  sends  out  inspectors  to  visit  the  schools 
of  the  various  Provinces,  and  they  are  required  to  make  personal 
inspection  of  the  schools  and  within  six  months  to  send  in  reports 
to  the  ministry  of  education  of  the  number  of  schools  visited  with 
the  number  of  teachers  and  pupils.  The  Peking  Daily  News  of 
February  28,  1908,  reports  that  these  inspectors  receive  a salary  of 
200  taels  per  month,  but  it  is  not  customary  to  publish  the  salaries 
of  Chinese  Government  officers.  The  North  China  Herald  of 


CONTROLLING  AGENCIES. 


45 


December  18,  1909,  page  642,  states  that  “ The  regulations  drawn  up 
by  the  ministry  of  education  for  the  inspection  of  schools  have  been 
approved  by  decree,  and  will  be  put  into  operation  next  year.” 
The  Universal  Gazette,  December  31,  1909,  states  that  the  ministry 
of  education,  having  appointed  educational  compciissioners  and 
provincial  boards  of  education,  is  contemplating  establishing  dis- 
trict boards  of  education  in  every  Province. 

The  ministry  of  education  is  to  establish  a large  depot  in  Peking 
from  which  it  can  supply  every  kind  of  educational  requisite  for  the 
entire  Empire.  It  has  a nomenclature  committee  at  work  compiling 
a uniform  and  much-needed  dictionary  of  technical  terms. 

About  the  time  of  the  establishment  of  the  ministry  of  education 
the  Japanese  ministry  of  education  provided  Japanese  professors  to 
give  a five-weeks’  course  of  lectures  before  the  Chinese  ministry  of 
education  and  the  commissioners  of  education  who  had  been  sent 
to  Japan  to  study  the  Japanese  system  of  education.  Later  in  1906 
the  commissioners  of  education  who  had  not  been  abroad  were 
requested  to  visit  Japan  and  examine  the  educational  system  of 
that  country  before  beginning  their  official  duties. 

In  each  Province  there  is  a provincial  board  of  education,  called 
the  hsueh  wu  kung  so.  All  the  officers  of  this  board  are  nominated 
by  the  ministry  of  education  and  confirmed  by  the  Throne.  The 
provincial  commissioner  of  education  (ti  hsueh  shih)  is  to  be  of  the 
same  rank  as  the  provincial  treasurer,  and  is  under  the  control  of  the 
viceroy  or  governor  of  the  Province.  His  duties  are,  to  enforce  the 
regulations  of  the  ministry  of  education;  to  report  to  the  viceroy 
or  governor  any  prefectural  or  district  magistrate  who  is  not  carry- 
ing out  the  regulations  of  the  ministry ; to  make  yearly  reports  of  all 
the  schools  in  the  Province  and  to  present  them  to  the  viceroy  or 
governor  who  will  forward  the  reports  to  the  ministry  of  education ; 
to  work  with  the  provincial  treasurer  and  see  that  funds  are  pro- 
vided for  the  schools.  He  is  also  required  to  make  reports  whenever 
called  upon,  and  he  can,  in  cases  of  great  importance,  communicate 
directly  with  the  ministry  of  education;  but  he  can  not  leave  the 
Province  without  first  securing  the  consenLof  the  ministry  of  educa- 
tion. This  provincial  commissioner  of  education,  who  has  a number 
of  officers  to  assist  him,  nominates,  and  the  viceroy  or  governor  ap- 
points, six  inspectors  (sheng  shih  hsueh)  who  are  chosen  from  normal 
graduates,  returned  students  from  abroad,  administrators,  or  teachers 
of  schools.  These  inspectors  are  required  to  visit  the  schools  and 
make  reports.  There  are  a senior  and  five  junior  counselors  called 
i chang  and  i sheng,  who  are  to  assist  the  provincial  commissioner  in 
devising  ways  and  means  for  carrying  out  the  educational  program, 
and  are  to  be  able  to  answer  all  questions  asked  by  the  viceroy  or 
governor  concerning  education  in  the  Province.  There  are  also  a 


46 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


superintendent  of  education  (kao  teng  chiao  yu  chiang  shih),  a 
private  secretary  (mi  shu  kuan),  and  a commissioner  of  investiga- 
tion (chi  cha). 

There  are  six  bureaus  in  the  board  of  education,  each  having  a 
president,  vice  president,  and  secretary.  First,  the  bureau  of  ac- 
counts (huai  chi  ke)  ; second,  the  bureau  of  technical  schools  (shih 
yeh  ke)  ; third,  the  bureau  of  administration  (tsung  wu  ke)  ; fourth, 
the  bureau  of  general  education  (pu  tung  ke)  ; fifth,  the  bureau  of 
professional  education  (chuan  men  ke)  ; sixth,  the  bureau  of  map 
drawing  and  engraving  (tu  shu  ke).  We  have  been  informed  that 
the  educational  board  of  Chili  Province  in  1908  contained  52  mem- 
bers; that  1 was  a returned  student  having  graduated  in  Japan;  1 a 
returned  student,  who  had  graduated  from  an  American  college;  5 
had  traveled  in  Japan;  14  were  graduates  of  normal  schools  or  of 
political  science  schools;  1 was  a graduate  of  the  Tientsin  Naval 
College;  1 a graduate  of  an  engineering  school;  1 was  a chin  shih 
(Ph.  D.  Government  graduate)  ; 14  were  chu  jen  (N.  A.  Government 
graduates)  ; and  all  had  received  some  Government  literary  degree. 
The  expense  of  this  educational  board  for  the  thirty-third  year  of 
Kuang  Hsu  (1907-08)  was  41,264  taels,  or  $29,760. 

Educational  commissioner’s  offices  had  been  established  in  some 
of  the  foreign  countries  to  have  charge  of  Government  Chinese 
students  studying  abroad.  In  Japan,  where  there  is  the  largest 
number  of  Chinese  students,  this  office  is  located  inside  of  the 
Chinese  legation  at  Tokyo.  The  Chinese  minister  is  the  president 
and  the  educational  commissioner  is  his  assistant,  and  must  be 
chosen  from  among  the  Chinese  legation  secretaries  in  Japan  by 
the  ministry  of  education  and  the  Chinese  minister  of  the  legation 
in  Tokyo.  The  educational  commissioner  receives  instructions  from 
the  minister,  but  all  diplomatic  affairs  concerning  the  students  are 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  minister,  but  the  educational  commis- 
sioner is  to  report  such  cases  to  the  minister.  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
commissioner  to  keep  records  of  the  students  as  to  their  school 
work  and  character  and  to  make  reports  of  the  same  to  the  ministry 
of  education  in  Peking.  He  also  protects,  directs,  and  corrects 
these  students  when  occasions  require,  but  is  to  act  with  discretion. 
He  is  also  to  give  certificates,  such  as  are  required  by  the  minister 
of  education,  to  students  graduating  from  Japanese  schools;  to  issue 
excuses  to  students,  such  as  granting  them  the  privilege  of  return- 
ing to  China  on  a visit  or  permanently;  and  he  has  the  right  to 
send  back  to  China  such  students  as  have  a bad  character  or  are 
not  making  progress  in  their  studies;  but  he  must  make  reports 
also  of  these  matters  to  the  ministry  of  education.  In  making  choice 
of  a course  of  study,  the  student  must  first  secure  the  approval  of  the 
educational  commissioner  before  entering  upon  the  work.  The  board- 


CONTROLLING  AGENCIES. 


47 


ing  or  lodging  places  of  students  outside  of  the  legation  are  subject 
to  the  commissioner’s  approval,  and  in  case  of  sickness  he  selects  the 
hospital  to  which  the  student  is  to  be  sent.  He  has  charge  of  pay- 
ing the  monthly  stipends  to  the  students,  and  in  cases  where  self- 
supporting  students  become  financially  embarrassed  he  may  loan 
them  to  the  amount  of  $50,  which  must  be  paid  back  inside  of  two 
months’  time,  or  the  student  will  forfeit  the  right  to  borrow  further 
sums  from  the  office.  Help  can  be  given  to  but  one  student  at  a 
time  from  the  same  Province.  In  the  case  of  the  death  of  a self- 
supporting  student  the  commissioner  may  furnish  the  amount  neces- 
sary to  send  the  body  home,  but  the  expense  must  not  exceed  $300 
Mexican. 

The  commissioner’s  office  has  four  departments:  First,  charge  of 
students;  second,  finances;  third,  charge  of  official  documents;  fourth, 
department  of  translation,  where  the  regulations  of  Japanese  schools 
are  put  into  Chinese.  The  commissioner  selects  at  the  most  10  men 
for  his  staff  of  advisors,  who  are  to  aid  him  in  solving  difficult  ques- 
tions. The  salaries  of  these  lowTer  officers  are  fixed  by  the  minister. 
For  the  students  studying  in  Great  Britain  and  Europe  there  has 
been  but  one  educational  commissioner’s  office,  which  has  been  located 
in  London,  but  we  are  informed  that  the  ministry  of  education  has 
changed  this  plan  and  in  future  educational  commissioners’  offices 
will  be  established  in  each  European  country  where  Chinese  Govern- 
ment students  are  pursuing  their  studies.  In  the  United  States  there 
is  more  than  one  educational  commissioner.  Dr.  Tenney  was  one  of 
the  first  to  be  appointed  to  look  after  the  students  sent  out  by  the 
Tientsin  University,  and  later  they  have  been  placed  under  a com- 
missioner of  the  Chinese  imperial  customs.  Mr.  Yung  Kwai,  son 
of  the  venerable  Yung  Wing,  is  in  charge  of  the  Chinese  students 
sent  out  under  the  indemnity  fund  returned  to  China  by  the  United 
States. 

The  provincial  board  is  also  aided  by  supervisory  boards  of  pri- 
mary schools.  In  Chihli  Province  there  were,  in  1908,  31  such 
boards.  In  the  same  year  there  had  been  established  in  the  Province 
29  educational  clubs  (chiao  yu  hui).  The  ministry  of  education 
ordered  all  the  Provinces  to  establish  educational  exhorting  societies 
(chuan  hsueh  so),  where  the  school  officials  and  teachers  might  meet 
and  discuss  the  ways  and  means  for  promoting  the  schools,  and 
wdiere  some  might  receive  help  from  those  of  experience  and  acknowl- 
edged success.  In  Peking,  in  1908,  an  attempt  was  made  especially 
to  interest  those  connected  with  the  Government,  public,  and  private 
elementary  schools  to  bring  about  better  results  and  a more  unified 
system  of  conducting  the  school  and  better  teaching  methods.  They 
met  at  a place  called  the  “ Hu  Feng  Chiao  ” on  the  fourth  Sunday 
in  each  month,  in  spring  and  winter,  from  1 to  4 o’clock,  and  the 


48 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


remainder  of  the  year  from  8 to  11  o’clock.  Any  teacher  of  Govern- 
ment, public,  or  private  schools  could  become  a member  of  this  club 
through  the  recommendation  of  a regular  member.  In  1908  there 
were  149  of  these  societies  in  Chihli  Province.  Throughout  the  Em- 
pire there  have  been  established  great  numbers  of  lecture  halls  (hsuan 
chiang  so).  In  Chihli  Province  alone  there  were  by  1908  no  less 
than  158  lecture  halls.  Four  lectures  are  given  every  night,  except 
on  Sundays,  from  7.15  to  9.15.  During  the  daytime  the  majority  of 
the  halls  are  used  for  half-day  schools.  It  has  been  my  privilege  to 
attend  some  of  these  meetings  in  Tientsin  city.  The  halls  are  large 
and  comfortable,  fitted  up  with  tables,  stools,  and  long  benches. 
They  are  well  lighted,  and  the  guests  during  the  evenings  are  often 
refreshed  by  a cup  of  hot  tea.  The  attendance  is  usually  good,  aver- 
aging anywhere  from  80  to  160,  and  some  evenings  as  many  as  1,000 
have  been  known  to  attend.  In  the  city  there  were,  in  1909,  18  lec- 
turers, who  volunteered  their  services,  receiving  but  $5  to  pay  for 
their  rickshaw  hire.  Lectures  are  given  to  educate  the  people  along 
educational,  governmental,  industrial,  commercial,  and  general  sub- 
jects. The  provincial  board  of  education  insists  that  the  edicts  must 
be  explained  to  the  people;  also  that  lectures  shall  be  given  on  par- 
liamentary government,  so  that  the  people  may  intelligently  exercise 
the  franchise  as  soon  as  a constitutional  government  is  established  in 
China.  In  many  of  the  Provinces  much  pains  was  taken  to  prepare 
the  people  for  the  first  provincial  assemblies  of  1909.  One  evening 
in  the  east  ma  lu  lecture  hall  in  Tientsin  I heard  lectures  on  the  fol- 
lowing subjects:  First,  How  Egypt  Came  to  Lose  Her  Independence; 
second,  History  of  Korea;  third,  The  Russian  and  Japanese  War; 
fourth,  Principles  of  Commerce.  These  subjects  were  discussed  in 
an  intelligent  and  instructive  manner,  and  commanded  the  close 
attention  of  the  hearers.  Another  evening  the  subjects  were:  First, 
The  Cultivation  of  the  Individual ; second,  Following  the  Customs  and 
Manners  That  Have  Been  Llanded  Down  to  Us;  third,  Education; 
fourth,  Books  Which  We  Must  Study.  Every  effort  is  being  made 
by  the  educational  boards  to  educate  the  people  along  the  lines  of 
modern  education,  and  thus  to  secure  their  support  and  cooperation 
in  advancing  education. 


CHAPTER  V. 


PRIMARY  EDUCATION. 

Under  the  head  of  primary  education  may  be  placed  kindergarten 
and  home  education,  elementary  schools*  and  technical  schools  of 
an  elementary  character.  The  last  class  is  treated  under  technical 
schools. 

At  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  the  system  of  education  no  place 
outside  of  the  kindergarten  and  home  education  was  provided  for 
the  education  of  girls,  hence  this  chapter  otherwise  treats  only  of 
schools  for  boys. 

Kindergartens  are  to  be  established  for  children  from  2 to  6 years 
of  age,  and  are  to  be  taught  by  women  specially  trained  for  the 
work.  Thus  far  the  ministry  of  education  has  not  been  able  to  give 
much  attention  to  the  developing  of  this  work,  but  it  does  expect  first 
of  all  to  have  kindergartens  organized  in  connection  with  the  or- 
phanages that  are  being  opened  in  the  large  cities,  and  it  has  pro- 
vided that  women  shall  be  trained  as  nurses  for  the  caring  for  and 
teaching  of  these  orphan  children.  Training  classes  are  to  be  pro- 
vided for  widows  who  may  be  able  to  devote  themselves  to  the  carry- 
ing on  of  this  work.  It  is  the  plan  of  the  Government  to  prepare 
books  relating  to  home  education,  and  also  to  have  translations  made 
of  the  best  foreign  books  on  kindergarten  subjects.  The  Government 
hopes  that  through  the  preparation  of  these  books  many  mothers 
will,  by  reading  them,  learn  the  most  modern  methods  of  training 
their  children.  It  also  suggests  that  the  wealthy  may  be  able  to  open 
such  schools  in  their  homes. 

I was  able  one  day  to  visit  the  first  private  kindergarten  school 
established  in  Tientsin,  which  had  been  opened  by  His  Excellency 
Yen  Hsin,  a Hanlin  and  the  vice  president  of  the  ministry  of  edu- 
cation, in  his  home.  It  was  carried  on  very  successfully,  doing  the 
work  of  a model  kindergarten,  and  its  founder  no  doubt  hoped  by 
creating  an  interest  in  this  department  of  education  to  induce  many 
of  the  wealthier  gentry  to  open  kindergarten  schools.  His  excellency 
had  also  established  in  his  home  a women’s  kindergarten  training 
school,  in  which  were  27  students;  the  instruction  was  good  and  the 
students  gave  promise  of  developing  into  good  teachers. 

In  Japan  the  kindergartens  have  flourished  and  are  looked  upon 
by  the  people  as  a very  essential  part  of  the  educational  system,  and 

49 


9561° — 11 4 


50 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


we  may  infer  that  they  will  be  just  as  attractive  to  the  Chinese 
people  and  in  time  will  be  established  in  large  numbers  in  the  Em- 
pire. The  home  life  in  China  needs  to  be  supplemented  by  just  what 
the  kindergartens  can  furnish.  The  Chinese  child  seems  to  be  more 
amenable  to  early  instruction  and  to  kindergarten  influences  than 
the  European  child,  and  this  should  be  taken  advantage  of,  and  a 
widespread  use  of  the  system  would  save  much  time  and  expense  in 
after  years  when  the  child  is  passing  through  the  primary  schools. 

The  elementary  schools  are  divided  into  two  grades,  called  lower 
primary  (chu  tong  hsiao  hsueh  tang)  and  the  higher  primary  (kao 
tong  hsiao  hsueh  tang) . Sometimes  the  two  are  united  in  one  school, 
known  as  a higher-lower  primary.  Again,  there  are  schools  called 
half-day  schools,  where  the  attendance  is  so  great  that  accommoda- 
tion can  only  be  given  all  the  pupils  by  dividing  them  into  two 
classes,  one  attending  school  in  the  forenoon  and  the  other  in  the 
afternoon.  Again  there  are  night  schools,  where  the  poor  children 
who  have  to  work  during  the  daytime  may  attend  and  secure  an  ele- 
mentary education.  Many  night  schools  have  been  opened  in  the 
towns  and  villages  where  men  have  attended  in  large  numbers.  The 
subjects  taught  are  morals,  reading,  writing,  and  accounts. 

Lower  primary  schools,  having  a course  of  five  years,  have  been 
established  for  boys,  who  may  enter  at  the  age  of  6.  These  schools 
are  classed  as  Government,  public  and  private  schools.  It  is  expected 
that  each  village  having  100  roofs  will  establish  one  of  these  schools, 
and  the  Government  expects  this  rule  to  be  enforced  by  1915.  The 
Government  proposes  to  establish  in  each  hsien  at  least  two  so-called 
Government  lower  primary  schools,  and  in  each  town  at  least  one 
such  school.  The  funds  for  these  Government  schools  are  to  be  sup- 
plied by  the  local  magistrate.  The  public  lower  primary  schools  are 
such  as  have  been  established  and  organized  according  to  the  regula- 
tions of  the  ministry  of  education  for  lower  primary  schools,  and  are 
being  supported  by  contributions  that  formerly  were  used  for  other 
purposes,  such  as  theatricals.  These  contributions  may  be  turned 
into  a permanent  endowment.  Any  private  school  supported  by  any 
individual,  providing  it  has  an  enrollment  of  over  30  boys  and  con- 
forms to  the  regulations  made  by  the  Government  for  lower  .primary 
schools,  may  be  placed  under  Government  control,  being  under  the 
control  and  supervision  of  the  local  magistrate.  All  schools  are  to 
be  established  by  sanction  of  the  local  magistrate,  and  without  his 
sanction  no  school  is  allowed  to  be  closed.  The  magistrate  is  ex- 
pected to  encourage  and  foster  such  schools,  and  if  it  be  found  that 
he  is  negligent  in  his  duties,  he  is  to  be  reported  and  degraded ; and 
if  he  interferes  and  obstructs  the  establishment  of  schools,  he  is  to 
be  reported  and  severely  punished.  He  is  required  to  select  some  of 
the  most  respectable  citizens  to  aid  him  in  securing  the  establish- 


PRIMARY  EDUCATION. 


51 


ment  of  schools.  His  future  promotion  depends  not  a little  upon 
how  he  has  been  able  to  organize,  establish,  and  finance  schools.  Any 
citizen  who  gives  liberally  toward  the  support  of  these  schools  may 
be  reported  to  the  governor  of  the  Province  for  reward. 

The  course  of  study  extends  through  five  years.  Eight  subjects 
are  taught  through  the  entire  course,  and  the  number  of  hours  re- 
quired per  week  is  to  be  uniform  through  the  course  as  given  below. 


Course  of  study  for  the  lower  primary  schools  ( five  years). 


Subjects. 

Number 
of  hours. 

Subjects. 

Number 
of  hours. 

Ethics 

2 

Geography 

1 

Chinese  classics 

12 

Science 

1 

Chinese  literature 

4 

Drill 

3 

Mathematics . 

6 

History 

1 

Total 

30 

The  work  required  in  mathematics  is:  First  year,  1 to  20;  read  and 
write;  addition  and  subtraction.  Second  year,  20  to  100;  multipli- 
cation and  division.  Third  year,  addition,  subtraction,  multiplica- 
tion, and  division.  Fourth  year,  decimals;  the  use  of  the  abacus. 
Fifth  year,  application  of  the  four  rules,  using  the  abacus. 

The  work  required  in  Chinese  classics:  First  year,  Filial  Piety 
Classic;  Analects,  volume  1 (Lun  Yu),  taking  about  40  characters 
in  advance  each  day,  reading  and  explaining  them.  Second  year, 
Analects,  volume  2 (Lun  Yu)  ; Great  Learning  (Ta  Hsueh)  and 
Doctrine  of  the  Mean  (Chung  Yung),  60  characters  per  day.  Third 
year,  Meng  Tze,  100  characters  per  day.  Fourth  year,  Meng  Tze, 
Li  Chi,  100  characters  per  day.  Fifth  year,  Li  Chi,  100  characters 
per  day. 

The  work  required  in  Chinese  literature:  First  year,  nouns  and 
verbs;  second  year,  building  sentences;  third  year,  building  para- 
graphs; fourth  year,  continuation  of  third-year  work;  fifth  year, 
letter  writing,  common  style.  The  pupils  also  have  work  in  pen- 
manship, and  practice  recognizing  characters  at  sight. 

History  is  one  hour  per  week  throughout  the  five  years  and  con- 
sists of  reading  short  stories  and  biographies  of  famous  men  in 
Chinese  history. 

In  geography  they  begin  with  the  neighborhood,  extending  out 
to  the  hsien,  fu,  Province,  China,  and  the  countries  bordering  on 
China. 

Science  work,  elementary  study  in  zoology,  botany,  and  mineralogy. 

Morals  are  taught  to  develop  in  the  boys  a desire  to  do  right  in 
and  out  of  school. 

Drill  consists  of  physical  exercises. 


52 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


Drawing  and  manual  work  may  be  taken  as  elective  studies. 

The  teacher  has  the  right  to  diminish  the  number  of  hours  of  study 
during  the  20  days  before  examination. 

The  old  system  of  having  the  boys  learn  to  commit  without  any 
explanations  is  no  longer  desired.  The  best  schools  explain  the  text 
as  a pupil  proceeds  in  his  lesson.  It  is  not  unusual  to  find  teachers 
still  clinging  to  the  old  methods  of  teaching  in  the  primary  schools. 
In  Tientsin  city,  while  visiting  schools,  I found  some  old-style  pri- 
mary schools  in  the  very  vicinity  where  the  “ model  primary  school  ” 
is  located.  I had  just  left  the  model  primary  school  and  was  there- 
fore able  to  compare  the  old  with  the  new  system.  The  model  pri- 
mary school  contained  all  the  grades  of  the  higher  and  lower  primary 
schools.  Here,  indeed,  I found  all  the  classes  conducted  by  able 
teachers,  who  not  only  understood  the  most  modern  primary  methods 
of  teaching,  but  were  also  able  to  apply  these  methods.  Here  I found 
the  best  primary  work  that  I have  seen  in  China.  The  pupils  were 
in  perfect  order,  giving  the  very  best  attention,  were  enthusiastic, 
and  showed  by  their  recitations  that  they  had  had  excellent  drill  in 
the  work  they  had  been  over.  Never  have  I seen  better  work  done 
in  the  schools  of  the  United  States  than  I saw  in  this  model  primary 
school.  The  work  done  in  most  of  the  modern  primary  schools  that 
I have  visited,  while  being  somewhat  better  than  the  old  schools,  still 
falls  very  far  short  of  what  we  would  call  good  work  in  the  United 
States.  Most  of  the  teachers  are  men  taught  in  the  old  way  and 
have  very  little  knowledge  of  western  science  and  less  of  pedagogy, 
and  they  find  the  old  way  much  easier  than  the  new.  When  China 
has  young  men  teaching  who  have  been  well  trained  in  normal 
methods,  then,  and  not  before,  we  may  expect  to  find  better  primary 
schools  in  China. 

It  was  discovered  that  the  lower  primarj7  schools  were  not  doing 
good  work,  and  that  the  pupils  were  not  able  to  complete  all  the  out- 
lined course  of  study  in  the  five  years,  so,  on  May  15,  1909,  the  minis- 
try of  education  sent  in  a memorial  asking  that  the  course  of  study 
for  the  lower  primary  schools  might  be  altered  to  meet  the  needs  of 
the  people  and  with  the  hope  of  establishing  a larger  number  of  such 
schools.  The  ministry  of  education  made  the  following  suggestions, 
which  were  on  the  same  day  approved  by  an  imperial  edict:  That 
each  school  should  have  at  least  30  pupils,  and  that  there  should  be 
offered  two  courses  of  study,  one  a complete  course  and  the  other  a 
much  easier  course.  The  memorial  says:  “When  we  examined  the 
lower  primary  schools  last  year,  scarcely  could  be  found  one  school 
conforming  strictly  to  the  regulations  as  outlined  by  the  ministry  of 
education.  To  be  sure,  most  of  the  officials  had  a few  schools  to 
show  off,  but  these  were  so  few  as  not  to  be  worthy  of  mention, 
but  there  were  schools  where  the  officials  could  show  that  a large 


PRIMARY  EDUCATION. 


53 


amount  of  money  had  been  spent  with  very  little  work  done.  When 
asked  the  causes  for  the  poor  work  that  had  been  done,  the  following 
were  some  of  the  complaints  offered : ‘ The  course  of  study  contained 
too  many  subjects;  the  funds  for  the  school  were  not  sufficient  to 
employ  well-qualified  teachers;  and  the  number  of  hours  of  study  too 
limited.’  We  believe  these  complaints  are  true.”  In  the  old  course 
there  were  eight  subjects;  in  the  new,  history,  geography,  and  natural 
science  are  not  to  be  studied  as  subjects,  but  some  knowledge  of  them 
to  be  obtained  from  the  subject  matter  in  their  new  readers.  In  their 
place  music  is  added  and  drawing  is  made  optional.  In  place  of  30 
recitation  hours  per  week,  as  in  the  old  course,  the  new  is  to  have  36 
hours.  Sunday  forenoon  is  to  be  used  for  reviewing  the  week’s  work, 
and  the  afternoon  is  for  rest.  In  the  easy  course  the  pupils  will  study 
reading,  Chinese  literature,  and  mathematics.  If  a school  is  located 
in  a city  the  students  should  have  physical  drill,  but  if  in  the  country 
they  may  do  without  it,  especially  if  they  have  no  teacher  to  do  the 
work.  Drawing  is  made  optional  in  this  easy  course.  The  people 
living  in  a place  ma}^  decide  which  course  shall  be  taught  in  the  school, 
and  if  they  wish  both  courses  in  the  same  school,  two  departments 
may  be  formed.  In  case  a pupil  who  has  completed  a short  course 
wishes  to  enter  the  higher  primary,  he  must  make  up  all  the  work 
required  in  the  complete  course  before  he  enters.  The  number  of 
years  niay  also  be  cut  down  from  five  to  three  in  the  easy  course. 

The  Chinese  language  has  no  phonetic  system,  but  is  made  up  of 
an  unknown  number  of  complicated  idiographs,  called  characters. 
Each  of  these  characters  must  be  separately  learned  by  the  child 
through  an  effort  of  memory.  He  must  recognize  by  the  form  of  a 
character  its  name  and  meaning,  and  he  also  must  know  how  to 
write  the  character  from  memory.  All  this  places  a heavy  burden 
upon  the  child  and  prevents  his  making  as  rapid  progress  in  his 
studies  as  could  be  made  using  a phonetic  language.  Wang  Chao, 
the  secretary  wTho  figured  so  conspicuously  at  the  time  of  Kuang 
Hsu’s  reforms,  has  invented  a phonetic  system  that  has  some  good 
points,  but  as  a whole  is  not  generally  considered  satisfactory.  The 
new  era  is  looking  for  an  inventor  to  bring  this  blessing  to  China. 

After  completing  the  lower  primary  course  of  study  students  may 
enter  the  higher  primary.  The  course  is  limited  to  4 years  of  36 
hours’  recitations  per  week.  These  schools  may  be  established  in 
any  city,  town,  or  village.  In  every  hsien  there  must  be  one  so-called 
Government  higher  primary  school.  In  any  city  or  town,  if  there 
have  been  any  self-supporting  schools,  they  may  be  classed  as  higher 
primary  schools  by  conforming  to  the  rules  of  the  ministry  of  edu- 
cation, and  where  these  schools  have  been  supported  by  contribu- 
tions and  collections,  such  as  have  been  used  for  theatrical  purposes, 
these  collections  may  be  regarded  as  endowments,  and  the  schools 


54 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


so  established  are  known  as  public  higher  primary  schools.  Several 
villages  may  join  together  and  establish  a higher  primary  school 
after  first  securing  the  consent  of  the  magistrate.  When  anyone 
establishes  and  pays  all  the  expenses  of  a higher  primary  school,  the 
school  is  classed  as  a private  higher  primary  school,  and  must  con- 
form to  the  same  rules  as  govern  higher  primary  schools.  The  local 
magistrate  is  to  see  that  higher  primary  schools  are  established  and 
regulated  according  to  law,  and  any  violation  on  his  part  will  subject 
him  to  censure  and  possibly  to  punishment.  He  may  select  respect- 
able citizens  to  assist  him  in  establishing  these  schools.  The  finances 
are  left  in  the  hands  of  the  cities,  towns,  and  villages  to  manage. 
The  pupils  are  not  required  to  pay  tuition  in  the  lower,  but  in  the 
higher  primary  schools  a moderate  fee  is  required.  The  nine  sub- 
jects taught  during  the  four  years  embrace  the  following : Morals,  2 
hours;  Chinese  literature,  8 hours;  Chinese  classics,  12  hours;  math- 
ematics, 3 hours;  science,  2 hours;  Chinese  history,  2 hours;  geogra- 
phy, 2 hours;  drawing,  2 hours;  and  physical  drill,  2 hours.  As 
was  the  case  in  the  lower  primary,  so  »we  find  in  the  higher  primary 
that  the  Chinese  classics  occupied  the  most  important  place,  as  6 out 
of  the  12  hours  given  are  devoted  to  the  reading  of  the  Shih  Ching, 
or  Book  of  Poetry ; the  Shu  Ching,  or  Book  of  History ; the  I Ching, 
or  Book  of  Changes ; and  the  Section  on  “ Mourning,”  in  the  Li  Chi, 
or  Book  of  Rites.  The  remaining  6 hours  are  devoted  to  the  expla- 
nation of  the  texts,  and  the  96,856  characters  in  the  texts  read.1 

The  work  in  Chinese  literature  is  devoted  to  the  study  of  the 
ku  won,  or  ancient  literature,  and  the  translation  of  it  into  mandarin, 
the  official  language ; the  writing  of  essays  and  the  study  of  mandarin. 
In  mathematics  the  larger  portion  of  a grammar-school  arithmetic 
is  completed  and  drill  is  given  in  the  use  of  the  abacus.  The  work 
in  Chinese  history  begins  with  the  ancient  period  and  attention  is 
paid  only  to  the  most  important  events  and  changes  made  in  the  life 
of  the  nation.  The  work  in  geography  includes  the  study  of  China 
and  foreign  nations.  In  science  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  years 
are  devoted  to  the  study  of  biology,  and  the  third  year  to  elementary 
chemistry.  The  object  in  teaching  morals  is  to  develop  character,  and 
this  is  done  by  bringing  out  prominently  the  characteristics  of  great 
men  and  their  sayings  or  teachings.  Use  is  made  first  of  the  four 
books,  and  then  selections  are  made  from  the  Book  of  Poetry.  The 
work  in  physical  drill  is  not  alone  for  the  exercising  of  the  body, 
but  also  to  teach  the  student  prompt  obedience.  The  principal  may 
permit  the  students  to  take  manual  training,  agriculture,  or  commerce, 
in  place  of  work  in  biology,  and  two  hours’  work  may  also  be  dropped 
from  other  subjects,  and  if  the  three  subjects,  manual  training,  agri- 

-The  Book  of  Poetry  has  40,848  words  in  the  text;  the  Book  of  History,  27,134  words; 
the  Book  of  Changes,  24,437  words ; and  the  Section  on  Mourning,  4,437  words. 


PRIMARY  EDUCATION. 


55 


culture,  and  commerce,  are  desired,  the  scheduled  number  of  hours 
may  be  increased  by  two.  There  should  be  eight  classes  and  no 
more  in  the  school,  so  that  students  may  enter  at  either  of  the  two 
terms  of  the  year.  No  class  is  to  have  more  than  GO  pupils.  Quali- 
fied pupils  up  to  the  age  of  15  may  enter  the  beginning  classes  in  the 
school.  The  principal  may  diminish  the  number  of  hours  of  recita- 
tion 20  days  before  the  close  of  each  term.  When  the  pupils  are 
examined  the  principal  should  invite  the  local  magistrate  to  be 
present  and  help  look  over  the  papers  and  grant  the  certificates. 
At  the  end  of  the  second  term  of  each  year  every  pupil  who  has 
completed  all  the  subjects  required  in  the  course  is  to  receive  a cer- 
tificate showing  that  he  is  a graduate  of  that  school,  and  this  cer- 
tificate will  be  his  passport  into  the  middle  schools.  The  rules  forbid 
using  corporal  punishment  on  a boy  above  the  age  of  13,  and  when 
administered  should  not  be  too  harsh.  This  rule  had  no  place  in 
the  schools  of  the  old  regime,  where  a stupid  pupil  was  often  severely 
flogged  to  aid  his  memory  or  to  pacify  the  anger  of  the  master. 
Punishments  of  a milder  form  may  be  administered.  The  teachers 
are  not  to  insist  upon  pupils  repeating  their  lessons  word  by  word, 
as  was  the  case  in  the  old  schools,  and  which  the  old-fashioned 
teacher  still  likes  even  in  the  modem  schools;  in  fact,  they  fall  back 
into  that  rut  unless  constantly  watched  by  the  principal  of  the 
school.  More  attention  is  being  given  to  the  explanation  of  all 
subjects  read.  The  excellent  new  Chinese  readers  that  have  lately 
been  prepared  for  the  primary  schools  by  western-trained  Chinese 
men,  and  that  are  now  widely  used  in  the  schools,  are  doing  the 
most  to  overcome  the  faulty  methods  of  the  past;  but  even  in  the 
teaching  of  these  books  the  old  Government  degree  man  needs  to  be 
watched  or  he  will  lapse  into  the  old  method  and  the  pupils  will  be 
repeating  word  by  word  without  comprehending  the  text  read.  The 
schools  are  now  required  to  use  textbooks  authorized  by  the  ministry 
of  education. 

The  regulations  for  schools  recommend  that  the  principal  of 
primary  schools  should  be  a normal  graduate,  but  knowing  that 
there  is  not  a sufficient  number  of  such  graduates  to  man  the  schools, 
permit  anyone  reputed  to  be  a good  manager  to  be  employed  tem- 
porarily as  principal.  The  principal  and  his  teachers  are  not 
allowed  to  leave  their  posts,  nor  to  have  any  other  occupation  outside 
of  the  school,  except  by  permission  of  the  local  magistrate. 

Reports  of  the  primary  schools  are  to  be  made  at  the  end  of  the 
second  term,  stating  the  number  of  teachers,  assistants,  students,  and 
graduates,  and  given  the  local  magistrate  who  will  forward  the  same 
to  the  viceroy  or  governor  of  the  Province,  and  he  in  turn  will  for- 
ward them  to  the  ministry  of  education. 


56 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


Public  buildings,  private  temples,  and  nunneries  may  be  taken  for 
the  use  of  primary  schools.  These  buildings  may  be  repaired  or 
changed  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  schools.  Large  numbers  of  these 
buildings  have  been  turned  into  schoolhouses,  and,  in  some  cases, 
the  rents  of  the  temple  lands  have  been  used  to  support  the  schools. 
The  school  buildings  are  to  consist  of  one  story  and  must  contain 
recitation  rooms,  session  rooms,  and  a large  public  room  where  all 
the  pupils  may  assemble  for  public  services.  Dormitories  are  not 
at  first  to  be  required,  but  later  on  they  may  be  built  to  accommo- 
date boys  from  country  villages  some  distance  from  the  school.  All 
schools  are  to  provide  drill  grounds,  and  the  compound  is  to  be 
sufficiently  large  to  accommodate  all  buildings  without  crowding. 
The  primary  schools  in  some  Provinces  have  not  been  established 
as  rapidly  as  the  Government  had  hoped.  This  has  been  due  to 
various  causes,  but  largely  to  the  lack  of  funds.  F or  the  same  reason 
many  public  and  private  schools  have  been  closed,  and  again  many  of 
the  schools  have  suffered  for  want  of  qualified  teachers,  especially 
for  those  who  could  teach  the  modern  sciences.  We  must  remember 
that  the  time  since  beginning  the  establishment  of  these  schools  has 
not  been  long — only  about  five  or  six  years — and  the  normal  schools 
have  not  yet  had  time  to  prepare  anything  like  an  adequate  number 
of  teachers  for  the  millions  of  children  that  should  be  in  the  primary 
schools.  But  that  so  much  should  have  been  done  in  such  places  as 
Chihli  Province  holds  out  great  hope  that  the  time  will  come  to 
China  when  as  large  a per  cent  of  her  children  will  be  attending  the 
primary  schools  as  now  attend  the  Japanese  schools.  In  the  year 
1907-8  there  were  in  Chihli  Province  8,675  lower  primary  schools 
having  an  attendance  of  148,399;  graduates  for  the  year  numbered 
537 ; the  number  of  teachers,  8,969,  with  an  average  of  16+  pupils 
per  teacher.  The  cost  per  pupil  during  the  year  was  2.63  taels,  or 
$1.88.  The  amount  received  during  the  year  for  the  schools  was 
381,998  taels,  or  $272, 855.71. 1 

The  following  report  gives  (1)  the  attendance  in  the  lower  primary 
schools  in  Chihli  Province  from  1902-3  to  1907-8,  and  (2)  the  ratio 
or  per  cent  of  attendance  to  the  number  of  children  of  school  age. 


Year. 

Attend- 

ance. 

Per  cent  of 
attendance 
to  children 
of  school 
age. 

Year. 

Attend- 

ance, 

Per  cent  of 
attendance 
to  children 
of  school 
age. 

1902-3 

1,000 

0. 0173 

1905-6 

68,000 
109, 467 
148,399 

1. 1826 

\ 903-4 

6,000 
36, 344 

. 1043 

1906-7 

1.9037 

1904-5 

.632 

1907-8 

2. 5808 

1 Allowing  exchange  of  1.40  taels  for  $1. 


PRIMARY  EDUCATION. 


57 


In  the  same  year  there  were  in  the  Province  121  half-day  schools; 
number  of  pupils,  2,971;  graduates,  133;  number  of  teachers,  133; 
number  of  pupils  per  teacher,  22.3;  cost  per  pupil  for  the  year,  0.178 
taels,  or  $0,127.  Amount  received  from  the  half-day  schools  during 
the  year,  514  taels,  or  $367.14.  The  half-day  public  schools  were  sup- 
ported by  (1)  rent  from  temple  lands,  (2)  subscriptions,  and  (3) 
taxes  on  wine,  tobacco  and  cigarettes,  and  taxation  on  estates.  The 
highest  number  of  teachers  in  any  of  the  half-day  schools  was  12, 
and  400  pupils  the  largest  attendance.  The  lowest  number  of  pupils 
in  any  school  was  5. 

For  the  higher  primary  schools  of  that  year  we  find  the  following:  * 
Total  number  of  schools,  220;  total  number  of  students,  10,599;  num- 
ber of  graduates,  521;  average  number  of  pupils  per  teacher,  20.4; 
cost  per  pupil  for  the  year,  39.53  taels,  or  about  $28.23.  The  amount 
of  funds  raised  that  year  for  higher  primary  schools  was  419,048 
taels,  or  $299,320.  The  largest  attendance  in  any  one  school  was  244, 
and  the  largest  number  to  graduate  from  any  school  was  54.  Gradu- 
ates of  higher  primary  schools  are  recommended  for  admission  to  the 
normal  schools  and  middle  technical  schools,  as  well  as  to  the  middle 
schools.  The  following  rewards  are  given  the  students  at  the  time 
of  graduation : To  the  first  grade  is  granted  “ ling  sheng,”  to  the 
second  grade  “ tseng  sheng,”  to  the  third  grade  “ fu  sheng.”  To  the 
fourth  and  fifth  grades  there  are  no  rewards. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


MIDDLE  SCHOOLS,  PROVINCIAL  COLLEGES,  AND  UNIVER- 
SITIES. 

MIDDLE  SCHOOLS. 

The  Government  proposes  to  have  a middle  school  (chung  hsueh 
tang)  established  in  each  fu,  but  if  any  chou  or  hsien  can  provide  for 
such  a school  and  desires  to  do  so,  it  is  allowable;  but  in  the  begin- 
ning it  was  thought  wiser  to  establish  these  schools  only  in  the  fu 
cities.  According  to  the  Chihli  provincial  regulations  for  middle 
schools,  as  published  in  the  Hsueh  Pu  Kuan  Pao,  Volume  XLI,  De- 
partment IV,  page  441,  on  December  1,  1907,  there  must  be  at  least 
one  Government  middle  school  established  in  each  chou  of  the 
Province,  and  more  than  one  where  the  population  is  large  enough 
to  warrant  doing  so.  We  do  not  understand  that  this  rule  is  binding 
on  other  Provinces.  Each  fu  is  responsible  for  the  financing  of  its 
own  school.  When  the  finances  of  any  middle  school  are  managed 
by  the  magistrate  and  some  of  the  wealthier  citizens  of  that  fu  and 
conforms  to  the  regulations  of  the  middle  schools,  it  is  classed  as  a 
public  middle  school.  Any  school  established  and  supported  by 
individuals  or  by  a corporation  conforming  to  all  the  regulations  of 
the  middle  schools  is  entitled  to  the  same  recognition,  privileges,  and 
protection  as  are  given  to  the  Government  schools  and  will  be 
known  as  a private  middle  school.  Public  buildings,  nunneries,  and 
temples  may  be  rented  for  the  use  of  these  private  schools.  Not  only 
are  graduates  of  the  higher  primary  schools  entitled  to  enter  these 
middle  schools,  but  also  all  others  who  are  able  to  pass  by  examina- 
tions the  requirements  for  admission.  The  students  are  expected  to 
pay  tuition,  but  that  is  left  for  the  provincials  to  settle.  At  the  time 
of  the  opening  of  the  middle  schools  there  were  few  pupils  qualified 
to  enter,  and  so  provision  was  made  to  admit,  for  the  first  five  years, 
boys  between  the  ages  of  15  and  18  who  had  a good  knowledge  of 
Chinese  classics  and  some  knowledge  of  science.  The  Peking  Daily 
News  of  May  31,  1908,  states  that  the  ministry  of  education  has  noti- 
fied the  commissioners  of  education  in  the  Provinces  that  hereafter 
only  graduates  of  the  higher  primary  schools  are  to  be  admitted  into 
the  middle  schools.  Reports  are  required  of  the  middle  schools  the 
same  as  of  the  primary  schools.  The  course  of  study  as  first  outlined 
extended  through  five  years  of  36  hours’  recitations  per  week.  The 
58 


MIDDLE  SCHOOLS. 


59 


following  subjects  were  required : Morals,  1 hour  through  the  course; 
drawing,  1 hour;  physical  drill,  2 hours;  Chinese  classics,  9 hours; 
mathematics — algebra,  geometry,  and  plane  trigonometry — 4 hours; 
Chinese  and  foreign  history,  2 hours;  a foreign  language,  the  first 
three  years  8 hours,  and  the  last  two  years  6 hours;  Chinese  litera- 
ture, the  first  two  years  4 hours,  the  third  year  5 hours,  and  the  last 
two  years  3 hours ; geography,  the  first  two  years  3 hours,  the  third 
and  fourth  years  2 hours;  natural  science,  the  first  and  second  years, 
botany  and  zoology,  2 hours;  the  third  and  fourth  years,  physiology 
and  mineralogy,  2 hours;  the  fifth  year,  geology,  2 hours;  physical 
science,  the  fourth  year,  physics,  4 hours;  and  the  fifth  year,  chem- 
istry, 4 hours;  political  science  and  political  economy,  the  fifth  year, 
3 hours. 

It  was  soon  discovered  that  the  course  of  study  was  too  difficult 
and  needed  to  be  modified.  The  ministry  in  a memorial  acknowledged 
that  only  three  or  four  students  in  a school  were  able  to  complete  the 
work  well  in  five  years;  that  they  had  observed  that  there  were  too 
many  subjects  for  the  average  student  to  get  well,  and  recommended 
that  the  work  in  the  middle  schools  should  follow  more  closely  the 
methods  of  the  German  schools ; and  that  both  a technical  course  and  a 
literary  course  should  be  offered  in  the  middle  schools.  The  memorial 
was  granted  April  20,  1909.  The  students  entering  the  middle  school 
may  choose  either  course.  In  the  technical  department  the  major 
requirements  are  a foreign  language^  mathematics,  physics,  chemistry, 
and  biology;  the  minor  subjects  are  Chinese  classics  and  -literature, 
history,  geography,  drawing,  political  science,  and  political  economy. 
In  the  literary  department  the  student  must  take  for  his  major  work 
Chinese  classics  and  literature;  a foreign  language,  which  may  be 
English,  German,  French,  Russian^  or  Japanese,  but  English  and 
Japanese  are  recommended  by  the  ministry  of  education  as  the  more 
important  languages,  and  Chihli  Province  requires  English ; history, 
which  includes  Chinese,  Asiatic^  European,  and  American ; and  geog- 
raphy. His  minor  subjects  are  mathematics,  science,  political  science 
and  political  economy,  drawing,  and  physical  drill.  All  textbooks 
before  being  used  in  the  schools  must  have  the  approval  of  the 
ministry  of  education.  The  schools  are  to  be  supplied  with  suitable 
laboratories,  especially  for  the  teaching  of  physics  and  chemistry. 
Charts  of  all  kinds  are  to  be  supplied  for  the  work  in  botany,  zoology, 
physiology,  and  also  good  maps  for  teaching  geography.  Each  school 
is  expected  to  be  able  to  accommodate  from  300  to  400  pupils,  and  if 
the  funds  of  the  school  will  permit  there  should  be  accommodation 
for  600.  Every  school  should  seek  to  have  no  less  than  30  pupils  in 
each  of  the  five  classes,  but  in  the  beginning  of  many  schools  classes 
had  to  be  formed  with  fewer  pupils.  In  Chihli  Province  the  rules 
permit  the  authorities  to  admit  pupils  from  adjacent  chous  in  order 


60 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


to  make  up  the  number  required  in  each  class,  but  on  no  condition  to 
accept  unqualified  pupils.  A student  from  one  middle  school  may  be 
admitted  into  another,  provided  he  presents  the  proper  certificate; 
but  should  a pupil  secretly  change  from  one  school  to  another  he  is 
subject  to  expulsion.  Dormitories  and  dining  rooms,  also  reading 
rooms,  are  to  be  provided  for  the  students  in  the  compound.  The 
principal  and  some  of  the  teachers  are  expected  to  live  in  the  com- 
pound, where  they  may  have  personal  supervision  of  the  students. 
The  pupils  can  not  leave  the  school  premises  except  at  stated  times 
or  by  special  permission.  An  athletic  ground  is  provided  for  the 
pupils  where  they  have  military  drill  and  various  athletic  sports. 
The  teaching  staff  is  composed  of  the  principal,  who  has  supervision 
of  the  school  and  complete  control  of  his  subordinates,  teachers  and 
assistant  teachers,  librarian,  secretary,  a proctor  who  looks  after  the 
general  affairs  of  the  school,  and  two  proctors  who  have  charge  of 
the  pupils’  domitories.  The  instructors  of  the  middle  schools  are 
to  be  graduates  of  the  Chinese  normal  colleges,  who  have  obtained 
high  rank  in  their  classes,  or  graduates  of  normal  colleges  in  foreign 
countries.  The  pupils  pay  tuition  and  board  according  to  regula- 
tions, and  should  any  change  be  found  necessary  in  regard  to  the 
charges  it  must  be  reported  to  the  educational  commissioner  and  local 
magistrate.  Pupils  in  Chihli  are  expected  to  furnish  their  clothing, 
uniforms,  and  stationery.  The  pupils  are  required  to  take  the  fol- 
lowing examinations:  (1)  Monthly;  (2)  term  examinations;  (3) 
year  examinations;  (4)  graduate  examinations;  (5)  entrance  ex- 
aminations for  provincial  colleges.  The  examination  for  promotion 
to  the  middle  schools  is  held  in  the  presence  of  the  commissioner  of 
education,  and  for  promotion  from  the  middle  schools  to  the  provin- 
cial college  is  held  in  the  presence  of  the  viceroy  or  governor  and  the 
commissioner  of  education.  Any  two  of  the  three  following  parties 
may  constitute  an  examining  committee:  (1)  The  district  magistrate; 
(2)  the  board  of  education;  (3)  the  educational  club.  After  each 
of  the  examinations  the  standings  must  be  published.  This  is  usually 
done  by  posting  all  the  names  of  the  students,  with  their  standings, 
on  the  outside  of  the  compound  wall,  near  the  main  entrance  to  the 
school.  The  student  whose  name  comes  last,  indicating  that  he  is 
the  poorest  of  his  class,  is  said  to  “ sit  in  the  red  chair.”  The  magis- 
trate fixes  the  dates  of  the  examinations,  and  after  each  yearly  or 
graduating  examination  the  officer  in  charge  of  the  school  sends  to 
the  educational  commissioner  all  the  examination  papers  and  books 
recording  all  the  standings.  The  awarding  of  certificates  belongs  to 
the  officer  in  charge  of  the  school,  but  the  conferring  of  rewards 
belongs  to  the  educational  commissioner,  who  in  turn  makes  his  report 
to  the  viceroy  or  governor  of  the  Province.  The  following  are  the 
rewards  granted  to  the  graduates  of  the  five-year  course  of  the  middle 


MIDDLE  SCHOOLS. 


61 


schools : To  the  first-grade  students  is  given  the  “ pa  hung,”  to  the 
second  grade  “ you  kung,”  to  the  third  grade  “ sui  kung.”  These 
three  grades  are  recommended  for  admission  to  the  provincial,  normal, 
and  technical  colleges.  To  the  fourth-grade  student  is  granted  the 
“ ling  sheng,”  and  those  below  are  given  no  reward. 

Up  to  1909  there  seems  to  have  been  many  middle  schools  where 
little  attention  was  paid  to  the  requirements,  and  their  students  were 
permitted  to  graduate  in  four  years  or,  in  many  cases,  in  even  less. 
So  great  was  this  evil  that  an  edict  was  issued  January  19,  1909,  for- 
bidding these  violations  and  declaring  that  thereafter  only  graduates 
of  the  five-year  course  should  receive  rewards. 

In  February,  1909,  I visited  the  Paotingfu  middle  school,  which  is 
recognized  as  one  of  the  best  of  the  Government  middle  schools.  I 
found  the  buildings  poor  and  cheap  looking,  especially  the  two  main 
buildings,  which  were  two-story  buildings  with  bedrooms  below  and 
four  session  rooms  above.  The  furniture  was  poor  and  cheap,  the 
blackboards  were  small  and  provided  only  for  the  teacher’s  use. 
The  bedrooms  would  each  accommodate  about  40  students,  each  boy 
having  a small  stall  separated  from  his  neighbors  by  thin  board  par- 
titions. In  front  of  each  narrow  stall  was  a table,  at  which  the  stu- 
dents could  write  and  study.  The  floors  were  paved  with  bricks,  mak- 
ing the  room  damp  and  insanitary.  I judge  this  plan  for  the  dormi- 
tories for  the  middle  schools  is  not  uncommon,  as  I had  previously 
found  similar  ones  in  some  of  the  Tientsin  Government  schools,  but 
these  had  been  fitted  up  out  of  temple  buildings,  while  at  Paotingfu 
the  buildings  had  been  newly  built.  There  were  about  200  students  in 
the  school.  The  laboratories  were  poor  and  had  but  little  apparatus. 
The  teaching  that  I saw  was  not  of  as  high  grade  as  I had  hoped 
to  see.  As  a whole,  the  school  was  a disappointment  to  me.  Only  a 
few  days  before  I had  visited  some  of  the  leading  schools  in  Tientsin 
and  had  seen  the  excellent  work  that  was  being  done  in  the  private 
middle  school  of  which  Mr.  Chang  Pai  Lin  was  principal.  Mr. 
Chang  is  an  exceptional  man,  and  is  recognized  as  one  of  the  ablest 
educators  in  north  China.  The  school  buildings  were  new  and  the 
best  planned  of  any  middle  school  that  I have  seen  in  China.  Many 
of  the  teachers  were  Mr.  Chang’s  former  pupils,  who  had  imbibed 
their  master’s  enthusiasm  and  were,  in  the  absence  of  the  principal — 
Mr.  Chang  at  that  time  was  abroad,  having  been  sent  by  the  Govern- 
ment on  a commission — carrying  on  the  school  in  an  able  manner. 
To  be  sure  they  labored  under  many  disadvantages,  trying  to  follow 
the  prescribed  course  of  36  recitation  periods  per  week,  which  left 
but  little  time  outside  of  the  class  hours  for  preparation.  This  was 
not  the  fault  of  the  teachers,  but  of  the  system  which  they  were  com- 
pelled to  follow.  The  teacher  of  the  Chinese  classics  is  still  the  old 
Government  graduate  who  teaches  in  the  old  orthodox  way,  explain- 


62 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


ing  every  bit  of  the  text  himself  according  to  the  accepted  com- 
mentaries. The  pupil  is  not  expected  to  do  any  reasoning  and  little 
thinking.  All  that  is  essential  on  his  part,  according  to  Dr.  Arthur 
Smith,  is  that  “ he  should  have  a memory  like  that  of  a phonograph.” 
Perhaps  the  framers  of  the  modem  educational  system  in  China  ex- 
pected that  much  of  the  teaching  of  modern  science  would  be  taught 
in  this  manner.  If  not,  why  have  they  imposed  so  many  recitations 
upon  the  modern  school  boy?  Surely  not  until  a more  rational 
course  of  study  is  outlined  for  the  Chinese  student  can  we  expect  to 
find  excellent  results  in  the  schools  of  the  middle  Kingdom. 

By  January,  1908,  there  were  32  middle  schools  in  Chihli  Province, 
enrolling  2,125  pupils,  and  101  pupils  had  been  graduated.  There 
were  157  teachers  in  these  schools,  with  an  average  of  13.5  pupils  per 
teacher.  The  amount  received  for  the  schools  from  all  sources  was 
207,097  taels,  or  $149,355.  The  examination  for  promotion  to  the 
middle  schools  is  held  in  the  presence  of  the  commissioner  of  educa- 
tion. The  examination  of  students  of  the  middle  schools  for  pro- 
motion to  the  provincial  college  is  held  in  the  presence  of  the  viceroy 
or  governor  and  the  president  of  the  board  of  education. 

PROVINCIAL  COLLEGES. 

In  each  provincial  capital  there  has  been  established  a higher 
school  (kao  teng  hsueh  tang),  more  commonly  called  the  provincial 
college.  During  the  first  five  years  after  these  colleges  were  estab- 
lished they  could  receive  students  who  had  a thorough  knowledge  of 
the  Chinese  classics  and  had  had  one  year’s  preparation  in  history, 
geography,  mathematics,  science,  drawing,  Japanese  language,  and 
English.  In  the  beginning  most  of  the  work  was  necessarily  pre- 
paratory for  the  college,  and  even  in  1909  there  was  a middle  school 
connected  with  the  provincial  college  at  Paotingfu.  To-day  only 
graduates  of  middle  schools  are  received  in  these  colleges.  The 
curriculum  requires  three  years  of  36  hours  per  week.  The  gradu- 
ates are  prepared  to  enter  the  colleges  of  the  imperial  university  at 
Peking.  The  national  system  of  education  permits  the  establishing 
of  but  one  such  college  in  a Province,  and  requires  that  accommoda- 
tion should  be  made  for  at  least  500  students,  but  any  college  may 
open  with  200  students.  Each  Province  must  attend  to  the  finances 
of  its  own  college.  At  the  end  of  the  second  semester  of  each  year 
reports  of  the  college  must  be  sent  to  the  provincial  board  of  educa- 
tion, who  in  turn  makes  reports  to  the  ministry  of  education.  The 
curriculum  provides  for  three  courses  of  study:  Course  A prepares 
students  to  enter  the  imperial  university  colleges  of  Chinese  classics, 
political  science  and  law,  literature,  and  commerce.  Course  B pre- 
pares for  the  colleges  of  science,  agriculture,  and  engineering. 
Course  C prepares  for  the  college  of  medicine. 


PROVINCIAL  COLLEGES. 


63 


COURSE  A. 


Number  of  hours. 


Subject. 

First  year. 

Second 

year. 

Third  year. 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

2 

Chinese  literature  

5 

4 

4 

Foreign  languages: 

English  . . 

9 

9 

8 

German  or  French 

9 

9 

8 

History  

3 

3 

3 

ficngraphy  

3 

2 

flratnry  

2 

2 

Pnlifinal  acnnnmy  

2 

Military  science 

1 

1 

3 

Military  drill  and  gymnastics  

3 

3 

3 

Total 

36 

36 

36 

In  place  of  oratory  in  the  second  year  a student  may  elect  mathe- 
matics or  physics.  Students  wishing  to  study  law  may  elect  2 hours 
of  Latin  in  the  third  year.  Those  who  wish  to  specialize  in  Chinese 
classics  may  take  mathematics  in  the  second  year  in  place  of  oratory, 
and  physics  in  the  third  year  in  place  of  Chinese  literature.  Those 
who  wish  to  specialize  in  German  law  or  French  law  in  the  imperial 
university  may  change  their  hours  in  foreign  languages  as  follows: 
English  4 hours  during  each  of  the  three  years,  and  German  or 
French  14  hours  during  the  first  and  second  years  and  12  hours  the 
third  year. 

COURSE  B. 


Number  of  hours. 


Subjects. 

First  year. 

Second 

year. 

Third  year. 

Ethics 

1 

1 

1 

Chinese  classics 

2 

2 

2 

Chinese  literature 

3 

2 

3 

English  language 

8 

7 

4 

German  or  French 

8 

7 

4 

Mathematics 

5 

4 

6 

Physics 

3 

3 

Chemistry 

3 

5 

Geology  and  mining 

2 

Drawing 

4 

3 

2 

Military  science 

2 

1 

2 

Military  drill  and  gymnastics 

3 

3 

2 

Total 

36 

36 

36 

64 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


Those  who  wish  to  specialize  in  botany,  zoology,  or  geology,  in  the 
scientific  college,  or  agriculture,  may  drop  mathematics  in  the  third 
year  and  substitute  4 hours’  work  in  their  special  line  of  work. 
Those  who  wish  to  specialize  in  architecture,  electrical  engineering, 
naval  construction,  mathematics,  physics,  or  astronomy,  may  drop 
2 hours  in  chemical  experiments  in  the  third  year  and  substitute  in 
its  place  a 3-hour  course  in  surveying.  A 2-hour  course  in  Latin 
in  the  third  year  may  be  elected  by  any  who  wish  to  specialize  in 
zoology,  botany,  geology,  agriculture,  and  veterinary  science. 

COURSE  C. 


Number  of  hours. 


Subjects. 

First  year. 

Second 

year. 

Third  year. 

Ethics 

1 

1 

1 

Chinese  classics 

2 

2 

2 

Chinese  literature 

4 

2 

2 

Military  science 

2 

1 

2 

Military  drill 

3 

3 

3 

Mathematics 

4 

2 

Biology. 

4 

3 

German 

13 

13 

9 

English  or  French 

3 

3 

3 

Physics 

3 

6 

Chemistry 

3 

6 

Latin 

2 

Total 

36 

36 

36 

Those  students  who  before  entering  the  college  had  made  a study  of 
German  might  have  their  work  in  foreign  languages  as  follows: 


Number  of  hours. 

Subjects. 

First  year. 

Second 

year. 

Third  year. 

German 

9 

9 

7 

English  or  French 

7 

5 

Students  can  not  enter  the  imperial  university  until  they  com- 
plete one  of  the  above  courses,  but  there  is  little  doubt  but  that  these 
courses  of  study  will  be  changed,  as  the  number  of  hours  required  is 
too  many  to  secure  good  results.  Special  stress  is  placed  upon  the 
acquiring  of  modern  languages,  so  that  in  the  university  the  students 
may  be  able  to  read  with  ease  textbooks  and  reference  books  written 
in  a foreign  language.  The  English  language  has  first  place  in  the 
colleges.  In  the  North  China  Herald  of  November  7,  1908,  page  313, 
is  the  following  interesting  item : “As  a sign  of  the  times  we  notice 


PROVINCIAL.  COLLEGES. 


65 


that  the  educational  board  has  cut  out  the  teaching  of  Japanese  in 
the  imperial  provincial  college  at  Kaifeng  and  that  only  English  and 
French  are  now  taught,  together  with  Chinese.  Whether  this  is  the 
case  in  other  provincial  colleges  or  not,  it  seems  to  be  one  of  the  many 
indications  that  China  is  turning  away  from  the  leadership  of  Japan, 
and  is  determined  to  drink  for  herself  from  the  fountains  of  learning 
from  which  Japan  drank,  and  not  be  content  any  longer  with  pre- 
digested diet.”  In  an  editorial  of  the  same  paper  of  December  11, 
1909,  we  read:  “ Not  the  least  interesting  feature  of  the  curriculum 
of  the  Taian  fu  college 1 is  the  emphasis  laid  upon  instruction  in  Eng- 
lish. It  is  * * * the  predominant  western  language  in  the  edu- 

cation of  the  Chinese,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they  are  wise  to 
adhere  to  one  foreign  language  as  the  lingua  franca  of  the  Far  East. 
To  what  an  extent  this  position  is  already  occupied  by  English  is 
shown  by  the  number  of  publications  in  our  language  connected  with 
Chinese  student  life  at  home  and  abroad.  Of  these  magazines  we 
need  only  mention,  by  way  of  illustration,  The  World’s  Chinese 
Students’  Journal,  Shanghai.”  The  regulations  for  the  colleges  re- 
quire dormitories  with  studies  and  bedrooms  provided  for  the  stu- 
dents, and  residences  are  to  be  provided  for  the  president  and  pro- 
fessors. Laboratories,  apparatus,  museums,  and  libraries  are  also 
to  be  provided.  An  athletic  field  is  required,  but  this  may  be  located 
outside  of  the  compound.  A director  is  at  the  head  of  the  college 
looking  after  all  the  finances  and  general  organization  and  super- 
vision. He  is  usually  a man  who  has  little  or  no  knowledge  of  west- 
ern sciences  and  is  wholly  lacking  in  pedagogical  training.  He  has 
no  knowledge  of  how  a college  should  be  supervised  and  seldom  holds 
the  office  for  more  than  a year.  This  position  is  used  as  one  of  the 
rounds  of  the  official  ladder  where  he  may  imburse  himself  while 
waiting  for  some  more  desirable  position.  Below  the  director  is  the 
president,  who  is  usually  a man  of  wider  learning.  He  superintends 
the  work  done  by  the  teachers,  and  makes  recommendations  to  the 
director  of  ways  and  means  of  bettering  the  work.  It  is  necessary 
at  the  present  to  employ  foreign  teachers  to  conduct  many  of  the 
classes,  as  the  number  of  qualified  teachers  is  not  equal  to  the  demand. 
The  regulations  require  that  the  instructors  in  the  provincial  col- 
lege shall  be  such  graduates  of  the  university  as  have  received  high 
rank  or  graduates  of  a college  or  university  in  a foreign  country. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  establishing  of  these  colleges,  provision  was 
made  for  the  employing  of  any  Chinese  scholar  thought  qualified  to 
teach  in  these  colleges,  and  if  it  were  not  possible  to  secure  a sufficient 
number  of  qualified  Chinese  instructors,  to  invite  foreigners  well 
qualified  for  the  work. 


9561°— 11 5 


1 Provincial  college  of  Shantung. 


66 


THE  EDUCATIONAL,  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


When  I visited  the  provincial  college  of  Chihli,  at  Paotingfu,  in 
F ebruary,  1909, 1 found  the  college  housed  in  good  one-story  Chinese 
buildings  that  had  been  used  as  the  official  palace  of  the  viceroy 
before  the  removal  of  his  office  to  Tientsin.  I was  entertained  by  my 
friend  the  president,  Mr.  Fei  Chi  Hao,  a graduate  of  Oberlin  Col- 
lege, with  a master’s  degree  from  Yale  University.  He  is  Avell  quali- 
fied for  the  position,  which  he  had  then  held  but  a few  months,  but 
his  hands  are  often  tied  because  of  the  ignorance  of  the  director. 
Were  he  at  liberty  to  carry  out  his  many  excellent  plans  for  im- 
provement, the  good  results  might  easily  be  doubled  without  any 
increase  in  expenditure.  I was  told  that  the  annual  expenses  of  the 
college  were  about  $42,825.  The  director  is  supposed  to  receive  300 
taels,  or  about  $215,  per  month,  and  each  of  the  three  foreign  pro- 
fessors a like  amount  for  the  first  three  years  and,  if  the  contract  is 
renewed,  an  increase  of  50  taels  per  month.  The  president’s  salary 
is  doubtless  not  less  than  that  of  the  director.  At  the  time  of  our 
visit  the  college  enrolled  260  students,  but  this  number  included  one 
class  from  the  middle  school.  The  middle-school  students  were  re- 
quired to  pay  3 taels  per  month  for  board,  but  the  college  students 
were  not  required  to  pay  for  anything,  even  their  books  being  fur- 
nished them.  Some  of  the  native  teachers  were  graduates  of  the 
Tientsin  Naval  College  and  were  doing  good  work.  Classes  were 
formed  in  both  the  literary  and  scientific  courses.  English  is  the 
principal  foreign  language,  and  the  classes  were  doing  good  Avork. 
Some  French  was  being  talked,  but  no  German,  though  it  was  hoped 
later  to  secure  an  instructor  who  could  teach  it.  Some  of  the  work 
in  drawing  was  excellent.  I found  some  of  the  classes  in  mathe- 
matics taught  by  lectures,  the  instructor  working  the  problems  on 
the  blackboard  and  the  students  copying  with  a Chinese  brush  pen. 
One  class  in  geometry  had  over  50  pupils.  The  laboratories  were  not 
well  equipped.  Apparatus  of  very  inferior  quality  had  been  pur- 
chased of  the  Japanese  at  about  one-half  the  price  it  would  cost  in 
Germany.  I understand  that  Japan  has  been  catering  for  the  Chi- 
nese trade  in  school  supplies,  but  as  the  Chinese  appreciate  and  are 
not  unwilling  to  pay  for  good  quality,  I believe  Japan  can  not  long 
keep  this  trade.  The  college  had  no  library,  but  the  reading  room 
Avas  supplied  with  10  newspapers  and  magazines.  The  students 
studied  in  rooms  having  from  4 to  6 tables,  with  room  for  8 students 
at  a table.  The  dormitories  accommodate  8 boys  in  a room.  In  the 
school  year  of  1907-8  there  were  in  the  college  207  students;  37  had 
graduated  from  the  college.  There  were  9 teachers,  7 Chinese,  1 
American,  and  1 Englishman.  The  average  number  of  students  per 
teacher  was  23.  The  cost  per  student  for  the  year  was  243.59  taels, 
or  about  $174. 


UNIVERSITIES. 


67 


In  December,  1909,  in  the  provincial  college  at  Chinanfu,  Shantung, 
there  were  268  students  in  attendance,  107  taking  the  literary  course, 
69  the  scientific  course,  while  92  were  in  the  preparatory  course.  All 
were  taking  English,  and  in  addition  German  or  French,  mostly  the 
former.  The  Peking  Daily  News  reported  July  17,  1908,  that  many 
provincial  college  students  failed  to  secure  their  diplomas  because 
they  were  unable  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  course. 

The  examinations  of  the  graduate  students  of  the  provincial  college 
are  held  in  the  presence  of  the  viceroy  or  governor  of  the  Province,  a 
commissioner  of  education  (hsueh  cheng),  and  a chief  examiner  ap- 
pointed by  the  Throne  (ta  chu  kao).  The  following  rewards  are 
bestowed  upon  the  graduates:  (1)  Those  who  are  in  the  first  grade 
are  given  the  chu  jen  degree  and  may  enter  the  imperial  university 
if  they  choose ; otherwise  they  are  given  the  official  title  of  chih  chou 
and  are  candidates  for  positions  in  the  different  Provinces.  (2)  The 
second  grade  are  granted  the  same  honors  as  the  first  grade,  except 
they  are  given  the  official  title  of  chih  hsien  or  district  magistrate. 
(3)  The  third  grade  are  given  the  same  as  the  second  grade.  (4)  The 
fourth  grade  are  required  to  stay  another  year  in  the  college  for  study, 
and  if  in  another  year’s  examination  they  fall  below  the  third  grade, 
or  should  they  refuse  to  remain  another  year  in  the  college,  they  are 
granted  a certificate,  but  no  degree  or  official  title.  (5)  To  the  fifth 
grade  no  reward  is  granted. 

UNIVERSITIES. 

The  educational  code  of  China  provides  for  an  imperial  university 
composed  of  eight  departments  or  colleges:  (1)  Chinese  classics; 
(2)  law;  (3)  literature;  (4)  medicine;  (5)  sciences;  (6)  agriculture; 
(7)  engineering;  (8)  commerce;  and  a graduate  school  to  be  located 
at  Peking ; also  such  other  universities  as  may  be  established  later  by 
the  Provinces,  and  which  shall  not  be  obliged  to  furnish  instruction 
in  more  than  three  departments  as  outlined  for  the  imperial  university. 
So  far  there  have  been  established,  besides  the  imperial  university,  the 
Tientsin  University,  and  the  Shansi  University,  located  at  Taiyuenfu. 

The  imperial  university  up  to  1910  has  been  confined  to  the  work  in 
its  two  preparatory  departments,  preparatory  college  (ta  hsueh  yu 
ke),  and  the  preparatory  technical  college  (ta  hsueh  shih  ke).  In 
the  spring  of  1909  about  100  students  were  graduated  from  these 
preparatory  departments,  but  the  colleges  of  the  university  were  not 
prepared  to  admit  students  before  1910.  On  the  5th  of  March,  1910, 
examinations  were  held  for  admission  to  the  university,  but  only  a 
very  few  candidates  presented  themselves.  This  no  doubt  was  largely 
due  to  so  many  of  the  advanced  students  having  gone  abroad  for 
study,  also  that  the  provincial  colleges  have  not  been  able  to  gradu- 
ate many  students,  and  again  there  are  so  many  lucrative  positions 


68 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


now  open  to  men  who  have  the  qualifications  for  entrance  to  the 
university  that  many  are  induced  to  forego  a university  training. 
The  university  is  being  built  outside  of  Peking  city,  southwest  of 
the  Tartar  city,  near  the  fu  Cheng  Men.  Two  million  taels,  or  about 
$1,425,000,  have  been  set  aside  by  the  board  of  finance  for  the  con- 
struction of  the  buildings,  and  are  to  be  paid  in  four  yearly  install- 
ments. The  campus  contains  over  30  acres.  The  Government  ex- 
pects to  allow  about  200,000  taels  for  the  annual  budget.  The  presi- 
dent is  under  the  control  of  the  ministry  of  education,  and  has  gen- 
eral charge  of  the  university  and  its  different  colleges.  Each  college 
has  at  its  head  a dean,  who  exercises  a general  supervision  over  all 
matters  connected  with  the  college;  a director  of  studies,  whose  du- 
ties are  to  superintend  the  instruction  given  in  the  college;  a super- 
visor of  the  dormitories;  and  a superintendent  to  look  after  minor 
affairs.  All  these  officers  are  responsible  to  the  president.  The  pro- 
fessors and  assistant  professors  of  the  university  are  to  be  graduates 
of  the  graduate  school  of  the  imperial  university,  or  graduates  of 
universities  in  foreign  countries.  At  the  opening  of  the  university 
any  Chinese  student  qualified  to  teach  any  special  required  line  of 
work  may  be  employed.  Foreigners  may  also  be  employed.  The 
university  council  is  to  be  composed  of  the  president,  the  deans  of  all 
the  colleges,  the  professors,  and  assistant  professors.  The  president 
of  the  university  convokes  the  university  council  and  presides  at  its 
meetings.  Matters  to  be  submitted  to  a meeting  of  the  university 
council  for  its  deliberation  are  as  follows : ( 1 ) The  institution  or  abo- 
lition of  a course  of  study  in  any  college;  (2)  the  questions  concern- 
ing the  chairs  in  the  university;  (3)  regulations  for  the  internal  gov- 
ernment in  the  university;  (4)  granting  of  degrees  of  the  graduate 
school ; (5)  questions  put  by  the  ministry  of  education  or  by  the  presi- 
dent of  the  university.  Faculty  meetings  shall  be  held  in  each  col- 
lege, composed  of  all  the  professors  and  assistant  professors.  The 
dean  of  the  college  shall  call  the  meetings  and  preside  over  them. 
The  matters  to  be  submitted  to  the  faculty  meeting  of  each  college  for 
its  deliberation  are  as  follows:  (1)  Curriculum  of  studies;  (2)  ex- 
amination of  students;  (3)  qualifications  of  candidates  for  degrees; 
(4)  questions  put  by  the  ministry  of  education  or  by  the  president  of 
the  university.  In  case  of  a disagreement  between  the  president  and 
the  university  council  in  regard  to  matters  concerning  higher  edu- 
cation, the  question  may  be  submitted  to  the  ministry  of  education 
for  settlement.  All  courses  offered  in  the  colleges  cover  three  years’ 
work,  except  the  two  courses  in  the  law  college  and  the  course  for 
physicians  in  the  college  of  medicine,  which  require  four  j^ears’  work. 
The  graduate  school  (tung  ju  yuan)  requires  five  years’  work.  The 
present  outlined  courses  are  supposed  to  remain  unchanged  until 
after  the  first  classes  of  the  college  have  graduated,  when  the  presi- 


UNIVERSITIES. 


69 


dent  of  the  university  and  the  deans  of  the  colleges  may  be  able  to 
make  intelligent  changes  to  meet  the  future  special  needs  to  prepare 
men  for  the  greatest  service  to  the  Empire. 

The  College  of  Chinese  Classics  offers  11  courses,  each  requiring 
24  hours  per  week.  These  courses  are  so  unique  that  we  give  an  out- 
line of  the  course  in  the  Book  of  Changes  (I  Ching).  The  first 
course  of  study  offered  in  the  College  of  Chinese  Classics,  with  the 
major  subject  in  the  Book  of  Changes  (I  Ching),  is  as  follows: 


Number  of  hours. 


Subjects. 

First  year. 

Second 

year. 

Third  year. 

Book  of  changes 

6 

6 

6 

MINORS. 

Minor  odes 

2 

1 

Chinese  etymology 

2 1 

1 

Selections  from  the  classics,  sanctioned  by  the  Throne 

1 

Complete  Chinese  history,  sanctioned  by  the  Throne 

4 

4 

4 

Comparative  study  of  political  institutions  and  laws  of  all  the 
Chinese  dynasties 

1 

2 

3 

History  of  education,  China  and  foreign  nations 

1 

1 

History  of  foreign  sciences 

1 

1 

2 

Geography  of  China  and  foreign  countries 

1 

1 

General  history 

1 

1 

1 

One  foreign  language— English,  French,  Russian,  German,  or  Japa- 
nese   

6 

6 

6 

Total 

24 

24 

1 

24 

The  other  10  courses  in  the  Chinese  classics  are  the  same  with  the 
exception  of  a major  subject.  The  following  majors  are  substituted 
for  the  Book  of  Changes,  and  each  course  bears  the  name  of  the 
classic  taken  as  the  major:  (2)  Book  of  History  (Shu  Ching) ; (3) 
Book  of  Odes  (Shih  Ching) ; (4)  Spring  and  Autumn  Annals  (Tso 
Chuan)  ; (5)  Rites  of  Chou  (Chou  Li)  ; (6)  Three  Annals  (San 
Chuan) ; (7)  Manners  and  Rites  (I  Li) ; (8)  Book  of  Rites  (Li 
Chi);  (9)  Analects  (Lun  Yu);  (10)  Morals;  (11)  Mencius. 

The  object  of  these  courses  is  to  make  a very  careful  study  of  all 
commentaries  on  the  major  subjects.  On  the  Book  of  Changes 
(I  Ching)  there  are  500  different  commentaries;  on  the  Book  of  His- 
tory (Shu  Ching),  150;  on  the  Book  of  Odes  (Shih  Ching),  150;  and 
the  Spring  and  Autumn  Annals  (Tso  Chuan)  has  250  commentaries. 

The  college  of  law  has  two  courses,  political  science  and  law. 
Each  course  requires  24  hours’  recitations  per  week.  The  course  is 
planned  for  four  recitations  per  day.  Sundays  are  now  used  for 
holidays  in  all  the  higher  grade  schools  and  colleges.  Below  we  give 
the  course  in  law : 


70 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


The  course  in  law. 


Number  of  hours. 

Subjects. 

First  year. 

Second 

year. 

Third  year. 

Fourth 

year. 

Elementary  law 

2 

1 

1 

Laws  of  the  present  dynasty 

4 

4 

3 

2 

Chinese  history  of  criminal  law 

1 

1 

Chinese  history  of  political  institutions 

3 

3 

3 

2 

Comparison  of  political  institutions  of  foreign  countries. 
Constitutions  of  foreign  countries 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

2 

2 

Foreign  civil  law 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Foreign  criminal  law 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Commercial  law  of  foreign  countries 

3 

3 

3 

3 

Diplomacy 

2 

2 

3 

3 

International  law 

1 

1 

2 

2 

SUPPLEMENTS. 

Administrative  law  of  foreign  countries 

1 

Domestic  economy 

1 

1 

2 

Political  economy 

1 

1 

2 

Total 

24 

24 

24 

24 

The  college  of  literature  offers  the  following  nine  courses:  (1) 
Chinese  history;  (2)  foreign  history;  (3)  Chinese  and  foreign  geog- 
raphy; (4)  Chinese  literature;  (5)  English  literature;  (6)  French 
literature;  (7)  German  literature;  (8)  Russian  literature;  (9)  Japa- 
nese literature.  The  number  of  hours  per  week  in  all  courses  is  24. 
The  following  is  the  outline  for  the  course  in  English : 


Number  of  hours. 


Subjects. 

First  year. 

Second 

year. 

Third  year. 

English  language  and  literature 

9 

9 

9 

History  of  modern  English  literature 

3 

2 

2 

English  history 

2 

2 

1 

Latin 

3 

3 

2 

Philology 

2 

3 

2 

Education. . 

2 

2 

3 

Chinese  literature 

3 

3 

5 

Total : 

24 

24 

24 

The  courses  in  French,  German,  Russian,  and  Japanese  are  the 
same  in  substance  except  substituting  the  special  language  of  the 
course  for  English.  In  the  other  courses  offered  6 hours  per  week 
of  some  one  foreign  language  are  required  throughout  the  course. 
Besides  the  subjects  named  in  the  course  of  English  literature  are 
the  following  subjects  offered  in  addition  as  electives:  Chinese  his- 


UNIVERSITIES. 


71 


tory,  foreign  ancient  history,  elocution,  psychology,  sociology,  an- 
thropology, Greek,  Italian,  Dutch,  German,  French,  Russian,  and 
Japanese.  Surely  enough  is  offered  to  satisfy  the  most  ambitious 
scholar.  Another  proof  of  how  little  the  framers  of  the  educational 
system  knew  about  western  learning. 

In  the  medical  college  two  courses  are  offered,  the  course  for 
physicians  and  the  course  in  pharmacy.  In  the  course  for  physicians 
courses  in  Chinese  medicines  are  taught,  but  because  of  Chinese 
customs  and  ceremonies  it  is  not  possible  to  teach  anatomy  and 
osteology  as  is  done  in  foreign  countries,  so  these  subjects  are  to 
be  taught  by  use  of  charts  and  models.  Stress  is  laid  upon  using  the 
best  Chinese  medical  books  for  reference.  In  one  Government  medi- 
cal college  in  Peking  courses  were  given  in  the  use  of  both  Chinese 
and  foreign  medicine — one  by  a quack  Chinese  doctor,  the  other  by 
a Chinese  who  was  a graduate  of  an  American  medical  college. 
The  remaining  colleges  and  their  courses  of  study  are  modeled 
after  those  of  the  J apanese  universities,  with  some  very  slight  changes 
to  meet  the  demands  of  Chinese  conditions.  Below  are  arranged 
the  colleges  and  courses  of  study  under  each,  with  a statement  of 
the  number  of  recitation  hours  required  each  week  in  the  entire  course. 
The  credit  for  laboratory  work  is  not  given  in  the  schedule.  Under 
the  physics  and  chemistry  courses  the  statement  is  made  that  the 
lecture  and  recitation  hours  are  few,  but  the  hours  for  laboratory 
work  are  unlimited  until  the  subject  is  thoroughly  understood.  In 
the  college  of  agriculture  the  laboratory  work  is  considered  the  more 
important.  The  Japanese  universities  have  no  college  of  commerce 
as  have  the  Chinese.  In  Japan  commercial  law  is  included  in  the 
political  science  course.  . 


COLLEGE  OF  SCIENCES. 


Number  of  hours. 

Courses  of  study. 

First  year. 

Second 

year. 

Third  year. 

Mathematics 

17 

16 

12 

Astronomy 

17 

14 

10 

Physics 

16 

21 

20 

Chemistry 

11 

13 

7 

Zoology  and  botany 

32 

34 

26 

Geology 

15 

16 

3 

COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


Agriculture 

22 

22 

Agricultural  chemistry 

18 

14 

Forestry 

22 

22 

Veterinary  medicine 

20 

32 

72 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


COLLEGE  OF  ENGINEERING. 


Number  of  hours. 


Courses  of  study. 

First  year. 

Second 

year. 

Third  year. 

Architecture 

36 

34 

30 

Mechanical  engineering 

36 

34 

1 

Naval  architecture 

35 

33 

35 

Technology  of  arms 

32 

34 

34 

Electrical  engineering 

36 

37 

1 

Civil  engineering 

36 

30 

32 

Chemical  engineering 

41 

36 

32 

Technology  of  explosives 

35 

35 

11 

Mining  and  metallurgy 

36 

36 

32 

COLLEGE  OF  COMMERCE. 


Banking  and  insurance 

24 

24 

24 

Trade  and  traffic 

24 

24 

24 

Taxes  and  customs 

24 

24 

24 

Each  student  upon  entering  the  university  must  present  a bond 
signed  by  an  official  living  in  Peking,  but  who  is  a resident  of  the 
same  Province  as  that  from  which  the  student  comes.  Dormitories 
are  to  be  provided  for  all  the  students.  The  officers  and  members 
of  the  faculty  are  about  the  same  as  those  in  the  Japanese  universities. 

The  graduate  school  admits  graduates  of  the  colleges  and  appli- 
cants who  are  not  graduates  of  colleges,  who  can  pass  the  examina- 
tion for  admission  given  by  a committee  appointed  at  a faculty  meet- 
ing of  the  college  to  which  his  chosen  subject  belongs.  A graduate 
student  is  placed  under  the  supervision  of  the  dean  of  the  college 
chosen,  and  the  dean  may  appoint  a professor  or  professors  to  super- 
intend the  student’s  investigations.  The  student  at  the  end  of  each 
college  year  must  make  a report  of  the  results  of  his  investigations 
to  the  dean  of  the  college,  and  the  dean  presents  it  to  the  faculty  for 
inspection.  If  the  work  of  the  student  is  not  satisfactory,  he  may 
be  dismissed  by  a vote  of  the  faculty.  After  a residence  of  two 
years  in  the  graduate  school  the  student  may  secure  permission  to 
live  outside  of  the  city,  providing  it  does  not  retard  his  graduate 
work.  At  the  end  of  five  years  the  student  may  present  a thesis,  and 
if  approved  by  the  faculty  it  shall  be  presented  to  the  president 
of  the  ministry  of  education,  who  will  memorialize  the  Throne,  rec- 
ommending the  conferring  upon  the  student  suitable  rewards. 

The  Tientsin  University  in  January,  1908,  enrolled  89  students, 
39  having  graduated.  Its  faculty  numbered  14,  of  whom  5 were 
Americans,  2 Japanese,  and  7 Chinese,  making  an  average  of  6.3 
students  per  teacher.  The  cost  per  student  for  the  year  was  764 


UNIVERSITIES. 


73 


taels,  or  about  $545.  There  were  that  year  5 classes,  1 in  the  law 
college,  2 in  the  civil  enginering,  and  2 in  the  mining  course.  In  the 
summer  of  1908  modified  curricula  were  submitted  through  Viceroy 
Yang  to  the  ministry  of  education  and  received  their  sanction.  Grad- 
uates of  the  provincial  college  at  Paotingfu  are  sent  to  this  univer- 
sity, but  up  to  1909  these  students  were  required  to  take  some  pre- 
paratory work  before  entering  the  university  courses.  President 
Wang  has  studied  in  England  and  is  a most  able  administrator,  and 
is  much  respected  by  the  faculty  and  students.  There  is  little  doubt 
but  that  the  highest  grade  of  all  Government  college  work  is  being 
done  in  the  Tientsin  University.  Up  to  1909  all  of  its  work  was 
being  carried  on  in  one-story  Chinese  buildings,  but  these  will  soon 
give  way  to  more  convenient  buildings  of  foreign  architecture.  Its 
outlook  is  most  promising. 

The  Shansi  University  has  a unique  history.  In  the  settlement  of 
the  Boxer  troubles  of  1900  the  Chinese  plenipotentiaries  asked  Dr. 
Timothy  Richards  to  aid  them  in  coming  to  an  agreement  with  the 
foreign  powers  as  to  the  reparation  to  be  made  for  the  massacres  in 
the  Province  of  Shansi.  After  consultation  with  various  mission- 
aries in  Shansi,  Dr.  Richards  proposed  that  instead  of  indemnities 
for  the  lives  of  those  missionaries  who  had  been  murdered  in  the 
outbreak  the  Government  should  pay  annually  for  10  years  the  sum 
of  50,000  taels  as  a fine  toward  the  founding  of  a university  for 
Shansi  Province,  and  by  its  teachings  end  the  ignorance  which  had 
been  the  chief  cause  of  those  outrages.  The  Government  accepted 
the  proposal  and  placed  the  administration  of  the  university  and 
its  funds  in  the  hands  of  Dr.  Richards  for  a period  of  10  years,  when 
the  institution  was  to  revert  to  the  provincial  government.  In  1902, 
when  Dr.  Richards  reached  Taiyuenfu,  he  found  that  a college  had 
been  started  in  the  city  by  the  provincial  authorities  in  response  to 
the  edict  commanding  the  establishment  of  colleges  in  each  provin- 
cial capital.  A compromise  or  understanding  was  agreed  to  by 
which  the  Government  consented  to  the  two  institutions  being  united 
to  form  a university.  The  college  to  be  established  by  Dr.  Richards 
was  to  form  the  western  department,  which  should  have  the  super- 
vision and  control  of  all  western  subjects  of  study,  and  the  college 
already  started  was  to  be  the  Chinese  department  of  the  university, 
and  to  confine  its  work  to  the  teaching  of  Chinese  studies.  The 
finances  and  management  of  the  western  department  are  under  the 
control  of  foreigners,  while  those  of  the  Chinese  department  are  un- 
der the  supervision  of  the  Chinese.  The  work  has  of  necessity  been 
confined  to  the  grade  of  teaching  found  in  the  provincial  colleges. 
The  college  has  an  excellent  foreign  faculty,  and  their  work  has  been 
of  a high  grade.  Suitable  college  buildings  of  Chinese  architecture 
were  early  constructed.  The  western  department  has  a preparatory 


74 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


school  of  three  years  and  college  courses  in  law,  medicine,  science, 
literature,  and  engineering.  In  1905  there  were  400  students  in 
attendance  in  both  departments.  The  annual  expenses  of  the  uni- 
versity were  92,000  taels.  The  hsiu  tsai  (A.  B.)  degree  was  required 
of  all  students  for  entrance.  In  1906,  300  students  competed  for  5 
vacancies  in  the  western  department.  In  1908  there  were  200  students 
in  this  department.  The  graduation  examinations  of  the  imperial 
university  are  to  be  held  in  the  presence  of  the  president  of  the 
ministry  of  education  (Hsueh  Wu  Ta  Chen),  together  with  a com- 
missioner appointed  by  the  throne  (Tsung  Tsai).  The  graduates 
are  divided  into  the  usual  five  grades:  (1)  The  first  grade  is  hon- 

ored with  the  Hanlin  degree  (LL.  D.),  and  may  enter  the  graduate 
school;  (2)  the  second  grade  also  receives  the  Hanlin  degree,  but  of 
a little  lower  rank  than  that  given  to  the  graduates  of  the  first  grade ; 
these  graduates  may  also  enter  the  graduate  school  should  they  de- 
sire to  do  so;  (3)  the  third  grade  receives  the  chin  shih  (Ph.  D.) 
degree,  and  is  given  an  official  rank  of  the  sixth  order  and  assigned 
to  some  one  of  the  different  boards;  (4)  the  fourth  grade  is  given 
the  chin  shih  degree,  but  is  required  to  take  another  year’s  work  at 
the  university  and  another  examination,  but  should  any  prefer  not  to 
remain  for  study,  or  in  the  following  examination  fail  to  raise  their 
grade,  they  are  given  the  official  rank  of  a district  magistrate  and 
appointed  to  some  position  in  the  provinces;  (5)  the  fifth  grade 
receives  no  reward.  No  rewards  have  yet  been  determined  upon  for 
the  graduates  of  the  graduate  school.  These  men,  having  completed 
the  entire  25-year  outlined  course  of  study  for  the  national  schools, 
should  be  granted  higher  honors  than  the  Hanlin  degree,  and  when 
there  are  candidates  for  these  honors  the  ministry  of  education 
promises  that  suitable  rewards  shall  be  bestowed  upon  all  successful 
candidates. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


NORMAL,  TECHNICAL,  AND  MISCELLANEOUS  SCHOOLS. 

NORMAL  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 

When  the  modern  educational  system  was  established  in  China  the 
Government  realized  that  the  various  schools  to  be  successful  must 
have  qualified  teachers.  Accordingly  it  at  once  adopted  the  two 
possible  methods  of  securing  them — the  one,  that  of  preparing 
teachers  itself,  and  the  other,  that  of  sending  students  to  foreign 
countries  for  training.  Normal  schools  were  opened  in  the  pro- 
vincial capitals  and  later  in  the  larger  centers.  A school  was  estab- 
lished under  the  general  supervision  of  the  imperial  university, 
which  later  developed  into  a normal  college  and  is  no  longer  under 
the  control  of  the  university.  Owing  to  the  urgent  need  of  teachers 
of  the  English  language  for  the  middle  schools  of  Chihli  Province, 
the  Tientsin  University  in  1906  added  a normal  department,  which 
was  supplied  with  students  taken  from  the  various  classes  in  the 
university.  At  the  end  of  a year  25  graduates  had  completed  the 
course  laid  down  and  were  distributed  among  the  middle  schools  of 
the  Province.  A second  class  was  foxmed  in  1907,  composed  of 
students  sent  to  the  university  from  the  provincial  college.  Thirty- 
six  students  received  their  diplomas  in  1908,  after  which  the  normal 
work  in  the  university  was  discontinued.  Students  were  selected 
and  sent  to  study  in  the  normal  schools  of  Japan,  and  upon  com- 
pleting their  courses  of  study  in  Japan  they  returned,  in  many  cases 
in  less  than  a year,  and  were  assigned  positions  in  the  schools  of  the 
Province.  Most  of ‘the  Provinces  sent  students  to  the  normal  schools 
of  Japan,  until  at  one  time  they  were  numbered  by  the  thousands. 
Meanwhile  China  lost  no  time  in  establishing  normal  schools  by  the 
hundreds  throughout  the  Empire.  By  1908  in  Chihli  Province  alone, 
outside  of  Peking  city,  there  were  98  normal  schools,  having  165  in- 
structors, 3,448  students,  5,608  graduates,  with  annual  receipts  of 
270,672  taels,  or  $193,337,  while  the  two  normal  colleges  reported  46 
instructors,  935  students,  533  graduates,  and  annual  receipts  of 
156,228  taels,  or  $111,591.  The  average  annual  expense  that  year  for 
each  student  in  the  normal  school  was  48.21  taels,  or  $34.43,  and  in 
the  normal  colleges  170.33  taels,  or  $121.66. 

The  normal  schools  were  established  to  train  teachers  for  the 
lower  and  higher  primary  schools.  Graduates  of  the  higher  primary 

75 


76 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


four-year  course  are  admitted  to  the  normal  schools.  At  first  there 
being  no  graduates  of  higher  primary  schools,  students  were  selected 
from  the  literati,  who  were  especially  good  in  Chinese  composition. 
It  is  expected  that  each  prefecture  and  district  will  provide  and 
maintain  a normal  school  that  will  accommodate  at  least  150  students. 
The  pupils  were  not  to  be  required  to  pay  tuition,  but  those  who 
wished  could  be  self-supporting.  The  subjects  taught  in  these  schools 
are  12  in  number — ethics  and  morals,  Chinese  classics,  Chinese  liter- 
ature, pedagogy,  history,  geography,  mathematics,  natural  sciences, 
physical  sciences,  penmanship,  drawing,  and  drill.  Two  courses  of 
study  were  outlined — a long  course  and  a short  course.  The  long 
course  covers  5 years  of  45  weeks,  having  36  hours’  recitations  per 
week.  Special  pains  are  taken  to  train  pupils  to  be  patriotic,  to  be 
faithful  to  the  Emperor,  and  filial  to  parents.  The  students  are 
instructed  to  restrain  their  words  as  well  as  their  actions,  and  to 
observe  such  laws  of  health  as  will  develop  in  them  strong  constitu- 
tions. They  are  also  taught  to  form  habits  of  study  and  to  do  inde- 
pendent work.  The  pupils  entering  the  five-year  course  of  study  are 
to  be  between  the  ages  of  18  and  25.  Those  entering  the  short  course 
between  25  and  30  years  of  age.  During  the  first  four  months  of  a 
student’s  residence  he  is  put  upon  probation,  and  only  worthy  stu- 
dents are  retained.  Necessity  compelled  the  normals  at  first  to  offer 
short  courses  of  study  in  order  to  secure  temporarily  teachers  for 
the  primary  schools.  Many  schools  offered  one  year  and  a few 
schools  at  first  offered  six  months’  courses.  The  Government  re- 
quires the  following  service  of  graduates  of  normal  schools:  Gov- 
ernment students  graduating  from  the  long  course  are  required  to 
give  six  years’  service  teaching  in  the  schools  to  which  they  may  be 
assigned;  self-supporting  students  are  required  to  give  three  years. 
Government  graduates  of  the  short  course  give  three  years,  while  the 
self-supporting  students  give  but  two.  Should  a graduate  refuse  to 
render  this  service,  he  must  pay  to  the  school,  the  full  amount  it 
has  cost  to  educate  him.  After  giving  the  required  time  of  service, 
the  student  may,  if  he  wishes,  enter  the  normal  college.  In  the 
normal  schools  the  teachers  and  assistants  are  chosen  from  graduates 
of  the  normal  colleges  and  from  foreign  normal  colleges.  Most 
of  the  foreign  teachers  are  J apanese.  In  the  beginning  it  was  neces- 
sary to  employ  some  Chinese  teachers  who  had  received  no  normal 
training.  Graduates  of  the  five-year  course  receive  the  following 
degrees  and  rewards : To  the  first  grade,  44  pa  kung ; ” second  grade, 
44  yu  kung ; ” third  grade,  44  lin  kung.”  The  first  and  second  grades 
are  made  instructors  in  the  higher  primary  schools,  and  the  third 
grade  are  made  assistant  instructors. 

The  regulations  required  that  a normal  college  should  be  estab- 
lished at  Peking  and  at  each  provincial  capital,  which  would  accom- 


NORMAL.  SCHOOLS. 


77 


modate  at  least  240  students.  Graduates  of  the  normal  and  middle 
schools  were  to  be  admitted.  These  colleges  have  three  departments, 
(1)  common  school  studies  or  a general  course;  (2)  special  studies; 
and  (3)  graduate  studies.  The  general  course  requires  1 year  of  36 
hours,  and  gives  instruction  in  8 subjects:  Ethics,  Chinese  classics, 
Chinese  literature,  Japanese  language,  English  language,  logic, 
mathematics,  and  military  tactics.  The  department  of  special 
studies  offers  4 courses  of  3 years  each  of  36  hours  recitations  per 
week.  These  courses  are  intended  to  prepare  teachers  as  specialists 
in  certain  subjects.  In  the  A class  13  subjects  are  required : Ethics, 
Chinese  classics,  Chinese  literature,  history,  pedagogy,  psychology, 
authors  of  Chou  an  Chin  dynasties,  English  language,  German  or 
French  language,  logic,  zoology,  physical  sciences,  and  military  tac- 
tics. The  following  is  the  outline  of  course  B : 


Subjects. 

Number  of  hours. 

First  year. 

Second 

year. 

Third  year. 

Ethics 

2 

2 

2 

Chinese  classics 

6 

5 

4 

Chinese  literature 

1 

1 

1 

Pedagogy 

4 

8 

Psychology 

1 

1 

Mathematics 

6 

6 

6 

Physics 

5 

6 

7 

Chemistry 

4 

5 

5 

English  language 

3 

Drawing 

2 

Mechanics 

3 

3 

Military  tactics 

3 

3 

3 

Total  

36 

36 

36 

Course  C has  12  subjects  offered : Ethics,  Chinese  classics,  Chinese 
literature,  pedagogy,  psychology,  geography,  history,  political  sci- 
ence, finance,  English  language,  zoology,  and  military  tactics.  Ger- 
man is  elective. 

Course  D offers  14  subjects:  Ethics,  Chinese  classics,  Chinese  lit- 
erature, pedagogy,  psychology,  botany,  zoology,  physical  science, 
mining,  geology,  agriculture,  English  language,  drawing,  and  mili- 
tary tactics.  German  and  chemistry  are  offered  as  electives. 

In  the  graduate  department  the  following  10  subjects  are  offered, 
of  which  the  student  must  elect  at  least  5 : Ethics,  pedagogy,  school 
administration,  school  supervision,  aesthetics,  experimental  psj^chol- 
ogy,  school  hygiene,  professional  education,  child  study,  and  practice 
teaching.  After  completing  his  subjects  the  student  is  required  to 
write  a thesis  upon  his  work.  The  course  is  one  year  in  length,  and 


78 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


the  number  of  hours  is  left  to  the  discretion  of  the  faculty.  Students 
who  wish  to  enter  the  general  course  must  be  recommended  by  their 
home  prefect  or  magistrate.  Each  student  must  furnish  two  guar- 
antors, acceptable  to  the  school,  that  he  will  faithfully  discharge  his 
duties.  He  must  also  declare  his  intention  to  make  teaching  a pro- 
fession and  promise  to  render  the  service  required  by  the  Government 
after  his  graduation ; namely,  to  serve  for  a period  of  six  years,  the 
first  two  years  to  be  at  the  disposal  of  the  president  of  the  ministry 
of  education  and  the  viceroy  or  governor  of  his  Province,  and  to  ac- 
cept any  position  to  which  he  is  appointed.  Any  graduate  refusing 
such  service  shall  be  required,  as  a fine,  to  pay  back  the  full  amount 
of  the  cost  of  his  education.  After  performing  the  full  period  of 
service,  the  student  may,  if  he  so  desires,  enter  the  university.  Con- 
nected with  the  college  is  to  be  a model  primary  school  and  also  a 
middle  school.  The  professors  of  the  normal  college  are  to  be  gradu- 
ates of  high  standing  of  special  colleges  of  the  imperial  university, 
or  graduates  of  normal  colleges  or  universities  of  a foreign  country. 
It  was  allowable  when  the  colleges  were  first  opened  to  employ  any 
Chinese  teacher  thought  to  be  qualified.  Graduates  of  the  normal 
college  are  divided  into  five  grades : The  first  three  grades  receive  the 
degree  of  chu  jen  (M.  A.)  and  the  honorary  title  of  the  “Fifth 
Order,”  and  are  appointed  professors  in  the  middle  and  normal 
schools.  The  other  two  grades  are  treated  as  in  other  schools. 

The  normal  college  at  Paotingfu  is  located  about  three  quarters  of 
a mile  outside  of  the  city  wall,  and  was  one  of  the  first  normal  col- 
leges in  China.  Most  of  the  teaching  was  done,  at  the  time  of  my 
visit,  by  the  teacher  lecturing  and  the  pupils  taking  notes.  In  one 
class  of  Chinese  history  the  teacher  had  his  lecture  printed,  and  each 
pupil  was  furnished  a copy  to  consult  during  the  lecture.  The 
classes  were  very  large,  too  large,  in  fact,  to  obtain  the  best  results. 
The  laboratories  were  fairly  well  equipped.  Courses  wTere  at  that 
time  being  offered  of  one-half  year,  one  year,  two  years,  three  years, 
and  four  years.  Only  one  four-year  class  had  graduated.  .Doubt- 
less this  four-year  course  contains  some  work  that  belongs  to  the  nor- 
mal school.  Courses  were  offered  in  vocal  and  instrumental  music, 
also  in  manual  training  and  kindergarten  work. 

The  North  China  Normal  College  is  located  at  Tientsin,  and  has 
an  excellent  equipment.  In  February,  1909,  I was  told  that  it  en- 
rolled 330  students,  and  that  there  were  270  students  in  its  graduating 
class.  This  college  is  said  to  be  the  largest  and  best  in  the  Empire. 
Its  faculty  was  composed  of  8 Japanese  and  4 Chinese  professors. 
Sixty-six  students  were  pursuing  courses  in  both  the  Japanese  and 
English  languages.  The  students  ranged  from  20  to  35  years  of  age. 
The  laboratories  are  well  fitted  for  all  kinds  of  normal-college  work 
It  also  has  a library  and  reading  room. 


TECHNICAL.  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 


79 


While  good  work  is  being  done  in  other  schools,  it  is  expected  that 
in  the  near  future  the  National  Normal  College,  just  built  in  the 
southern  city  in  Peking,  will  be  the  model  for  all  other  normal 
colleges  in  the  Empire. 

TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES. 

The  fundamental  object  in  establishing  technical  schools  is  to  en- 
courage Chinese  agriculture,  commerce,  architecture,  and  engineering. 
The  Government  hopes  as  soon  as  possible  to  establish  outside  of  the 
university  colleges  the  following  technical  schools:  (1)  Teachers’ 
technical  training  schools  of  the  same  grade  as  those  of  normal  col- 
leges; (2)  poly  technical  colleges  of  the  rank  of  provincial  colleges; 

(3)  middle  technical  schools  of  the  same  rank  as  the  middle  schools; 

(4)  primary  technical  schools  of  as  high  rank  as  the  higher  primary 
schools;  (5)  fishery  schools  of  the  same  grade  as  the  middle  school; 
and  (6)  industrial  schools  having  courses  equivalent  to  the  courses 
of  primary  and  middle  schools.  The  main  difficulties  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  these  schools  have  been  lack  of  qualified  teachers  and 
funds  to  support  such  schools.  The  Government  has  sent  students 
abroad  to  prepare  for  teaching  in  these  schools  and  has  urged  the 
wealthy  to  contribute  for  the  establishment  of  such  schools.  We  have 
already  referred  to  the  technical  departments  of  the  universities.  In 
the  Imperial  Polytechnic  Institute  of  Shanghai  courses  are  offered 
in  civil,  mechanical,  electrical,  and  marine  engineering.1  The  Tang- 
shan  Engineering  and  Mining  College  is  located  at  Tangshan,  in 
Chihli  Province.  It  is  supported  by  the  Imperial  Railways  of  North 
China  and  the  Chinese  Engineering  & Mining  Co.  It  has  excellent 
buildings,  a fair  equipment,  and  its  location,  being  near  to  the  rail- 
way shops  and  the  mines,  gives  its  students  in  engineering  and  min- 
ing special  advantages.  It  is  expected  to  graduate  its  first  class 
in  1911. 

In  the  report  for  Chihli  Province  for  the  year  ending  February, 
1908,  we  find  reported  5 technical  schools  above  middle  schools  with 
an  attendance  of  433  students  and  having  graduated  182  students. 
The  number  of  teachers  employed  was  44;  the  amount  received  for 
the  annual  expenses  was  272,319  taels,  or  about  $123,000;  the  annual 
cost  per  student  was  177.41  taels,  or  $126.72.  There  were  that  year 
in  Chihli  17  technical  and  special  primary  schools,  enrolling  446 
pupils,  having  graduated  38.  The  number  of  teachers  employed  in 
these  schools  was  40  and  the  cost  per  pupil  for  the  year  41.66  taels, 
or  $29.74. 

Agricultural  schools  and  colleges  were  among  the  first  schools 
to  be  established  in  the  Provinces.  Nearly  every  Province  has  its 


1 North  China  Herald,  Aug.  21,  1909,  p.  449. 


80 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


agricultural  college,  many  of  the  larger  towns  have  their  agricul- 
tural schools,  and  many  of  the  smaller  towns  have  half-day  agricul- 
tural schools,  until  to-day  there  are  many  of  these  schools  scattered 
over  the  Empire.  In  many  of  these  larger  institutions  the  instruc- 
tion has  been  given  by  Japanese  professors.  Provincial  agricultural 
boards  have  been  organized,  also  branch  boards  in  many  of  the  fus, 
chous,  and  hsiens.  Some  of  the  Government  students  studying  abroad 
are  making  a specialty  of  agriculture.  Mr.  M.  H.  Tang,  who  grad- 
uated in  1908  from  Cornell  University  with  a master’s  degree,  is 
now  the  director  of  the  agricultural  college  at  Shanghai.  Often 
the  directors  have  been  men  who  had  no  knowledge  of  agriculture  or 
of  college  management.  The  day  is  not  far  distant  when  China  will 
be  able  to  have  her  own  staff  and  faculty  of  trained  men  for  each  of 
her  agricultural  colleges. 

The  Kuang  Si  Provincial  Agricultural  College,  located  outside  of 
Kueilin  was  opened  in  May,  1909,  with  accommodation  for  140 
students.  Its  director,  a capable,  enlightened  officer,  hoped  to  engage 
German  specialists  as  instructors  for  the  college.  It  has  been  stated 
that  agricultural  commissioners  were  to  be  appointed  for  each 
Province  to  supervise  all  agricultural  schools.1 

A few  schools  of  commerce  are  being  established  outside  of  the  im- 
perial university,  and  are  under  the  control  of  the  board  of  commerce. 
A large  commercial  college  with  commodious  buildings  has  just  been 
established  in  Peking  to  accommodate  several  hundred  students. 

Many  industrial  schools  of  various  grades  have  been  established. 
One  of  the  first  was  a private  industrial  school  established  soon  after 
the  Boxer  troubles  by  Huang  Sze  En,  a Hanlin,2  in  the  Southern 
City  of  Peking,  for  the  benefit  of  those  without  employment,  and 
several  trades  were  taught.  This  school,  although  still  in  existence, 
has  been  surpassed  by  a number  of  Government  schools  that  have 
lately  been  established.  There  are  in  Peking  at  least  7 schools  of 
this  grade,  and  outside  of  the  city  there  are  several  being  established 
for  the  Manchu  people.  These  schools  have  a twofold  purpose, 
namely,  to  educate  boys  and  men  to  do  skilled  work  in  many  indus- 
tries and  also  to  train  men  who  may  teach  them  to  others.  The  board 
of  commerce  has  established  in  Peking  one  of  these  training  schools 
at  a cost  of  100,000  taels,  or  over  $70,000.  It  is  well  equipped  and 
teaches  spinning,  weaving,  glass  blowing,  carpentry,  dyeing,  leather 
work,  well  digging,  rattan  work,  embroidery,  drawing,  and  lacquer- 

1 Pekin  Daily  News,  December  9,  1908. 

2 This  capable  man,  because  of  his  proforeign  tendencies,  was  imprisoned  under  sen- 
tence of  death  in  the  summer  of  1900.  After  the  relief  of  Peking  he  was  rescued  from 
the  imperial  prison  through  the  foreign  legations.  Since  the  establishment  of  this  indus- 
trial school  his  former  rank  has  been  restored  and  additional  honors  conferred  upon  him 
by  the  Imperial  Government. 


MISCELLANEOUS  SCHOOLS. 


81 


ing.  It  enrolls  about  500  students,  who  come  from  all  parts  of  the 
Empire.  There  is  another  school  in  the  city  under  the  control  of  the 
same  board,  which  gives  a more  general  education  in  addition  to 
teaching  the  above  industries.  It  has  about  30  Japanese  instructors 
and  300  students.  Connected  with  this  industrial  school  is  a higher 
technical  school,  with  about  200  students  who  are  being  prepared  in 
engineering.  In  1909  there  must  have  been  at  least  2,000  students  in 
the  industrial  schools  of  Peking.  Tientsin  and  other  large  cities  have 
established  industrial  schools  similar  to  those  in  Peking. 

The  North  China  Industrial  College  is  located  at  Tientsin,  and  has 
good  buildings  and  equipment.  In  February,  1909,  it  had  about  100 
students.  Its  faculty  was  composed  of  1 European,  1 American,  2 
Japanese,  and  7 Chinese.  I was  informed  that  a student,  after  com- 
pleting the  course  of  study  in  chemistry,  would  be  able  to  enter  the 
junior  class  in  chemical  engineering  at  Cornell  University. 

Many  small  schools  teaching  one  or  two  trades  have  been  estab- 
lished in  the  smaller  cities  and  towns  from  a business  or  philanthropic 
motive,  and  are  doing  a good  work  by  training  penniless  persons, 
making  them  self-supporting. 

MISCELLANEOUS  SCHOOLS. 

The  Boxer  outbreak  closed  the  Tung  Wen  College,  and  the  Col- 
lege of  Languages  (I  Hsueh  Kuan)  was  organized  to  take  its  place 
and  carry  on  practically  the  same  work,  preparing  students  to  fill 
the  same  positions  as  did  the  Tung  Wen  College.  The  College  of 
Languages  is  located  in  the  Tartar  City  of  Peking,  and  offers  a 
course  of  5 years  of  36  hours  per  week  to  120  students,  who  are  given 
free  tuition,  board,  and  books,  and  also  to  special  students,  who  pay 
tuition  and  other  expenses  connected  with  the  college.  Tuition  was 
$1.50,  and  board  from  $1.40  to  $2.50  per  month ; dormitory  privileges 
were  $5  per  year,  and  $10  had  to  be  deposited  for  uniforms.  Eng- 
lish, French,  German,  Russian,  and  Japanese  languages  are  taught, 
and  each  student  is  required  to  specialize  in  one  of  these  languages. 
Graduates  of  the  middle  schools,  after  taking  an  entrance  examina- 
tion, may  be  admitted  to  the  College  of  Languages.  At  the  time  of 
the  opening  of  the  college,  students  who  had  some  knowledge  of  a 
foreign  language  were  admitted  after  an  examination.  Students 
of  the  Chin  Shih  Kuan,  who  understood  a foreign  language,  could 
be  admitted.  In  May,  1907,  there  being  so  few  graduates  of  the 
middle  schools,  the  ministry  of  education  granted  permission  for 
students  who  had  completed  two  years’  work  in  the  middle  schools 
to  be  accepted  as  students  of  the  College  of  Languages. 

9561°— 11 6 


82 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


Course  of  study  for  the  College  of  Languages. 


Number  of  hours. 

Subjects. 

First 

Second 

Third 

Fourth 

Fifth 

year. 

year. 

year. 

year. 

year. 

Ethics 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Chinese  literature,  classics,  and  composition , . 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

History — Chinese,  Asiatic,  and  western 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Geography — Chinese,  Asiatic,  and  western 

2 

2 

2 

2 

One  foreign  language,  English,  French,  Russian, 

German,  or  Japanese 

16 

16 

18 

18 

18 

Mathematics 

4 

4 

3 

3 

Physiology  and  mineralogy 

2 

Physics 

2 

Drawing 

2 

2 

Military  drill 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Botany  and  zoology 

2 

Chemistry 

2 

Diplomacy 



3 

3 

3 

Political  economy 

3 

3 

3 

Education 

3 

Geology 

2 

Total 

36 

36 

36 

36 

36 

1 Hsueh  Pu  Kuan  Pao,  vol.  38,  Dept.  3,  p.  188. 


In  February,  1909,  when  visiting  the  college,  I was  told  that  the 
enrollment  was  360 ; that  the  English  department  registered  130  stu- 
dents; the  German,  50;  the  French,  110;  and  the  Russian,  60.  There 
was  at  that  time  no  Japanese  department,  but  all  students  were  re- 
quired to  devote  one  or  two  hours  per  week  to  the  study  of  that 
language.  The  English  classes  were  taught  by  two  foreign  profess- 
ors, one  being  a doctor  of  philosophy  from  Yale,  and  three  Chinese 
assistants;  the  French  was  taught  by  two  foreign  professors  and 
one  Chinese  assistant;  the  German,  by  a foreign  professor  and  a 
Chinese  assistant;  and  the  Russian  by  a Chinese  professor.  The 
salary  of  the  foreign  professors  was  from  $400  to  $645  Mexican  per 
month.  The  Chinese  instructors  received  from  50  to  150  taels  per 
month.  The  old  Tung  Wen  College  was  supported  by  the  imperial 
maritime  customs,  but  the  College  of  Languages  is  supported  and 
superintended  by  the  ministry  of  education.  The  monthly  expenses 
were  reported  to  be  about  7,600  taels,  or  $5,429.  The  director  of  the 
college  was  a member  of  the  ministry  of  education.  He  was  sup- 
posed to  visit  the  college  three  or  four  times  a week,  and  he  receives 
no  salary  for  his  services  to  the  college,  but  his  traveling  expenses  are 
allowed.  I learned  the  following  facts  in  regard  to  the  second  class 
in  English,  which  contained  40  students:  They  represented  15  prov- 
inces ; the  oldest  was  33  years  of  age,  the  youngest  19,  the  average  age 
was  23  years ; 27  were  married,  some  having  as  many  as  4 children ; 
14  had  Chinese  degrees  and  2 had  Chinese  official  titles.  In  the 
spring  of  1909,  39  students  were  graduated  and  granted  the  degree 


MISCELLANEOUS  SCHOOLS. 


83 


of  chu  jen  (A.  M.).  Some  of  these  graduates  were  assigned  to  the 
ministry  of  education,  and  the  others  were  divided  by  lots  among  the 
following  ministries:  Foreign  affairs,  agriculture,  and  commerce; 
but  in  case  any  Chinese  minister  abroad  wished  additional  help  in  his 
legation  he  had  a right  to  ask  the  ministry  of  foreign  affairs  to  select 
him  one  of  these  graduates.1 

In  November,  1907,  Viceroy  Tuan  Fang  established  a provincial 
college  of  languages  at  Nanking.  He  is  reported  as  having  given 
0,000  taels  toward  its  establishment.  It  admitted  120  students. 
French  and  German  are  the  languages  emphasized.  Russian  was 
not  taught.  Colleges  of  languages  have  also  been  established  in 
Tientsin,  Hu  Peh,  and  Manchuria.  Ministers  accredited  to  foreign 
countries  are  expected  to  select  their  interpreters  from  the  graduates 
of  the  College  of  Languages  or  the  provincial  colleges  of  languages. 
The  professorships  of  languages  in  the  various  schools  in  the  Em- 
pire are  to  be  filled  by  graduates  of  the  highest  grade  of  these  col- 
leges of  languages. 

The  Chin  Shih  College  was  established  in  Peking  to  give  the 
chin  shih  (Ph.  D.)  and  Hanlin  (LL.  D.)  graduates  of  the  old  system 
of  Government  examinations  an  opportunity  to  study  western  learn- 
ing for  a period  of  three  years,  believing  that  a general  education 
was  necessary  to  prepare  them  for  their  future  official  duties.  Men 
over  35  years  of  age  had  the  right  to  petition  to  be  excused  from 
attending  the  college,  in  which  case  they  were  given  the  title  of  a 
district  magistrate  and  distributed  among  the  Provinces  for  official 
duty.  Those  below  35  years  of  age  were  compelled  to  attend  the 
college.  Each  student  was  granted  an  annual  stipend  of  240  taels 
if  he  were  a Hanlin  or  a chung  shu,  and  160  taels  was  granted  to 
those  of  lower  degree. 


Course  of  study  for  the  Chin  Shih  Kuan. 


Number  of  hours. 

Subjects. 

First  year. 

Second 

year. 

Third  year. 

History 

5 

2 

Geography 

5 

2 

2 

Physics 

2 

Pedagogy 

4 

Law 

4 

5 

6 

Political  economy 

4 

3 

Chemistry 

2 

Diplomacy 

3 

Commerce 

3 

2 

Military  science 

4 

2 

Architecture 

2 

Agriculture 

6 

Total 

24 

24 

24 

1 Hsueh  Pu  Kuan  Pao,  vol.  84,  dept.  1,  pp.  3-6. 


84 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


Students  who  successfully  complete  the  course  of  study  are  exam- 
ined by  an  imperial  commissioner  and  the  president  of  the  ministry 
of  education,  and  those  who  pass  the  examination  are  introduced  to 
the  regent  and  later  receive  official  appointments.  Many  of  these 
students  have  been  sent  abroad  to  study  and  upon  their  return  are 
examined.  On  March  15  and  17,  1909,  four  of  these  students  were 
examined  not  only  on  the  special  studies  but  also  in  Chinese  histoiy 
and  literature. 1 

A number  of  law  schools  have  been  established  in  the  Empire. 
The  two  most  prominent  ones  are  the  law  school  in  Peking,  which 
had  in  the  beginning  of  1909  about  740  students  training  for  the 
board  of  law,  and  the  North  China  Law  School,  in  Tientsin,  which 
now  occupies  fine  buildings  that  were  constructed  in  1907.  This  law 
school  was  established  in  1906  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a three- 
year  course  in  the  study  of  foreign  law  and  treaties,  preparing  the 
students  for  diplomatic  service.  After  the  graduating  of  the  first 
class  changes  were  made  by  imperial  sanction,  and  the  school  became 
a provincial  law  school  and  receives  not  only  Government  students, 
but  hopes  also,  by  enlarging  its  faculty,  to  receive  many  self-support- 
ing students.  In  1909  there  were  4 Japanese  and  16  Chinese  profes- 
sors. All  the  students  were  required  to  study  the  Japanese  language. 
It  has  a very  fair  library  of  Chinese  and  Japanese  books.  The  pros- 
pect of  soon  having  a constitutional  government  for  China  will 
stimulate  many  young  men  to  study  law,  and  doubtless  the  time  is 
not  far  distant  when  every  Province  in  China  will  have  its  provincial 
law  school,  modeled  after  that  of  North  China. 

“ Chinese  medicine,  which  began  so  well,  has  made  no  progress 
during  the  last  2,000  years.  It  has,  on  the  other  hand,  greatly  de- 
generated both  in  dignity  and  influence,  until  at  the  present  time 
there  abounds  all  over  the  Empire  an  enormous  number  of  illiterate 
and  unscrupulous  quacks,  who  * * * trade  entirely  upon  the 
superstitions  and  fears  of  their  numerous  clients.”2  To  show  the 
strong  hold  that  the  old  system  of  medicine  has  on  the  people,  we 
quote  the  following  from  the  North  China  Herald,  May  1,  1909, 
page  246 : “ Chenchow  can  now  boast  of  a new  medical  school  with 
two  teachers  and  five  medical  students.  The  school  is  opened  in  a 
new  temple  just  completed.  The  teachers  are  both  Chenchow  men 
and  know  nothing  of  medicine  except  what  they  have  learned  from 
reading  their  own  Chinese  books  and  practice.  The  official  in  speak- 
ing of  the  medical  profession  here  said  there  were  no  good  doctors, 
and  the  new  school  was  provided  to  enable  all  those  who  wanted  to 

1 Hsueh  Pu  Kuan  Pao,  vol.  82,  dept.  1,  p.  1. 

2“  The  position  of  medical  science  in  China  as  compared  with  that  of  the  West.”  We 
Lien  Te,  M.  A.,  M.  D.  (Cambridge.)  The  World’s  Chinese  Students’  Journal,  vol.  2,  No.  1, 


MISCELLANEOUS  SCHOOLS. 


85 


practice  to  get  a certificate,  and  thus  give  the  profession  a legal 
standing.  The  money,  something  over  $1,000,  was  raised  by  sub- 
scription.” And  again  from  the  same  paper,  May  29,  1909 : “Accord- 
ing to  a Chinese  local  contemporary  the  members  of  the  above-named 
institution,  4 The  College  of  Imperial  Physicians,’  are  too  conserva- 
tive in  their  education  and  training,  and  some  of  them  are  even 
unacquainted  with  modern  hygiene  and  its  principles.  Owing  to 
this,  a grand  councilor  is  said  to  have  recently  advised  Prince  Ching 
of  the  necessity  of  making  some  improvements  toward  better  training 
of  the  members  of  the  college  in  view  of  the  importance  which  should 
be  attached  to  human  life.” 

One  of  the  greatest  needs  in  China  is  more  medical  schools.  It  is 
strange  that  the  Government,  having  displayed  so  much  activity  in 
opening  schools  for  science,  language,  engineering,  the  army  and 
navy,  should  have  been  so  backward  in  establishing  a national  sys- 
tem of  medical  education.  It  has  the  North  China  Medical  College 
and  the  Army  Medical  College  at  Tientsin,  where  surgeons  are  pre- 
pared for  army  and  navy  service.  The  North  China  Medical  School 
has  a three-year  course  of  study,  and  in  March,  1908,  graduated  35 
students  in  the  first  grade;  these  received  the  degree  of  lin  sheng; 
21  made  second  grade  and  received  the  tseng  sheng  degree. 

Doubtless  the  best  medical  college  in  all  China  is  the  Union  Medical 
College  of  Peking,  formed  by  the  union  of  the  two  missionary  med- 
ical colleges  of  the  North  China  Educational  Union  and  the  Peking 
University.  It  has  a large  faculty,  composed  of  graduates  of  the 
medical  colleges  of  the  leading  American  and  British  universities. 
All  instruction  is  given  in  Chinese  and  covers  a five-year  course  of 
stud}7.  The  late  Empress  Dowager  contributed  10,000  taels  toward 
its  establishment  and  the  Chinese  Government  has  promised  to  make 
annual  contributions  toward  its  support.  It  is  the  only  missionary 
medical  college  in  China  which  has  received  the  sanction  of  the 
Throne  and  whose  graduates  are  entitled  to  enter  the  Government 
examinations  and  receive  Government  degrees  and  rank.  Its  first 
class  will  graduate  in  1912. 

The  Nobles’  School  in  Peking  was  opened  June  15,  1906,  for  the 
sons  of  nobles  and  the  sons  of  the  first  and  second  class  officials.  The 
school  provided  for  160  students,  to  be  divided  into  four  classes, 
according  to  scholarship.  The  course  of  study  at  first  was  planned 
for  five  years,  but  this  was  changed  to  three  years.  The  first  class, 
of  96  students,  graduated  in  1909,  the  ministry  of  the  army  conferring 
first  grade  upon  TO  and  the  second  grade  upon  26.  It  is  expected  that 
many  of  those  young  men  will  go  abroad  to  study  in  military  or  naval 
academies  and  later  enter  the  Chinese  Army  and  Navy.  Prof.  Sharp, 
in  The  Educational  System  of  Japan  (p.  330),  writes: 44  It  was  hoped 
that  the  young  peers  would  take  to  the  army  and  navy,  but  com- 


86 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


paratively  few  succeeded  in  entering  them,  as  the  examinations  are 
stiff  and  they  enjoy  no  privilege.”  Let  us  hope  that  the  sons  of  the 
nobles  of  China  may  prove  themselves  more  capable  than  their  Japa- 
nese neighbors. 

Military  schools  have  been  established  in  several  of  the  Provinces. 
In  1909  there  were  18  military  schools  (lu  chin  hsiao  hsueh  tang)  in 
the  Empire.  In  Peking,  on  the  Mei  Chang  Street,  is  located  the 
school  to  be  the  model  for  all  others.  It  has  a three-year  course  of 
study,  and  in  February,  1909,  enrolled  387  students.  Its  first  class  of 
180  students  was  expected  to  enter  the  newly  established  military 
school  (Lu  Chin  Cheng  Hsueh  Tang)  for  two  years’  study.  There 
are  three  other  large  schools  or  academies  at  Nanking,  Wu  Chang, 
and  Hsi  An  Fu.  In  1900  the  military  school  at  Paotingfu  graduated 
400  students.1  The  ministry  of  war  is  now  contemplating  the  estab- 
lishment of  a regulated  system  of  national  and  provincial  military 
schools.  A military  commission  is  now  visiting  foreign  countries 
examining  their  military  systems  and  schools.  A naval  commission 
has  just  returned  from  a tour  of  inspection  of  the  naval  systems  and 
schools  of  foreign  countries,  and  the  ministry  of  admiralty  are  now 
considering  the  reorganization  of  their  naval  schools  and  are  plan- 
ning to  establish  a national  system  of  naval  academies  and  schools. 
At  present  there  are  naval  schools  at  Fu  Chou,  Tientsin,  Chefoo,  and 
Nanking.  We  have  noted  that  military  drill  and  tactics  are  receiv- 
ing much  attention  in  the  curricula  of  the  Government  schools  of 
China.  This  drill  has  developed  a military  spirit  in  all  the  schools, 
as  well  as  a spirit  of  patriotism.  It  has  also  created  more  respect  for 
military  officers  and  the  army.  The  Chinese  have  always  been  a 
peace-loving  people,  and  we  believe  they  are  likely  to  remain  such, 
but  they  see  the  necessity  of  providing  for  self-preservation,  and 
we  may  expect  in  time  that  China  will  have  at  her  command  one  of 
the  best  organized  and  best  disciplined,  and  the  largest  army  in  the 
world,  which  will  place  the  balance  of  power  in  her  hands,  and  may 
we  not  hope  to  secure  through  her  arbitration  universal  peace? 

The  Government  in  1908  sanctioned  the  memorial  recommending 
the  establishment  of  a customs  training  college  in  Peking,  to  be 
under  the  control  of  the  imperial  customs,  for  training  Chinese  young 
men  for  positions  in  the  imperial  maritime  customs  and  postal 
system.  The  entrance  requirements  are  English  and  Chinese.  Stu- 
dents between  16  and  22  years  of  age  are  admitted  by  competitive 
examinations.  The  course  comprises  four  years  of  study,  after  which 
the  successful  students  are  to  be  drafted  into  the  indoor  staff  of  the 
customs.  It  is  expected  that  in  time  these  graduates  will  replace  the 
foreign  staff.  Mr.  Brewitt-Taylor,  a member  of  the  customs  staff. 


1 North  China  Herald,  May  29,  1909,  p.  487. 


MISCELLANEOUS  SCHOOLS.  87 

noted  for  his  scholarship  and  ability,  has  been  appointed  the  director 
of  the  college. 

The  ministry  of  finance,  having  secured  the  sanction  of  the  Govern- 
ment, are  expecting  to  open  a school  of  finance  in  Peking  in  1910 
which  will  accommodate  130  students.  The  course  will  be  given  in 
Chinese  and  English.  A preparatory  school  will  be  connected 
with  it. 

The  Chinese  Students’  Monthly,  volume  3,  Nos.  7-8,  page  279,  con- 
tains the  following  item  concerning  a railway  school  in  Peking : His 
Excellency  Hai-huan,  director  general  of  the  Tientsin-Pukou  Railway, 
has  obtained  the  sanction  of  the  ministry  of  posts  and  communication 
to  establish  a railway  school  in  Peking,  having  for  its  object  the  train- 
ing of  men  for  service  on  that  road.  The  school  will  be  divided  into 
two  departments,  namely,  traffic  and  telegraph.  Taotai  Yuan  Chang 
Kun  has  been  appointed  director  general  of  the  school.  The  site  of 
the  school  is  in  the  vicinity  of  Chungmen  Gate,  and  the  estimate  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  school  is  50,000  taels  per  annum.  Taotai 
Yuan  is  a returned  student  from  the  United  States  and  a member  of 
the  Chinese  educational  mission  which  was  sent  over  in  the  middle 
of  the  seventies.” 

A school  for  the  training  of  diplomats,  known  as  the  “ Hautsai 
Kuan,”  is  reported  as  having  been  established  in  Peking,  from  which 
recruits  will  doubtless  be  drawn  for  the  foreign  service.1 

On  February  20,  1909,  the  board  of  the  interior  (min  cheng  pu), 
having  memorialized  the  Throne,  it  was  decided  to  establish  a police 
high  school  in  each  provincial  capital,  and  police  training  schools  in 
all  the  fus  and  hsiens.2  The  North  China  police  high  school  was  es- 
tablished in  Tientsin  in  1902.  Men  who  are  able  to  read  and  write 
are  taken  as  students.  The  number  of  students  in  the  two-year 
course  is  limited  to  100,  and  in  the  one-year  course  to  160.  It  had  up 
to  1909  received  766  students,  676  having  graduated.  The  provincial 
police  school  for  Chihli  was  established  at  Paotingfu  in  1906  by 
Viceroy  Yuan  Shih  Kai.  In  this  school  a course  of  six  months  and 
another  of  a year  are  offered.  It  is  able  to  accommodate  about  500 
students.  In  1906  there  were  over  300  attending.  These  schools  have 
provided  well-trained  police  for  the  smaller  as  well  as  for  the  larger 
cities  of  the  Province,  a very  marked  contrast  to  the  incompetent 
police  seen  before  1900.  The  very  best  order  is  now  maintained  upon 
the  streets  of  Peking  and  Tientsin.  In  the  Tai  Yuenfu  police  school, 
as  early  as  1904,  17,000  taels  were  spent  to  educate  112  students.  Its 
teaching  staff  was  made  up  of  three  Japanese  and  two  Chinese  teach- 
ers. Similar  schools  have  been  established  in  other  Provinces. 


irThe  World’s  Chinese  Students’  Journal,  vol.  4,  No.  1,  p.  18. 

2Hsueh  Pu  Kuan  Pao,  vol.  83,  dept.  3,  p.  3. 


88 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


The  president  of  the  ministry  of  the  interior  has  decided  to  estab- 
lish a detective  school  at  Peking  for  training  men  for  espionage  serv- 
ice in  the  ministry.  The  pupils  are  to  be  chosen  from  the  first-grade 
graduates  of  the  police  schools.1 

In  Tientsin  I visited  in  February,  1909,  an  institution  known  as  a 
reformatory  school.  The  following  five  classes  of  persons  were  ad- 
mitted: (1)  Men  having  no  means  nor  money;  (2)  orphans  above  10 
years  of  age  without  home  or  friends;  (3)  incorrigible  children  sent 
by  their  parents  to  the  school  for  discipline;  (4)  people  who  have 
become  stranded  in  Tientsin;  and  (5)  petty  thieves,  both  old  and 
young.  Those  between  10  and  20  years  of  age  were  taught  arith- 
metic, writing,  reading,  and  athletics.  Suitable  lectures  were  pro- 
vided for  all  the  inmates,  and  they  were  taught  a number  of  trades, 
such  as  are  being  taught  in  the  industrial  schools.  At  that  time  I 
was  told  there  were  about  500  in  this  school.  We  understand  that 
similar  schools  are  being  established  in  other  large  cities  of  the 
Empire. 

During  the  last  decade  great  changes  have  been  inaugurated  in 
prison  life.  “ Model  prisons,”  with  schools  connected  with  them, 
are  now  being  erected  in  most  of  the  Provinces.  Instead  of  keeping 
the  prisoners,  as  was  the  custom  before  1900,  chained  in  filthy,  in- 
sanitary buildings,  they  are  now  placed  in  modern  buildings  similar 
to  those  of  Japan,  and  are  required  to  work  and  live  a more  whole- 
some and  natural  life.  The  spirit  in  the  prisons  is  reformatory  and 
the  prisoners  are  placed  in  the  prison  schools,  where  they  are  taught 
trades.  Yuan  Shih  Kai,  when  viceroy  of  Chihli,  was  the  first  to 
institute  these  changes. 

The  Government  has  shown  great  wisdom  in  establishing  a pre- 
paratory school  in  Peking  for  students  preparing  for  the  “American 
indemnity  scholarships.”  The  course  of  study  will  include  all  those 
subjects  required  for  entrance  to  the  colleges  of  the  best  universities 
of  the  United  States.  His  Excellency  Tang  Kai  San,  a former  Yale 
student,  a man  of  the  highest  character  and  attainments,  has  been  ap- 
pointed the  director  of  the  school,  and  we  are  informed  that  a corps  of 
18  American  teachers,  composed  of  an  equal  number  of  men  and 
women,  will  constitute  the  faculty.  From  this  school  will  be  sent  to  the 
United  States  well-  prepared,  earnest,  enthusiastic  students,  who  will 
be  sure  to  rank  high  and  win  honors  in  the  American  universities. 
Let  us  hope  that  the  training  they  will  receive  in  the  United  States 
will  fit  them  to  become  great  national  leaders  upon  their  return  to 
China. 

His  Excellency  Chang  Chih  Tung,  when  viceroy  of  Hu  Kuang,  es- 
tablished “ colleges  for  the  preservation  of  the  old  learning  ” (Tsun  Ku 

1 The  Chinese  Students’  Monthly,  vol.  4,  No.  4,  p.  227. 


MISCELLANEOUS  SCHOOLS. 


89 


Hsueh  Tang) . Their  obj  ect  is  to  encourage  students  to  specialize  in  the 
Chinese  classical  learning,  much  as  was  done  in  former  days.  It  is 
reported  that  other  Provinces  have  followed  his  excellency’s  ex- 
ample and  founded  similar  institutions.  Did  the  ghost  of  the  past 
arise  to  disturb  Chang  Chih  Tung’s  dreams  of  modern  education  in 
China — the  one  who  was  the  author  of  “ China’s  Only  Hope,”  the 
founder  of  some  of  her  early  modern  schools,  one  of  the  framers  of 
her  present  educational  system,  and  the  general  controller  of  the 
ministry  of  education? 

One  of  the  most  important  features  of  the  revolution  in  Chinese 
education  is  the  provision  now  made  by  the  Government  for  female 
education.  Under  the  old  regime  no  provision  was  made  for  the 
education  of  women.  In  rare  cases  an  indulgent  father  taught  a 
brilliant  daughter  ; but,  as  a whole,  the  women  of  China  were  alto- 
gether uneducated.  To-day  the  most  enlightened  Chinese  realize 
that  the  future  greatness  of  their  Empire  depends  largely  upon  the 
education  of  their  girls  as  well  as  of  their  boys.  They  have  dis- 
covered that  no  country  is  great  where  the  women  are  ignorant,  and 
the  educational  commissioners  have  learned  that  the  greatest  civili- 
zation and  material  progress  are  in  those  countries  where  women 
are  the  most  highly  educated.  They  have  also  discovered  that  the 
educated  woman  makes  the  best  wife  and  mother.  There  have  been 
some  strong  women  in  China,  like  the  sisters  of  Prince  Su,  who,  hav- 
ing been  endowed  with  good  intellects  and  with  not  a little  inde- 
pendence, have  started  private  girls’  schools  of  their  own  and  have 
used  every  means  to  encourage  the  establishment  of  other  schools. 
These  and  other  strong  women  have  worked  until  they  have  secured 
Government  recognition  for  girls’  schools.  Tuan  Fang,  before  and 
after  his  going  abroad,  urged  the  establishment  of  female  education 
in  China.  When  the  commissioners  were  in  the  United  States  they 
were  greatly  impressed  by  the  advantages  in  education  offered  Ameri- 
can women,  and  made  most  favorable  reports  to  the  Throne.  The 
late  Empress  Dowager  was  greatly  interested  in  female  education, 
and  lost  no  opportunity  of  learning  all  she  could  of  western  methods 
from  American  women  concerning  female  education  in  the  United 
States.  As  a result  to-day  there  are  Government,  public,  and  pri- 
vate girls’  schools  established  in  almost  every  Province.  Govern- 
ment provision  has  been  made  for  primary  and  middle  schools, 
normal  schools,  and  colleges  for  women. 

By  the  beginning  of  1908  there  were  outside  of  Peking  121  girls’ 
schools  in  Chihli  Province.  Of  this  number,  43  were  Government 
schools,  39  public  schools,  and  the  remaining  39  were  private  schools. 
The  schools  enrolled  2,523  pupils,  and  were  taught  by  168  teachers, 
having  graduated  95  students.  The  total  annual  income  from  all 
sources  was  71,612  taels,  the  expenditure  68,668  taels,  or  a little  over 


90 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


27  taels  per  student.  At  this  time  the  North  China  Provincial  College 
for  Women  (Pei  Yang  Kao  Teng  Nu  Hsueh  Tang),  located  in  Tien- 
tsin, had  7 teachers  and  74  students.  The  subjects  taught  were 
Chinese  classics,  history,  wenli  composition,  geography,  domestic 
science,  mathematics,  English,  painting,  sewing,  Chinese  penmanship, 
music,  and  calisthenics.  The  annual  income  for  the  college  was  9,831 
taels  and  the  annual  expenditure  9,586  taels.  The  North  China 
Broad  Knowledge  Woman’s  School  (Pei  Yang  Hung  Wen  Nu  Hsueh 
Tang)  had  10  teachers  and  82  pupils.  In  addition  to  the  subjects 
taught  in  the  above-mentioned  college  were  physics  and  the  use  of 
the  sewing  machine.  Its  income  was  ’ 2,158  taels  and  its  expenses 
were  8,640  taels  for  the  year.  The  North  China  Woman’s  Normal 
School,  with  a four-year  course  of  study,  is  also  located  in  Tientsin, 
and  had,  in  1908,  9 teachers  and  84  students,  having  graduated  78. 
The  Japanese  language  was  taught  in  place  of  English.  The  annual 
expense  for  the  year  had  been  24,203  taels,  and  its  income  but  23,387 
taels.  In  1909,  when  I visited  this  normal  college,  there  were  13 
teachers,  6 men  and  5 women  and  2 student  teachers.  The  enroll- 
ment was  98.  I was  told  that  more  than  half  of  these  students  were 
good  Chinese  scholars.  I visited  classes  in  botany,  drawing,  music, 
and  algebra,  all  of  which  were  well  conducted.  The  students  were 
dignified,  making  a good  impression  and  giving  every  promise  of 
developing  into  good  teachers.  At  that  time  I also  visited  the 
Woman’s  Nurses’  Training  School  in  Tientsin.  Dr.  Yamei  Kin,  an 
exceedingly  well-informed  Chinese  lady,  and  a graduate  of  the  Wo- 
man’s Medical  College  of  New  York,  is  the  director  of  the  school. 
Dr.  Kin  had  personally  superintended  the  remodeling  of  the  build- 
ings used  for  the  school,  and  had  shown  excellent  judgment  in  all  the 
arrangements.  A class  of  23  pupils  was  pursuing  a two-year  course 
of  study.  Later  on  Dr.  Kin  hopes  to  open  a woman’s  medical  col- 
lege in  connection  with  the  nurses’  school.  Most  of  the  remaining 
schools  in  Chihli  Province  were  primary,  enrolling  from  7 to  156 
students.  The  subjects  taught  were  similar  to  those  given  above, 
only  of  a more  elementary  character. 

Provision  was  made  in  July,  1908,  for  a woman’s  normal  college  to 
be  opened  in  Peking  in  two  temples  outside  of  the  PIsi  An  gate. 
Appropriations  for  50,000  taels  for  repairs  and  30,000  taels  for  an- 
nual expenses  were  provided  by  the  Government.  Women  between 
the  ages  of  20  and  30  are  to  be  admitted  after  passing  the  required 
entrance  examinations.  All  the  teachers  are  to  be  women,  with  the 
exception  of  the  director  and  the  teachers  of  Chinese  subjects,  who 
must  be  over  50  years  of  age.  The  future  success  of  girls’  schools  is 
assured,  for  the  Regent  is  known  to  take  much  interest  in  the  estab- 
lishing of  schools  for  girls,  and  has  several  times  urged  upon  the 
ministry  of  education  the  importance  of  seeing  that  these  schools 


MISCELLANEOUS  SCHOOLS. 


91 


were  rapidly  established  in  the  Provinces.  He  desires  that  all  the 
regulations  concerning  girls’  schools  should  be  carried  out,  except  the 
one  in  regard  to  the  employing  of  men  above  50  years  of  age  as  teach- 
ers in  girls’  schools.  Since  there  is  an  insufficient  number  of  qualified 
men  of  that  age  to  man  the  schools,  the  Regent  feels  that  there  should 
be  no  delay  in  the  establishment  of  these  schools,  and  that  the  need 
of  good  teachers  justifies  the  employing  of  younger  men.  In  1908 
there  were  reported  to  be  771  girls  attending  the  primary  schools  in 
Peking.  Doubtless  by  to-day  the  attendance  has  been  more  than 
doubled. 

The  establishment  of  girls’  schools  is  sure  to  revolutionize  the  home 
and  social  life  of  the  people.  The  Government  has  refused  to  admit 
girls  with  bound  feet  into  the  schools,  and  this  will  be  the  most  effect- 
ive weapon  that  can  be  used  to  blot  out  that  pernicious  custom.  It 
is  sure  to  open  the  way  for  women  to  be  self-supporting.  Tuan  Fang, 
in  advocating  female  education,  pointed  out  that  in  time  the  women 
would  be  able  to  teach  the  primary  schools.  The  graduates  of  the 
mission  girls’  high  schools  have  proved  themselves  excellent  instruc- 
tors, and  the  educated  women  will  be  preferred  to  men  as  teachers  of 
the  young  children.  The  Chinese  western-educated  young  men  have 
a desire  to  see  their  sisters  educated,  and  all  Chinese  educated  women 
are  the  recipients  of  their  chivalrous  attention,  as  was  demonstrated 
last  summer  when  the  Chinese  young  men  studying  in  the  United 
States  invited  all  the  Chinese  women  students  to  be  their  guests  at 
their  summer  conference  held  at  Hamilton,  N.  Y.  The  young  ladies 
accepted  their  invitation  and,  properly  chaperoned,  attended.  The 
courtesy  of  the  young  men  extended  even  to  the  payment  of  their 
traveling  expenses.  The  western-educated  young  man  wants  an 
educated  wife,  a companion,  not  a slave,  and  those  who  are  married 
to  uneducated,  superstitious  women  feel  that  their  lot  is  “ bitter,”  but 
must  be  endured.  A graduate  of  a Christian  college,  in  speaking  of 
his  uneducated  heathen  wife,  said : “ She  is  like  a carbuncle  on  my 
neck.”  She  was  largely  what  the  old  educational  and  social  system 
had  made  her.  The  fault  was  not  hers,  but  that  of  the  system.  In 
time  the  education  of  women  is  sure  to  destroy  the  present  system  of 
early  marriage.  It  will  liberate  women  and  do  away  with  concubin- 
age. It  will  give  the  educated  woman  a different  position  in  the 
home  of  her  mother-in-law,  and  will  be  the  greatest  means  that  can 
be  employed  to  do  away  with  superstitions.  The  future  educated 
mother  in  China  will  be  to  her  husband,  home,  and  children  all  that 
we  find  in  her  educated  sisters  of  other  countries. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


CHINESE  STUDENTS  STUDYING  ABROAD. 

Never  in  the  history  of  the  world  has  any  other  country  sent  so 
many  students  to  study  abroad  as  has  China  since  entering  upon 
her  educational  reforms.  In  the  very  beginning  of  the  movement 
the  Government  was  forced  to  recognize  the  fact  that  China  was 
wholly  unprepared  to  meet  the  demand,  for  she  lacked  men  prepared 
to  take  up  the  work  of  the  construction  and  execution  of  a policy 
to  be  built  on  the  ruins  of  the  old  educational  system.  She  recog- 
nized that  her  vast  army  of  scholars,  who  had  been  trained  in  the 
old  and  were  ignorant  of  the  new  learning,  would  prove  a menace 
to  reform  unless  they  could  be  trained  in  western  learning  and  in- 
duced to  serve  in  the  organization  of  a work  that  they  themselves 
would  be  unable  to  carry  out  to  completion.  It  was  a master  stroke 
on  the  part  of  China  that  she  held  out  such  great  inducements  to  her 
literati  to  foreign  study  and  travel.  That  Japan  was  chosen  for  a 
field  of  study,  and  especially  for  short  courses  in  training,  was  due 
to  her  proximity  as  well  as  to  her  similarity  in  customs  and  the 
written  language — an  economy  in  both  time  and  expense.  The  ex- 
periment has  not  been  entirely  satisfactory,  although  her  main  object 
has  been  accomplished,  and  to-day  the  new  educational  system, 
though  imperfect  as  yet  in  detail,  is  firmly  established. 

In  September,  1901,  the  Government,  as  we  have  seen,  commanded 
the  viceroys  and  governors  to  send  students  abroad  for  study,  and 
required  that  their  expenses  should  be  met  by  their  native  Provinces. 
Each  Government  student  now  receives  120  taels  for  traveling  ex- 
penses, and  4*00  taels  aid  per  year  while  in  Japan  studying.  The 
Imperial  Government,  following  the  advice  of  Yuan  Shih  Kai,  sent 
many  Hanlin  and  chin  shihs  abroad  for  study  or  travel,  and  in  this 
way  these  men  also  were  brought  in  line  with  the  new  system. 
Special  competitive  examinations  were  held  for  those  who  held  rank 
above  the  first  but  had  not  obtained  the  second  degree,  and  the  best 
of  these  men  were  made  expectant  officials.  Those  having  failed 
realized  that  they  had  been  given  a chance  and  had  lost,  and  now 
they  were  content  to  fall  in  line  and  enter  such  positions  as  were 
open  to  them.  Thus  was  a great  revolution  in  education  brought 
about  with  little  or  no  opposition.  “Early  in  1902  there  were  271 
Chinese  students,  from  15  Provinces,  studying  in  the  Sunrise  King- 
92 


CHINESE  STUDENTS  STUDYING  ABROAD. 


93 


dom.”1  In  1903  there  were  591,  and  during  the  year  1904  they 
increased  at  the  rate  of  100  per  month,  until  in  January,  1905,  there 
were  2,406,  and  by  November  of  that  year  the  number  had  increased 
to  8,620.2  In  the  autumn  of  1906  the  Japan  Mail  gave  the  number 
as  not  less  than  13,000,  and  in  the  spring  of  1907  the  Chinese  am- 
bassador estimated  that  there  were  15,000  students  in  Tokyo,3  while 
later  according  to  His  Excellency  Wu  Ting  Fang,  there  were  at  one 
time  studying  in  Tokyo  a s many  as  1 7,000  Chinese  students.4  Although 
the  experiment  was  not  entirely  satisfactory,  the  fault  was  not  all 
on  the  part  of  Japan.  A great  majority  of  the  students  sent  by  the 
Provinces  and  others,  supported  by  city  or  village  guilds,  or  by 
friends  or  parents,  were  in  no  sense  prepared  for  study  in  the 
Japanese  schools.  Most  of  them  had  no  knowledge  of  the  Japanese 
language,  and  had  first  to  devote  months  to  the  study  of  it  before 
being  able  to  enter  the  public  schools.  Many  were  there  for  short- 
term courses  of  a year  or  less,  while  others  came  because  it  was 
popular  to  do  so.  Some  came  for  political  reasons,  while  others,  too 
old  to  learn  a language,  on  finding  the  work  difficult,  became  dis- 
couraged and  returned  home.  Again  the  Japanese  Government 
schools  were  wholly  unprepared  to  accommodate  such  an  invasion  of 
students.  Private  schools  were  opened  especially  for  Chinese  stu- 
dents, and  often  by  incompetent  and  unscrupulous  Japanese,  who, 
caring  only  for  the  Chinese  silver,  offered  “ short-cut  courses,”  and 
sold  diplomas  to  dishonest  students.  These,  on  their  return  to  China, 
were  able  for  a short  time  to  impose  upon  the  ignorance  of  their 
countrymen,  and  so  brought  Japanese  education  into  general  dis- 
repute. Too  much  veneer  and  too  much  political  agitation  soon 
brought  the  movement  into  disfavor.  The  Peking  Government  ap- 
plied a restraining  hand  by  requiring  all  Government  students  who 
wished  to  go  abroad  for  study  to  pass  an  examination  upon  all  the 
subjects  required  in  the  middle  schools5  before  leaving  China,  and 
in  August,  1908,  required  that  students  should  have  a sufficient  knowl- 
edge of  the  language  of  the  country  where  they  intended  to  study  to 
be  able  to  attend  and  understand  the  lectures ; and,  as  students  still 
disregarded  this  action,  an  edict  of  December,  1908,  gave  warning 
that  any  returned  students  whose  examination  papers  had  not  been 
filed  with  the  ministry  of  education  before  going  abroad  for  study 
would  not  be  admitted  to  the  imperial  examinations  for  returned 
students.6  In  September,  1908,  the  Government  announced  that  all 
returned  students  from  Japan,  before  being  admitted  to  the  im- 

1 The  Educational  Conquest  in  the  Far  East,  p.  184. 

2 North  China  Herald,  Mar.  16,  1906,  p.  569. 

3 The  Chinese  Students’  Migration  to  Tokyo,  p.  4. 

4 The  World’s  Chinese  Students’  Journal,  vol.  3,  No.  1,  p.  11. 

B Hsueh  Pu  Kuan  Pao,  vol.  4,  dept.  2,  p.  59. 

6 Ibid.,  vol.  78,  dept.  3,  p.  2. 


94 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


perial  examinations,  must  first  pass  an  examination  before  the  min- 
istry of  education  on  general  subjects,  including  Japanese  classics 
and  language.  The  reason  given  was  that  many  students  had  secured 
diplomas  from  Japanese  scientific  schools  very  easily.1 

Many  returned  students  from  Japan  have  miserably  failed  in  the 
imperial  examinations  at  Peking.  In  the  report  of  the  examination 
held  October,  1908,  appears  this  statement:  “Twenty  were  rejected 
as  failures;  youths  who  had  studied  in  Japan.”  Not  only  is  rigid 
oversight  of  the  students  inaugurated  at  Peking,  but  the  strictest  of 
measures  are  being  enforced  by  Chinese  officials  in  Tokyo.  The 
result  is  that  unprepared  pupils  are  not  going  to  Japan  as  formerly, 
and  all  the  short-term  schools  have  been  discontinued.  The  Govern- 
ment schools  and  the  large  private  schools,  like  Waseda  University, 
now  refuse  to  admit  students  unless  they  enroll  for  a specified  number 
of  years.  All  this  has  resulted  in  reducing  the  number  of  Chinese 
students.  In  1909  there  were  in  Tokyo  1,992  Chinese  Government 
students  in  the  collegiate  schools  and  395  in  the  military  schools, 
making  a total  of  2,387  Government  students  in  that  city.  There  were 
also  at  least  2,500  private  students.  It  is  estimated  that  not  less  than 
5,000  Chinese  students_,  150  of  whom  are  women,  are  now  studying 
in  Japan.  Though  their  numbers  have  been  greatly  decreased,  the 
quality  and  moral  standing  of  the  students  have  materially  increased. 
Both  the  Government  and  private  students  now  in  Japan  are  there 
for  earnest  effort,  and  with  the  intention  of  completing  prescribed 
courses  of  study;  they  are  doing  their  work  well  and  many  in  the 
higher  courses  are  winning  honors  among  the  Japanese  students. 
They  represent  the  better  element  of  China,  having  been  selected  by 
competitive  examinations  or  because  of  their  social  standing.  The 
revolutionary  class,  at  one  time  so  strong,  has  largely  disappeared. 
Rev.  P.  J.  Laird,  in  the  Chinese  Students  in  Japan,  says:  “Although 
drinking  and  drunkenness  are  far  more  prevalent  among  the  Japa- 
nese than  one  had  imagined  before  coming  to  live  in  Tokyo,  one  has 
not  yet  seen  a Chinese  intoxicated.”  2 There  is  no  likelihood  that  the 
Chinese  Government  will  decrease  its  number  of  scholarship  students 
for  some  years  to  come.  The  Imperial  Government,  beginning  with 
1909,  proposes  to  send  200  new  students  to  Japan  each  year  for  the 
next  five  years.3  By  imperial  decree  of  January  3, 1909,  Government 
aid  was  to  be  granted  in  future,  especially  to  students  who  were 
actually  taking  technical  or  medical  courses  in  the  higher  institutions 
of  Japan,  as  the  Government  is  in  need  of  their  services.4  The 
students  in  Japan  are  able  to  advance  in  Chinese  learning,  which 

1 Hsueh  Pu  Kuan  Pao,  vol.  65,  dept.  1,  p.  3. 

2 The  Chinese  Recorder,  January,  1907,  p.  61. 

3 North  China  Herald,  July  31,  1909,  p.  281. 

4 Hsueh  Pu  Kuan  Pao,  vol.  77,  dept.  2,  p.  4. 


CHINESE  STUDENTS  STUDYING  ABROAD. 


95 


gives  them  some  advantages  in  the  imperial  competitive  examinations 
at  Peking  over  students  having  studied  in  other  countries.  In  the 
examination  of  returned  military  students  in  1908,  of  the  68  compet- 
ing students  12  had  studied  in  Germany  and  56  in  Japan.  The 
examination  resulted  in  27  being  graded  “ first  class,”  26  from 
Japan  and  1 from  Germany ; the  remaining  41  candidates  were  graded 
“ second  class.”  The  failure  of  the  students  from  Germany  to  make 
“ first  class  ” was  due  to  their  poor  preparation  in  Chinese.  There  is 
a general  feeling  among  the  Chinese  students  that  to  study  in  Japan 
is  to  receive  a knowledge  of  the  western  sciences  and  literature  second- 
hand, and  that  it  is  far  better  to  obtain  it  first-hand  in  America  or 
Europe.  Many  of  the  students  now  studying  in  Japan  hope  later 
to  take  graduate  work  in  some  western  country.  The  tendency  of  the 
Chinese  Government  has  been  each  year  to  send  more  and  more 
students  to  the  Occident. 

The  rigid  enforcement  of  the  Chinese  exclusion  laws  prevented,  in 
the  beginning,  many  Chinese  students  coming  to  America,  and  sent 
them  to  Japan  or  Europe.  This  was  due  not  so  much  to  the  existence 
of  the  law,  as  that  in  some  cases  it  was  unjustly  interpreted  by  the 
United  States  Government  officials  at  San  Francisco;  but  more  often 
it  was  due  to  carelessness  or  ignorance  in  making  out  credentials. 
Chinese  officials  often  signed  passports  who,  according  to  the  treaty, 
were  authorized  to  do  so — His  Excellency  Li  Hung  Chang  being  no 
exception — and  students  were  at  times  held  up  or  sent  back  because 
passports  were  not  legally  made  out.  We  have  never  heard  that  a 
Chinese  student  who  presented  a properly  made-out  and  witnessed 
passport  had  been  denied  admission  to  the  United  States.  But  there 
are  connected  with  it  most  humiliating  conditions  that  can  not  but 
offend  a Chinese  student,  and  this  lack  of  courtesy  and  justice  cre- 
ates resentment  against  the  United  States. 

The  fixed  allowance  given  by  the  Chinese  Government  to  students 
studying  in  universities  and  schools  in  western  countries  is  as  fol- 
lows: England,  £192  per  year;  France,  4,800  francs;  Germany, 
3,840  marks;  Russia,  1,620  rubles;  Belgium,  4,800  francs;  United 
States,  $960.  Those  pursuing  studies  in  preparatory  schools  receive 
one-fifth  less  than  that  given  above.1  Traveling  expenses  are  always 
allowed,  and  sometimes  additional  money  for  an  outfit,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Chinese  indemnity  students. 

In  1900  there  were  but  a few  Chinese  students  in  England.  Later, 
and  especially  after  1905,  larger  numbers  began  to  arrive,  many  at 
their  own  expense,  while  others  held  provincial  or  Government  schol- 
arships. Among  the  latter  were  students  sent  from  Nan  Yang  Col- 
lege, the  Imperial  University,  College  of  Languages,  Hupei  Iron 


1 Hsueh  Pu  Kuan  Pao,  vol.  9,  dept.  5,  p.  10. 


96 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


Works,  Kiang  Su,  Sze  Chuan,  and  Kuang  Tung  educational  bureaus, 
and  Shanghai  Polytechnic  College,  until  in  1907  there  were  about  60 
students.  These  students  were  attending  the  Universities  of  Ox- 
ford, Cambridge,  London,  Manchester,  Liverpool,  and  Birmingham, 
also  some  of  the  Scotch  universities,  while  others  were  studying  the 
iron  and  steel  industries  at  Sheffield  or  were  in  attendance  at  the 
principal  technical  and  commercial  schools,  Navigation  Training 
College,  and  the  Royal  School  of  Mines  in  the  United  Kingdom. 

April  11,  1910,  the  following  information  was  sent  from  the  office 
of  the  educational  commissioner  of  Europe:  There  are  to-day  some 
140  Chinese  Government  scholarship  students,  and  about  an  equal 
number  of  students  supported  by  private  funds  in  the  United  King- 
dom. In  Belgium  there  are  about  70  Government  students ; in  France, 
80;  in  Germany,  60;  in  Austria,  10  ; and  in  Russia,  about  15.  No  sta- 
tistics could  be  sent  regarding  the  private  students  in  these  countries, 
as  they  are  not  under  the  direction  of  the  commissioner.  “ In  all  these 
countries  the  subjects  that  are  generally  studied  are:  (1)  Engineer- 
ing, which  includes  mining,  civil,  electrical,  and  mechanical;  (2)  law 
(LL.  B.  as  well  as  the  barrister-at-law)  ; (3)  science,  pure  and  ap- 
plied; (4)  arts;  (5)  economics,  banking  and  commerce;  (6)  mis- 
cellaneous, such  as  agriculture,  textile  manufacturing,  architecture 
and  shipbuilding,  military  and  naval  subjects,  gunnery,  and  gun- 
making.”  There  are  also  about  30  naval  students  in  England,  30 
military  students  in  Germany,  10  in  Austria,  8 in  France,  and  3 in 
Belgium.  There  are  many  private  students  on  the  Continent,  among 
them  a son  of  Prince  Su,  who  is  in  Belgium. 

The  universities  of  no  western  country  are  attracting  so  many 
Chinese  students  as  are  those  of  the  United  States.  The  reasons  are, 
first,  that  of  all  the  foreign  languages  the  English  is  the  most  famil- 
iar to  the  Chinese  student;  second,  because  of  the  democratic  spirit 
of  the  American  universities;  and,  third,  because  of  the  cordial  re- 
ception now  tendered  Chinese  students  by  the  American  Government 
and  people.  In  1905  there  were  51  students  in  the  American  univer- 
sities and  19  graduate  students.1  At  that  time  there  were  enrolled 
in  the  Universit}^  of  California  17 ; in  Columbia  University,  6 ; in 
Cornell  University,  5;  in  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  5; 
and  in  Yale  University,  4.  The  next  year  217  students  were  reported 
as  studying  in  the  United  States;  of  this  number  122  were  attending 
universities,  colleges,  or  technical  schools ; 2 62  were  in  high  schools 
and  33  were  unclassified.  There  were  13  female  students.  One 
hundred  and  eighteen  of  the  students  in  the  universities,  colleges,  and 
technical  schools  were  pursuing  the  following  courses  of  study: 
Philosophy,  1;  education,  6;  political  science,  9;  law,  6;  economics, 


1 Admission  of  Chinese  Students  to  American  Colleges,  p.  ISO. 

2 Mei  Chou  Liu  Ilsueh  Pao  Kao,  p.  36. 


CHINESE  STUDENTS  STUDYING  ABROAD.  9t 

including  public  finance,  commerce  and  commercial  law,  14;  arts 
and  sciences,  3;  physics  and  mathematics,  2;  chemistry,  4;  medicine, 
3 ; railway  and  sanitary  engineering,  21 ; mechanical  engineering, 
5;  electrical  engineering,  8;  mining  engineering,  13;  agriculture,  10; 
forestry,  1;  textile  manufacture,  10;  and  military  science  (West 
Point),  2.1  The  universities  having  the  largest  attendance  were: 
Cornell,  17;  Harvard,  16;  California,  14;  Yale,  10;  Columbia,  6; 
Brown,  Chicago,  and  Pennsylvania,  5 each.2 

In  the  summer  of  1907  Viceroy  Tuan  Fang,  desiring  to  send  some 
students  to  the  United  States,  held  at  Nanking  the  first  Government 
competitive  examination  for  the  selection  of  students  to  go  abroad. 
The  examination  was  unique,  as  it  was  the  first  to  be  opened  to  women. 
Out  of  600  students  who  made  application  only  72  young  men  and  10 
young  women  were  deemed  qualified  to  enter  the  examination.  After 
a three-days’  test,  10  male  and  3 female  students  were  chosen,  all  of 
whom  were  well  qualified  to  do  university  work.  One  was  admitted 
to  the  junior  class  in  Cornell  University.  The  following  year  a simi- 
lar examination  was  held  at  Che  Kiang.  Of  the  200  candidates, 
about  25  were  disqualified  physically.  The  examination  was  based 
upon  the  system  of  entrance  examinations  of  Yale  and  Harvard. 
The  examiners  were  Mr.  Chao  Sze  Bok,  M.  A.,  LL.  M.  (Yale)  ; Mr. 
Leo,  a returned  student  from  Belgium,  who  conducted  the  examina- 
tion in  French;  Mr.  T.  H.  Lee,  B.  A.  (Yale)  ; and  Mr.  Pu,  B.  Sc. 
(California).  Of  the  20  students  chosen,  3 were  from  St.  John’s 
University,  10  from  the  Imperial  Polytechnic,  3 from  Ching  Tan  Col- 
lege (Shanghai),  1 from  Tientsin  University,  and  3 from  other  insti- 
tutions Out  of  gratitude  for  the  return  to  China  on  the  part  of  the 
United  States  of  over  $10,000,000  gold  of  the  Boxer  indemnity,  China 
pledged  herself  to  send  to  the  United  States  100  students  each  year 
for  4 years,  and  50  students  annually  thereafter  for  28  years,  in  all 
1,800  students.  One-half  of  these  annual  detachments  are  to  be  of 
advanced  grade,  who,  upon  their  arrival  in  the  United  States,  will  be 
able  to  enter  some  college  or  technical  school;  the  other  half  are  to 
be  under  15  years  of  age  and  to  possess  a good  knowledge  of  Chinese 
and  some  knowledge  of  English  and  western  studies.  The  Indemnity 
Scholarship  Preparatory  School  is  to  admit  300  students,  composed  of 
100  of  the  higher  grade,  all  of  whom  are  to  be  under  20  years  of  age 
and  must  possess  a good  knowledge  of  the  Chinese  classics  and  litera- 
ture, and  200  of  the  lower  grade.  The  advanced  students  are  to  be 
chosen  by  competitive  examination  without  regard  to  Province,  race, 
or  religion;  Chinese,  Manchus,  Chinese  Bannermen,  Monguls,  and 
Thibetans  are  all  equally  eligible,  the  conditions  being  to  pass  the 

1 Mei  Chou  Liu  Hsueh  Pao  Kao,  p.  66. 

2 Ibid.  pp.  1—86. 

9561°— 11 7 


98 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


examinations.  The  lower-grade  students  are  to  be  chosen  from  the 
Provinces,  each  Province  to  be  represented  in  the  preparatory  school 
by  the  number  allowed  according  to  the  proportion  of  Boxer  indem- 
nity it  has  to  pay,  but  this  does  not  insure  each  Province  of  its  quota 
being  sent  to  the  United  States,  as  the  students  are  to  be  chosen  from 
the  school  by  competitive  examination,  which  means  that  students 
from  some  Provinces  may  stand  higher  in  the  examination  than  those 
from  other  Provinces.  In  September,  1909,  the  Government  selected, 
by  competitive  examinations  held  at  Peking,  the  first  class  of  indem- 
nity students  to  be  sent  to  the  United  States.  Out  of  about  600  appli- 
cants, 47  students  were  chosen,  but  they  arrived  in  the  United  States 
too  late  to  enter  college  classes.  The  students,  with  the  exception  of 
2,  were  placed  in  eastern  academies  for  the  remainder  of  the  year, 
when  they  will  all  enter  college  classes. 

In  January,  1910,  there  were  not  less  than  600  Chinese  students 
studying  in  the  United  States.  According  to  statistics  given  by  the 
Chinese  Students’  Monthly,  of  March,  1910,  there  are  462  students 
located  east  of  the  Rockies,  distributed  in  institutions  as  follows: 
Universities,  244;  colleges,  28;  professional  institutions,  29;  semi- 
naries, 21 ; academies,  63 ; schools,  50 ; grammar  schools,  2 ; and 
unclassified,  28.1  The  universities  enrolling  the  largest  number  of 
students  are:  Cornell,  35;  Harvard,  26;  Columbia,  23;  Wisconsin, 
22 ; Yale,  22 ; Illinois,  20 ; and  Pennsylvania,  19.1  According  to  the 
distribution  by  States,  there  are  in  Massachusetts  124  Chinese  stu- 
dents; New  York,  89;  Illinois,  65;  Pennsylvania,  41;  Connecticut,  30; 
Ohio,  24;  Wisconsin,  23;  Indiana,  19;  and  Michigan,  15.2  The  4 
Provinces  sending  the  largest  number  of  students  to  the  United 
States  are  Kuangtung,  Kiangsu,  Chekiang,  and  Chihli. 

The  first  imperial  metropolitan  examination  for  returned  students 
was  held  in  Peking  in  1905,  under  the  direction  of  the  board  of  rites. 
The  examination  not  being  well  advertised,  only  14  candidates  ap- 
peared, all  from  Japan.  Degrees  were  conferred  upon  all,  2 receiv- 
ing the  Hanlin,  6 the  chin  shih,  and  6 the  chu  jen.  Since  then  the 
examinations  have  been  conducted  each  year  by  the  ministry  of  edu- 
cation. The  first  was  held  in  October,  1906.  Graduates  of  schools 
not  below  the  grade  of  the  Japanese  high  school  were  eligible,  but 
candidates  were  required  to  present  their  diplomas,  notebooks,  and 
such  published  works  as  they  might  have.  There  were  42  candidates, 
ranging  from  44  to  23  years  of  age;  23  were  from  Japan,  16  from 
the  United  States,  2 from  England,  and  1 from  Germany.  The 
board  of  examination  was  composed  of  Chinese  >vho  had  studied 
abroad,  and  were  representatives  of  the  schools  of  England,  France, 
Russia,  Germany,  Japan,  and  the  United  States. 


iP.  269. 


2P.  268. 


CHINESE  STUDENTS  STUDYING  ABROAD. 


99 


The  following  is  a quotation  from  an  article  in  the  Chinese  Re- 
corder by  Prof.  W.  W.  Yen,  who  ranked  second  in  the  examination: 
“ The  examination  was  divided  into  two  parts,  occupying  two  whole 
days,  the  27th  and  the  29th  of  the  eighth  moon.  On  the  first  day  the 
candidates  were  examined  in  the  subjects  they  specialized  in  while 
at  college.  Each  candidate  was  handed  an  envelope  containing  the 
questions,  of  which  there  were  three  in  each  subject;  he  was  re- 
quired, however,  to  reply  to  two  only.  Permission  was  granted  to 
the  men  to  write  in  any  language  they  preferred,  and  nearly  all  the 
returned  students  from  Europe  and  America  employed  English  as 
their  vehicle  of  expression.  To  enable  the  reader  to  form  some 
idea  of  the  themes  put  forward  by  the  examiners,  the  three  proffered 
to  the  candidate  in  philosophy  are  here  presented:  (1)  Define  phi- 
losophy and  distinguish  it  from  science  and  ethics.  Explain  the  fol- 
lowing s}rstems  of  philosophical  thought  : Dualism,  theism,  idealism, 
materialism,  pantheism,  agnosticism.  How  would  you  classify,  ac- 
cording to  the  western  method,  the  following  Chinese  philosophers : 
Chuang  Tzu,  Chang  Tsai,  Chu  Tzu,  Lu  Tzu,  and  Wang  Yang-ming? 

(2)  Explain  why  philosophy  developed  earliest  in  Greece.  What 
are  the  leading  thoughts  in  the  teaching  of  Heraclitus?  Why  will 
his  system,  at  one  time  almost  obsolete,  again  become  popular?  (3) 
Expound  fully  Mill’s  four  methods  of  induction  and  mention  some 
of  the  scientific  discoveries  and  inventions  which  may  be  directly 
traced  to  them.  At  the  examination  on  the  second  day,  which  was 
aimed  at  testing  the  general  knowledge  of  the  men,  the  same  two 
subjects  for  an  essay  were  given  out  for  all  the  candidates,  one  for 
those  desiring  to  compose  a Chinese  essay  and  the  other  for  the  re- 
turned students  from  western  countries.  The  former  was  typically 
Chinese,  and  may  be  roughly  transliterated  as  c To  respect  those  in 
authority,  to  love  one’s  kin,  to  venerate  one’s  elders,  and  to  segregate 
the  sexes;  these  are  principles  that  will  abide  for  all  generations’; 
the  latter  was  a theme  for  argumentation,  and  was  worded,  ‘ Will 
it  be  expedient  for  China  to  adopt  a system  of  compulsory  educa- 
tion? ’ All  the  candidates,  since  they  came  from  so  many  countries 
and  represented  so  many  institutions,  were  placed  on  the  same  level 
and  had  to  be  graded  (1)  according  to  their  foreign  degrees,  (2) 
according  to  their  achievements  since  their  day  of  graduation,  and 

(3)  according  to  the  quality  of  the  papers  submitted  to  the  ex- 
aminers. All  those  attaining  over  80  out  of  a possible  100  marks 
were  to  receive  the  degree  of  chin  shih;  over  70,  a first-class  chu 
jen,  over  60  a second-class  chu  jen,  while  those  who  received  over 
50  got  only  a certificate  stating  that  the  holder  had  attended  the 
board  examination.  Ten  out  of  the  42  men  failed  even  to  make  50 
points,  and  were  requested  to  try  again  next  year.” 1 


1The  Recent  Imperial  Metropolitan  Examinations,  January,  1907,  pp.  34-39. 


too 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


The  examination  resulted  in  conferring  the  chin  shih  degree  on 
9 candidates,  all  of  whom,  with  the  exception  of  1,  a graduate  of 
Trinity  College,  Cambridge  University,  were  graduates  of  Ameri- 
can institutions.  In  the  second  class  5 were  granted  the  chu  jen 
degree;  the  first  3 were  from  America,  the  last  2 from  Japan.  In 
the  third  class  18  received  the  second-class  chu  jen  degree;  the  gradu- 
ate of  Berlin  University  ranked  eighth  in  this  class,  and  the  1 from 
London  University  occupied  fifth  place. 

Those  who  received  degrees  at  these  Metropolitan  examinations 
must  have  added  to  the  degree  the  special  subject  in  which  they  are 
examined,  as  fa  ke  chin  shih  (doctor  of  law),  nung  ke  chin  shih 
(doctor  of  agriculture),  or  kung  ke  chu  jen  (master  of  civil  engineer- 
ing). In  this  first  examination  a graduate  of  an  American  dental 
college  was  given  the  chin  shih  degree.  One  candidate  could  scarcely 
write  his  name  in  Chinese,  but  by  using  a foreign  language  in  the 
examination,  secured  his  degree.  The  next  year,  1907,  the  examina- 
tions were  more  rigid.  Essays  written  in  Chinese  were  required, 
and  the  diplomas,  instead  of  being  on  the  same  basis,  were  graded  as 
follows : Doctor  of  philosophy  degree  credited  with  100  points ; mas- 
ter of  arts,  with  90  points;  bachelor  of  arts,  with  80  points;  profes- 
sional and  technical  degrees  were  given  fourth  place  and  but  70 
points;  while  a high-school  diploma  from  Japan  was  granted  60 
points.  This  schedule  has  not  in  all  cases  worked  satisfactorily,  yet 
it  is  influencing  many  students  to  take  a Ph.  D.  degree  in  connection 
with  their  professional  or  technical  degree,  who  wTould  not  otherwise 
do  so.  At  this  second  examination  7 received  the  chin  shih  degree, 
17  the  chu  jen  degree,  and  14  the  second-class  chu  jen  degree.  At  the 
examination  held  in  1908  there  were  15  graded  first  class,  45  second 
class,  and  47  third  class,  making  a total  of  107  to  receive  degrees. 
At  the  last  regular  examination,  1909,  30  passed  first  class,  57  second 
class,  and  15  third  class,  102  securing  degrees.1  At  a special  ex- 
amination for  a list  of  officials  who  had  studied  abroad  the  chin  shih 
degree  was  conferred  upon  12  and  the  chu  jen  degree  upon  7. 2 Some 
of  these  successful  chin  shihs  were  members  of  the  first  board  of 
examiners  under  the  ministry  of  education.  All  government  schol- 
arship students  are  expected  to  take  these  examinations  upon  their 
return  to  China  and  to  serve  the  Government  a limited  number  of 
years.  These  examinations  are  being  carefully  conducted  and  are 
becoming  more  rigid  each  year.  According  to  the  memorial  pub- 
lished in  the  Hsueh  Pu  Kuan  Pao,3  students  of  medicine,  engineering, 
physics,  and  agriculture  who  are  graduates  of  colleges  and  students 
who  are  graduates  of  high  schools  (Japanese)  may  be  excused  from 


1 North  China  Herald,  June  5,  1009,  p.  535. 

2 North  China  Herald,  Jan.  21,  1910,  p.  144. 

® V ol.  46,  pp.  62-64. 


CHINESE  STUDENTS  STUDYING  ABROAD. 


101 


writing  the  Chinese  essay  at  the  examinations;  but  it  further  pro- 
vides that  students  who  are  excellent  in  Chinese  as  well  as  in  science 
shall  be  classed  as  first  grade ; those  who  are  good  in  science  and  fair 
in  Chinese  shall  be  classed  second  grade;  and  those  who  are  very 
good  in  science  and  poor  in  Chinese  shall  be  classed  in  the  third 
grade.  It  also  emphasizes  the  fact  that  students  shall  be  strictly 
graded  according  to  their  standing ; that  it  is  not  necessary  “ to 
squeeze  ” students  into  the  first  grade ; that  the  first  or  second  grades 
may  be  left  vacant  if  there  are  no  students  passing  high  enough  for 
those  grades;  and  should  all  deserve  first  grade,  then  they  must  be 
ranked  in  that  grade.  This,  of  course,  is  a direct  innovation  on  the 
old  system  of  examinations  which  allowed  a certain  number  of  de- 
grees at  each  examination.  After  this  examination,  held  by  the  min- 
istry of  education  and  the  examiners  appointed  by  the  throne,  these 
successful  candidates  are  later  received  in  imperial  audience  and 
undergo  another  examination,  after  which  official  rewards  are  con- 
ferred upon  the  students  according  to  the  result  of  the  two  examina- 
tions. The  chin  shihs  who  stand  first  in  the  palace  examination  are 
given  the  title  of  Hanlin,  pien  hsiu,  or  chien  tao;  the  second  are  re- 
warded with  shu  chi  shih  of  the  Hanlin  Yuan,  and  three  years  later, 
upon  the  recommendation  of  the  president  of  the  Hanlin  Yuan,  may 
be  rewarded  with  pien  hsiu  or  chien  tao;  those  who  stand  in  the 
third  class  of  the  chin  shih  and  the  first  class  of  the  chu  jen  are  re- 
warded with  chu  shih  and  given  offices  in  the  different  ministries 
according  to  their  special  line  of  study.  Those  chu  jen  who  stood  in 
the  first  class  in  the  examination  held  by  the  ministry  of  education, 
but  fell  in  the  third  class  at  the  palace  examination,  are  rewarded 
with  chih  hsien  and  given  districts  to  govern  at  once.  Those  in  the 
second  class  of  chu  jen  and  rank  second  class  at  the  palace  examina- 
tion are  rewarded  with  small  posts  of  the  seventh  grade  in  Peking 
and  are  given  positions  in  the  different  ministries  or  boards;  those 
who  stand  in  the  third  class  at  the  palace  examination  are  given  the 
title  of  chih  hsien,  or  district  magistrate. 

A half  century  has  past  since  China  began  her  struggle  with 
modern  education.  At  first,  forced  upon  her  as  it  was,  she  regarded 
it  with  contempt,  her  greatest  literati  doing  everything  possible  to 
prevent  its  getting  a stronghold  in  the  Empire.  They  not  only 
despised  the  western  barbarian,  but  placed  little  confidence  in  the 
Chinese  who  condescended  to  use  him  as  their  teacher,  and  as  far  as 
possible  kept  them  out  of  official  employment.  But  there  were  men 
of  vision,  like  Tseng  Kuo  Fan,  who  saw  that  there  must  be  read- 
justments in  Chinese  education  in  order  to  have  men  prepared  for 
China’s  future  needs.  Up  to  1900  the  presidents  of  the  Hanlin  Yuan 
were  bitter  opponents  of  western  education ; since  that  time  they  have 
been  strong  advocates  in  its  favor.  We  have  seen  how  little  the  Tung 


102 


THE  EDUCATIONAL  SYSTEM  OF  CHINA. 


Wen  College  and  its  annexes  were  able  to  accomplish  because  of  the 
bitter  antagonism  outside;  how  Li  Hung  Chang,  as  successor  of 
Tseng  Kuo  Fan,  failed  in  courage  to  brook  the  opposition  to  the  first 
student  mission  to  the  United  States,  and  allowed  those  promising 
students  to  be  returned  to  China  before  completing  their  courses  of 
study,  and  to  suffer  so  many  indignities  upon  their  arrival  home. 
The  sight  of  American  war  vessels  in  Japanese  ports  caused  Japan 
to  appreciate  the  necessity  of  immediate  reform,  and  she  set  out  at 
once  to  make  herself  great  by  learning  all  she  could  of  the  arts  and 
sciences  of  the  west;  but  it  took  the  artillery  of  the  world  to  awaken 
China  to  the  keen  appreciation  of  her  danger  and  the  necessity  of 
educational  reforms  if  she  were  still  to  maintain  her  sovereignty.  It 
was  not  until  after  the  allied  armies  had  relieved  the  besieged  lega- 
tions in  Peking  that  the  Empress  Dowager,  in  her  flight  for  safety, 
realized  that  the  “ Boy  Emperor  ” had  been  in  the  right  in  attempting 
to  make  his  country  great  by  the  introduction  of  western  learning. 
Convinced,  then,  of  the  need  of  instituting  reforms,  that  woman  of 
indomitable  will  stayed  not  her  hand  until  she  had  given  the  death 
blow  to  the  wen  chang  and  had  annihilated  the  old  competitive  ex- 
aminations and  established  a system  of  Government  schools  that 
should  be  free  to  poor  and  rich,  male  and  female,  alike.  This  educa- 
tional reform  was  the  conception  of  her  nephew  Emperor,  but  she  it 
was  who  possessed  the  power  to  carry  to  completion  the  greatest  revo- 
lution in  education  that  the  world  has  ever  witnessed.  She  lived  to 
see  it  firmly  established  and  to  know  that  the  greatest  of  her  people 
approved  the  establishment  of  an  educational  system  that  would 
make  possible  the  carrying  out  of  her  promise  that  the  nation  should 
have  a constitution,  provincial  assemblies,  and  a national  parliament. 

There  are  many  defects  in  the  educational  system.  The  attempt 
to  make  a combined  course  of  study  that  would  contain  all  the 
classical  learning  of  the  old  literati,  and  all  the  arts  and  sciences  of 
the  west,  has  proved  a failure,  but  it  can  and  will  be  remedied  and 
suitable  courses  will  be  worked  out  to  meet  the  special  needs  of  the 
Chinese  people.  The  requiring  of  too  many  hours  of  recitation 
work,  and  the  leaving  of  too  little  or  no  time  for  study,  have  failed 
to  produce  the  desired  results.  Time  will  overcome  the  lack  of 
competent  administrators  and  trained  teachers.  The  lack  of  funds 
to  meet  the  future  demand  of  the  schools  will  be  the  problem  that 
the  provincial  assemblies  and  national  parliament  must  solve.  There 
has  developed  in  the  new  system  a lack  of  that  reverence  for  the 
teacher  that  characterized  the  old  system.  The  goggle-eyed,  stoop- 
shouldered, subservient  student  of  the  past  is  no  longer  to  be  seen. 
In  his  place  has  come  the  bright-eyed,  military-trained  lad,  who  loves 
athletic  sports,  is  intensely  patriotic,  and  is  impatient  for  the  day 
when  he  shall  be  prepared  to  aid  in  the  regeneration  of  his  nation. 


CHINESE  STUDENTS  STUDYING  ABROAD. 


103 


Such  lads  are  no  longer  content  to  be  taught  by  antiquated  teachers. 
The  new  and  the  old  are  out  of  harmony. 

We  must  not  forget  that  the  system  has  been  in  operation  only 
8 years,  and  under  the  control  of  the  ministry  of  education  less 
than  5.  What  China  has  accomplished  in  modern  education  during 
this  time  is  marvelous.  Note  the  number  and  variety  of  the 
schools  established,  the  aid  her  people  have  given  by  private  gifts, 
their  enthusiasm  for  the  system,  and  the  thousands  of  students  that 
have  migrated  to  foreign  lands  in  search  of  western  learning.  Never 
has  a country  accomplished  more  in  so  short  a time  after  the  estab- 
lishment of  a new  system  of  education.  Great  opportunities  await 
these  returned  students.  Their  country  needs  their  services,  not  only 
in  the  construction  of  the  many  railways,  the  opening  of  mines,  the 
establishment  of  industries,  the  conducting  of  great  commercial 
enterprises,  the  providing  of  an  adequate  national  defense  on  land 
and  sea,  the  drafting  of  laws  and  the  preparation  of  a national 
constitution,  but  to  them,  more  than  to  any  others,  belongs  the  duty 
of  solving  the  problems  that  yet  confront  the  educational  system  of 
China.  The  men  of  the  old  regime,  like  Chang  Chih  Tung,  Sun 
Chia  Nai,  Yuan  Shih  Kai,  and  Tuan  Fang,  came  nobly  to  the  front 
and,  in  the  face  of  many  difficulties,  aided  in  the  establishment  of  the 
present  educational  system.  It  now  becomes  the  duty  of  the  chosen 
men  who  have  been  given  every  opportunity  that  money  and  western 
culture  can  offer  to  revise  the  courses  of  study  and  develop  this 
national  system  of  education,  and  we  have  faith  to  believe  that  they 
will  accomplish  the  task  and  that  the  Chinese  people  shall  yet  con- 
tribute largely  to  modern  thought  and  culture. 


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F.  H.  Revell  co.,  1901.  480  p.  illus.  8°. 

Mott,  John  R.  The  Chinese  student  migration  to  Tokyo.  New  York,  Foreign 
dept.  International  committee,  Young  men’s  Christian  associations,  1908. 
23  p.  illus.  12°. 

Richard,  Timothy.  The  new  education  in  China.  Contemporary  review, 
83:  11-16,  January,  1903. 

Smith,  Arthur  H.  China  and  America  to-day;  a study  of  conditions  and  rela- 
tions. New  York,  Chicago  [etc.]  F.  H.  Revell  company  [1907]  256 

p.  8°. 

China  in  convulsions.  New  York,  Chicago  [etc.]  F.  H.  Revell  co.,  1901. 

2 v.  illus.  8°. 

■ The  uplift  of  China.  New  York,  Young  people’s  missionary  movement, 

1907.  xv,  274  p.  illus.  12°. 

Bibliography  : p.  240-246. 

Thwing,  Charles  F.  Education  in  the  Far  East.  Boston  and  New  York,  Hough- 
ton, Mifflin  company,  1909.  x,  277  p.  8°. 

104 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


105 


United  States.  Bureau  of  education.  Progress  of  western  education  in  China 
and  Siam.  Washington,  Government  printing  office,  18S0.  13  p.  8°. 

Williams,  Samuel  W.  The  Middle  Kingdom ; a survey  of  the  geography,  govern- 
ment, literature,  social  life,  arts,  and  history  of  the  Chinese  empire  and  its 
inhabitants.  Rev.  ed.  New  York,  C.  Scribner’s  sons,  1899.  2 v.  illus.  8°. 

Yung  Wing.  My  life  in  China  and  America.  New  York,  H.  Holt  and  company, 
1909.  vi,  286  p.  8°. 

DOCUMENTS  AND  .SERIALS. 

Catalogues  and  reports  of  various  schools  in  China. 

Chihli  Chiao  Yu  Ting  Chi  Piao  Tu,  Kuang  Hsii,  33d-34th  year.  (Report  of 
educational  work  in  Chihli  province,  1907-1908.) 

Ching  Shih  Tu  Hsiieh  Chii  I Land  Piao,  Kuang  Hsii,  32-33d  years.  (Report 
of  the  Board  of  education  of  Peking  city  for  the  years  1906-1907.) 

The  Christian  movement  in  Japan.  Published  annually  for  the  Standing  com- 
mittee of  cooperating  Christian  missions,  v.  1,  1903- 

Educational  association  of  China,  Shanghai.  Records  of  the  triennial  meet- 
ings, 1893,  1896,  1899,  1902,  1905,  1909.  Shanghai,  Printed  at  the  American 
Presbyterian  mission  press. 

Emperor  Kuang  Hsii’s  reform  edicts,  1898. 

Hsiieh  Pu  Kuan  Pao.  Yols.  1-93.  (Official  news  of  the  Ministry  of  education.) 

Liang  Chi  Chao.  Yin  Ping  Shih  Wen  Chi.  vols.  1 & 2.  (Collections  of 
writings. ) 

Mei  Chou  Liu  Hsiieh  Pao  Kao.  (Report  of  the  Chinese  students  in  America, 
1906-1907.) 

Tsou  Ting  Hsiieh  T’ang  Chang  Cheng,  vols.  1-5.  (The  educational  system  as 
sanctioned  by  the  Throne.) 

Periodicals  and  newspapers. 

Ai  Kuo  Pao  (Patriotic  news)  Peking. 

Che  Chiang  daily  news. 

China’s  young  men.  Shanghai. 

The  Chinese  recorder.  Foochow,  Rozario,  Marcal  & co.  [1870]  Monthly. 

The  Chinese  recorder  and  missionary  journal.  Shanghai.  Monthly. 

The  Chinese  repository,  v.  1-20;  May,  1832-December,  1851.  Canton  [etc.] 
Printed  for  the  proprietors,  1833-1851.  20  v.  illus.  8°. 

Chinese  students  in  Japan.  Hardy  Jowett,  editor. 

The  Chinese  student’s  monthly.  Boston,  Mass.  v.  1-5,  1906-1910. 

Chinese  students’  union  quarterly.  London,  England. 

Chung  Wai  Jih  Pao  (Universal  gazette)  Shanghai. 

The  East  of  Asia  magazine;  an  illustrated  quarterly.  Shanghai,  North  Chris- 
tian herald  office,  v.  1,  1902. 

Eastern  times.  Shanghai. 

Educational  review.  Shanghai. 

L’lmpartial  (Ta  Kung). 

North  China  daily  news.  Shanghai.  Morning  paper. 

North  China  herald.  Shanghai.  Weekly.  Especially  vols.  from  1897-1910. 

Der  Ostasiatische  Lloyd-Organ  ftir  die  deutschen  interessen  im  fernen  Ostei. 
Shanghai,  Nanking  road  25. 

Peiching  Jih  Pao  (Peking  daily  news). 

Shun  Tien  Shih  Pao  (Japanese  press,  Peking). 

South  China  collegian. 

World’s  Chinese  students’  journal.  Shanghai,  vols.  1-4. 


o 


UNITED  STATES  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


BULLETIN,  1911,  NO.  16 


WHOLE  NUMBER  463 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  PUBLIC  AND 
PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

INTERNATIONAL  COMMISSION  ON  THE  TEACHING 
OF  MATHEMATICS 

THE  AMERICAN  REPORT 

COMMITTEES  III  AND  IV 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1911 


INTERNATIONAL  COMMISSION  ON  THE  TEACHING  OF 

MATHEMATICS. 


GENERAL  OFFICERS. 

President,  F.  KLEIN,  Geh.  Reg.-Rat.,  the  University  of  Gottingen. 

Vice  President,  SIR  GEORGE  GREENHILL,  F.  R.  S.,  London. 

General  Secretary,  H.  FEHR,  the  University  of  Geneva. 

AMERICAN  COMMISSIONERS. 

DAVID  EUGENE  SMITH,  Chairman,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.Y. 
W.  F.  OSGOOD,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

J.  W.  A.  YOUNG,  the  University  of  Chicago,  Chicago,  III. 

THE  AMERICAN  REPORT. 

Committee  No.  IH.  Public  General  Secondary  Schools. 

George  W.  Evans,  Charlestown  High  School,  Boston,  Mass.,  Chairman, 

Henry  M.  Wright,  English  High  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

Ernest  G.  Hapgood,  Girls’  Latin  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

Charles  D.  Meserve,  Newton  High  School,  Newtonville,  Mass. 

Charles  Ammerman,  McKinley  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

H.  D.  Gaylord,  Cambridge,  Mass. 

Professor  Lewis  Darwin  Ames,  the  University  of  Missouri,  Columbia,  Mo. 

Professor  Arthur  Sullivan  Gale,  the  University  of  Rochester,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

William  Betz,  East  High  School,  Rochester,  N.  Y. 

Subcommittee  1.  Boys*  Schools. 

Henry  M.  Wright,  English  High  School,  Boston,  Mass.,  Chairman. 

John  W.  Regan,  Charlestown  High  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

Samuel  B.  Tinsley,  Male  High  School,  Louisville,  Ky. 

Harry  English,  Central  High  School,  Washington,  D.  C. 

John  A.  Marsh,  English  High  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

Subcommittee  2.  Girls’  High  Schools. 

Ernest  G.  Hapgood,  Girls’  Latin  School,  Boston,  Mass.,  Chairman. 

Miss  A.  Laura  Batt,  English  High  School,  Somerville,  Mass. 

Emma  H.  Carroll,  Girls’  High  School,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Grace  C.  Alden,  Lynn,  Mass. 

T.  H.  Garrett,  Tubman  High  School,  Augusta,  Ga. 

Subcommittee  3.  Coeducational  High  Schools  in  the  East. 

Charles  D.  Meserve,  Newton  High  School,  Newton,  Mass.,  Chairman. 

Daniel  D.  Feldman,  Erasmus  Hall  High  School,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 

A.  R.  Taylor,  Paterson,  N.  J. 

Miss  Maud  Leadbetter,  High  School,  West  Roxbury,  Mass. 

Miss  Mary  F.  Gould,  High  School,  Roxbury,  Mass. 

John  W.  Regan,  Charlestown  High  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

Subcommittee  4.  Coeducational  High  Schools  in  the  Middle  West. 

Charles  Ammerman,  McKinley  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Chairman. 

Miss  Mabel  Sykes,  South  Chicago  High  School,  South  Chicago,  111. 

Miss  Lucie  B.  Allen,  Laurentia,  Mich. 

Miss  Edith  Long,  High  School,  Lincoln,  Nebr. 

W.  Lee  Jordan,  Des  Moines,  Iowa. 

Miss  Marie  Gugle,  Central  High  School,  Toledo,  Ohio. 

Subcommittee  5.  Coeducational  High  Schools  in  the  South. 

George  W.  Evans,  Boston,  Mass.,  Chairman. 

P.  H.  Underwood,  Galveston,  Tex. 

Mrs.  Annie  E.  Cooney,  Memphis,  Tenn. 

Alfred  Livingston,  Henderson,  Ky. 


3 


4 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Subcommittee  6.  Coeducational  High  Schools  on  the  Pacific  Coast. 

H.  D.  Gaylord,  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  Chairman. 

Professor  C.  A.  Noble,  Berkeley,  Cal. 

J.  C.  Keith,  Broadway  High  School,  Seattle,  Wash. 

E.  H.  Barker,  Polytechnic  High  School,  Los  Angeles,  Cal. 

Professor  E.  E.  DeCou,  Eugene,  Oreg. 

Miss  T.  A.  Brookman,  High  School,  Berkeley,  Cal. 

Professor  R.  E.  Moritz,  Seattle,  Wash. 

Subcommittee  7.  The  Preparation  of  Teachers  of  Mathematics  for  the  Public  High 

Schools. 

Professor  L.  D.  Ames,  the  University  of  Missouri,  Columbia,  Mo.,  Chairman. 

Professor  L.  C.  Karpinski,  the  University  of  Michigan,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich. 

F.  C.  Touton,  High  School,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 

Oscar  W.  Anthony,  DeWitt  Clinton  High  School,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Subcommittee  8.  The  Six-Year  Curriculum. 

Professor  Arthur  Sullivan  Gale,  the  University  of  Rochester,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  Chairman. 

Dr.  C.  T.  McFarlane,  Controller  of  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Miss  Katherine  Bell,  High  School,  Lead,  S.  Dak. 

Principal  Gilbert  B.  Morrison,  McKinley  High  School,  St.  Louis,  Mo. 

William  H.  Norton,  Boys’  Latin  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

Subcommittee  9.  Failures  in  the  Technique  of  Secondary  Teaching  of  Mathematics: 
Their  Causes  and  Remedies. 

William  Betz,  East  High  School,  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  Chairman. 

Miss  M.  E.  Shea,  High  School  for  Girls,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Miss  Mary  M.  Wardwell,  Central  High  School,  Buffalo,  N.  Y 
H.  E.  Webb,  High  School,  Newark,  N.  J. 

Franklin  T.  Jones,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Committee  No.  IV.  Private  General  Secondary  Schools. 

Superintendent  Wm.  E.  Stark,  Hackensack,  N.  J.,  Chairman. 

Dr.  John  S.  French,  Morris  Heights  School,  Providence,  R.  I. 

S.  A.  Courtis,  Detroit  Home  and  Day  School,  Detroit,  Mich. 

C.  W.  Newhall,  Shattuck  School,  Faribault,  Minn. 

Subcommittee  1.  Boys’  Schools,  Including  Religious  and  Military  Schools. 

Dr.  John  S.  French,  Morris  Heights  School,  Providence,  R.  I.,  Chairman. 

Principal  Walter  R.  Marsh,  St.  Paul’s  School,  Garden  City,  N.  Y. 

Dr.  J.  L.  Patterson,  Chestnut  Hill  Academy,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 

Professor  William  Schwarz,  Cathedral  College,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

William  Hughes,  Principal  Branham  and  Hughes  School,  Spring  Hill,  Tenn. 

Josiah  Bartlett,  Riverview  Academy,  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y 
Franklin  T.  Jones,  University  School,  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Subcommittee  2.  Girls’  Schools,  Including  Religious  Schools. 

S.  A.  Courtis,  Detroit  Home  and  Day  School,  Detroit,  Mich.,  Chairman. 

Miss  Emma  M.  Cowles,  Milwaukee  Downer  College,  Milwaukee,  Wis. 

Miss  Sarah  M.  Lake,  Miss  Winsor’s  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

Rev.  Brother  Potamian,  Manhattan  College,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Dr.  Ruth  G.  Wood,  Smith  College,  Northampton,  Mass. 

Harriet  D.  Buckingham,  Girls’  High  School,  Boston,  Mass. 

Dr.  Virginia  Ragsdale,  Baldwin  School,  Bryn  Mawr,  Pa. 

Miss  Vevia  Blair,  Sachs  School  for  Girls,  New  York,  N.  Y. 

Subcommittee  3.  Coeducational  Schools. 

C.  W.  Newhall,  Shattuck  School,  Faribault,  Minn.,  Chairman. 

G,  H.  Albright,  Colorado  College,  Colorado  Springs,  Colo. 

E.  R.  Breslich,  University  High  School,  University  of  Chicago. 

George  P.  Tibbetts,  Williston  Seminary,  East  Hampton,  Mass 
E.  J.  Owen,  Pillsbury  Academy,  Owatonna,  Minn. 

Laura  A.  Whyte,  Miss  Porter’s  School,  Farmington,  Conn. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS, 


5 


APPENDIX. 

The  following  reports  relate  to  institutions  which,  though  not  secondary  schools  exclusively,  cover  more 
or  less  of  the  secondary  field  in  their  work: 

a.  Report  on  Mathematics  in  Evening  Technical  Schools. 

By  A.  D.  Dean,  State  Education  Department,  Albany,  N.  Y. 

b.  Report  on  Private  Correspondence  Schools. 

By  W.  F.  Rocheleau,  Interstate  School  of  Correspondence,  Chicago,  111. 

c.  Report  on  Mathematics  in  Schools  and  Colleges  for  Negroes. 

W.  T.  B.  Williams,  Hampton  Institute,  Hampton,  Va. 


CONTENTS. 


Committee  No.  III.  Public  general  secondary  schools:  Page. 

I.  General  report 11 

Organization 11 

The  curriculum 15 

The  subject  matter 17 

The  orthodox  syllabus 17 

i.  Algebra  to  quadratics 17 

ii.  Quadratics  and  beyond 19 

hi.  Plane  geometry 20 

iv.  Solid  geometry 20 

v.  Trigonometry 21 

vi.  Advanced  algebra 21 

vii.  Arithmetic 22 

Growth  of  the  college  requirement:  Harvard  College  as  example 22 

Recent  progress 24 

Examinations 30 

Methods 31 

Aims 34 

II.  Reports  of  subcommittees 36 

Subcommittee  1.  Boys  high’  schools 36 

Organization 37 

The  mathematical  curriculum 37 

Examinations 38 

Methods  of  teaching 38 

Aims  of  mathematical  teaching 39 

Subcommittee  2.  Girls’  high  schools 39 

Organization 40 

Mathematical  curriculum 42 

Examinations 45 

Methods  of  teaching 45 

Aims  of  teaching 47 

Subcommittee  3.  Coeducational  high  schools  in  the  East 47 

Report  of  Miss  Mary  Gould,  of  Roxbury  (Mass.)  High  School 48 

Subcommittee  4.  Coeducational  high  schools  in  the  Middle  West 51 

Introduction 51 

Organization 51 

The  mathematical  curriculum 54 

(а)  Algebra 55 

(б)  Geometry 57 

(c)  Mathematics 58 

Examinations 58 

Methods 59 

Aims  of  mathematics  teaching 61 


7 


8 


CONTENTS. 


Committee  No.  III.  Public  general  secondary  schools — Continued.  Page. 

II.  Reports  of  subcommittees — Continued. 

Subcommittee  5.  Mathematics  in  the  coeducational  high  schools  in 

the  South 62 

Organization 62 

The  mathematics  curriculum 63 

Examinations 64 

Methods  of  teaching 64 

Aims 66 

Subcommittee  6.  Coeducational  high  schools  on  the  Pacific  coast 66 

Organization 67 

The  curriculum 70 

Examinations 71 

Methods  of  teaching 72 

Aims  of  mathematics  teaching 74 

Subcommittee  7.  The  preparation  of  teachers  of  mathematics  for  the 

public  high  schools 76 

Methods  of  the  investigation 76 

Present  standard  preparation  of  teachers  in  service 76 

Tendencies  toward  higher  standards  for  teachers 77 

Facilities  offered  by  universities  for  the  special  training  of  teachers 

of  mathematics 79 

Desirable  standards  in  training  teachers  of  secondary  mathematics..  81 

Other  factors  in  the  efficiency  of  teachers 82 

Subcommittee  8.  The  six-year  high  school 83 

1.  Advantages 84 

2.  Approximations  to  six-year  high  schools 84 

3.  Method  of  the  investigation 85 

4.  Analysis  of  the  information  received 85 

5.  The  traditional  curriculum 86 

6.  Six-year  high  schools 87 

7.  Close  approximations  to  the  six-year  high  school 88 

8.  Approximations  consisting  of  a preparatory  high  school  and  a 

regular  high  school 90 

9.  Approximations  consisting  merely  of  departmental  methods  in 

the  seventh  and  eighth  grades 91 

10.  A second  form  of  six-year  high  school 92 

11.  The  Horace  Mann  school 92 

12.  A proposed  curriculum 92 

13.  General  conclusions 93 

Bibliography 93 

Subcommittee  9.  Failures  in  the  technique  of  the  teaching  of  sec- 
ondary mathematics:  Their  causes  and  remedies 94 

Introduction 94 

Purpose  of  this  report 95 

Method  of  investigation 96 

Statistics  of  failures 96 

Causes  of  failure — preliminary  analysis 97 

Transforming  influences  in  education 98 

General  causes  of  failure 100 

1.  The  teacher 100 

2.  The  pupil 102 

3.  High-school  organization 103 


CONTENTS.  9 

Committee  No.  III.  Public  general  secondary  schools — Continued.  Page. 

II.  Reports  of  subcommittees — Continued. 

Subcommittee  9.  Failures  in  the  technique  of  the  teaching  of  sec- 
ondary mathematics:  Their  causes  and  remedies — Continued. 

Specific  causes  of  failure 104 

Remedies 106 

Conclusion 108 

Appendix 109 

Committee  No.  IV.  Mathematics  in  the  private  secondary  schools  of  the  United 

States 113 

Plan  of  the  investigation 113 

Extent  and  character  of  the  data 114 

Organization  of  private  secondary  schools 117 

The  department  of  mathematics 124 

The  course  of  study 132 

Methods 136 

Examinations  and  tests 138 

Mathematics  and  coeducation 140 

Aim  of  instruction  in  mathematics .• 142 

Distinctive  features  in  a few  individual  schools 146 

Principles  underlying  the  course  in  mathematics  as  studied  in  the  Detroit 

Home  and  Day  School,  Detroit,  Mich,  (prepared  by  S.  A.  Courtis) 147 

Unification  of  elementary  mathematics  (prepared  by  John  S.  French).  . 150 

Course  of  study — “mixed  mathematics  ” (prepared  by  George  W.  Meyers) . 153 

The  plane  geometry  course  in  the  Polytechnic  Preparatory  School  of 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  (prepared  by  Eugene  R.  Smith) 156 

Real  applied  problems  (prepared  by  Janies  F.  Millis) 161 

A secondary  school  mathematics  club  (prepared  by  C.  W.  Newhall). . . . 164 

Reference  books 167 

Conclusion 169 

Appendix: 

A.  Mathematical  instructions  for  evening  technical  schools 170 

B.  The  teaching  of  mathematics  in  private  correspondence  schools 177 

C.  The  teaching  of  mathematics  in  schools  and  colleges  for  negroes 182 


MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE 
SECONDARY  SCHOOLS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


COMMITTEE  NO.  III.  PUBLIC  GENERAL  SECONDARY 

SCHOOLS. 

I.  GENERAL  REPORT. 

ORGANIZATION. 

The  pupils  .—The  public  secondary  schools  of  the  United  States, 
usually  called  high  schools,  receive  pupils  that  have  completed  an 
elementary  school  course,  generally  of  eight  years.  The  age  of 
pupils  beginning  high-school  work  is  about  14  years. 

The  studies  of  the  elementary  school  include  arithmetic,  geogra- 
phy, history,  English  grammar,  literature  and  composition  in  Eng- 
lish, with  other  studies  that  vary  according  to  the  location  of  the 
schools  and  with  the  resources  of  the  communities  that  support  them. 
These  studies  do  not  include  foreign  languages,  except  in  very  rare 
instances,  and  only  occasionally  include  rudimentary  study  of 
algebra,1  the  construction  or  measurement  of  geometrical  drawings 
or  models,  or  the  study  of  geometrical  facts  beyond  a few  rules  for 
mensuration  of  simple  plane  figures  and  the  very  simplest  solids. 
The  algorithm  for  square  root  is  often  taught,  but  that  for  cube  root 
seldom.  The  greatest  emphasis  and  the  longest  practice  are  put  upon 
commercial  applications  of  arithmetic. 

The  purpose  of  the  high  school. — The  purpose  of  high-school  edu- 
cation has  generally  been  twofold — not  only  to  furnish  preparation 
for  college,  but  also  to  provide  some  of  the  elements  of  a liberal  edu- 
cation for  those  whose  formal  and  directed  study  is  to  go  no  further. 
In  not  a few  communities  high  schools  were  established  in  which 
the  former  purpose  was  expressly  waived;  but  even  in  these  schools 
the  gradual  broadening  of  college  entrance  requirements  has  com- 
bined with  the  pressure  of  able  and  ambitious  pupils  to  establish 
college  preparation  as  a recognized  purpose  of  high-school  work. 
More  recently  a new  type  of  high  schools  has  been  devised,  to  furnish 
preparation  as  direct  as  possible  for  certain  special  vocations,  not- 
ably those  of  the  machinist  and  the  merchant.  These  will  be  dealt 
with  in  another  report.  This  report  is  confined  to  high  schools  of 
the  general  type. 


1 The  word  “algebra”  in  this  report  includes  all  arithmetic  in  which  letters  are  used  to  represent  numbers. 


12 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS, 


The  length  of  the  course. — The  high-school  course  is  generally  one 
of  four  years.  The  work  is  usually  done  in  a separate  building  from 
the  elementary  school,  by  more  highly  paid  teachers.  In  thinly 
settled  and  poor  communities  the  work  is  frequently  done  in  the 
same  building  as  the  elementary  school,  and  even  by  teachers  who 
must  give  part  of  their  time  to  the  care  and  teaching  of  the  younger 
grades.  In  such  cases  the  period  of  high-school  work  is  shortened 
sometimes  to  two  or  even  to  one  year,  and  obviously  can  serve  only 
for  the  beginning  of  college  preparation,  if  for  any;  the  pupil  must 
go  to  some  more  central  institution  to  complete  the  high-school  work. 

Until  within  a few  years  the  high-school  diploma  in  the  city  of 
Boston  was  given  for  three  years’  work,  a postgraduate  year  being 
necessary  for  the  usual  college  preparation.  At  present  this  is  no 
longer  true  in  large  centers. 

In  a very  few  cases  the  work  of  the  high  school  has  been  carried 
into  subjects  usually  reserved  for  college;  this,  however,  can  not  be 
said  to  present  a tendency  of  actual  development  to-day. 

The  six-year  high  school. — The  last  few  years,  however,  have  seen 
a decided  pressure  for  the  extension  of  high-school  work  downward 
into  the  two  upper  grades  of  the  elementary  school.  The  six-year 
high  school  thus  constituted  had  its  most  telling  argument  doubtless 
from  the  language  teaching,  in  earlier  utilization  of  the  imitative 
faculty;  it  presents,  however,  great  advantages  for  mathematics, 
especially  in  the  possibility  of  closer  correlation  of  arithmetic  and 
algebra  and  in  the  introduction  of  intuitional  geometry  at  an  appro- 
priate age. 

As  this  proposition  has  been  detailed  for  consideration  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  the  six-year  high  school  would  be  divided  into  sepa- 
rately organized  parts,  so  that  the  complete  school  career  of  a pupil 
would  consist  of  six  years  in  the  elementary  school,  three  years  in 
the  lower  high  school,  and  three  years  in  the  upper  high  school.  In 
some  other  places  it  has  taken  the  form  of  departmental  organiza- 
tion of  the  last  two  years  of  the  elementary  school  under  the  direction 
of  the  high-school  department  heads.  In  five  high  schools,  which 
include  the  two  oldest  schools  in  America  and  a school  in  one  of  the 
youngest  States  in  the  Union,  pupils  are  admitted  at  the  end  of  their 
sixth  school  year  and  the  six  years’  work  is  organized  as  one  whole. 

A separate  report  on  six-year  high  schools  has  been  prepared  by  a 
subcommittee  under  the  chairmanship  of  Prof.  A.  S.  Gale. 

Supervision. — In  about  a dozen  States  of  this  country  there  is  no 
supervision  of  high  schools  exercised  throughout  the  State,  either 
by  the  government  or  by  any  university.  In  these  States  the  high 
schools  are  under  the  direction  of  the  local  school  board  and  its  execu- 
tive officer,  the  superintendent.  The  results  are  not  chaotic,  in 
spite  of  the  lack  of  centralization;  for  the  superintendents  and  the 


PUBLIC  GENERAL  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


13 


teachers  under  them  confer  with  their  fellows  elsewhere  and  follow 
the  lead  of  universities,  though  not  officially  related  to  them,  and 
of  such  associations  as  the  National  Education  Association  and  their 
several  committees. 

Even  in  the  States  where  the  high-scliool  course  of  study  is  pre- 
scribed by  the  government  or  by  the  State  university  some  latitude 
is  generally  left  within  which  the  local  authorities  can  modify  the 
work,  especially  for  pupils  not  destined  for  the  university. 

The  elective  system. — In  some  high  schools  the  pupils  are  permitted 
to  choose,  with  the  consent  of  their  parents  and  under  the  advice 
of  their  teachers,  not  only  the  general  aim  of  their  work  but  the 
separate  courses  of  instruction  that  seem  to  contribute  to  that  aim, 
just  as  a graduate  student  does  in  a university.  A diploma  is  then 
given  for  the  completion  of  a certain  number  of  units  of  work — 
generally  not  less  than  the  equivalent  of  20  courses,  each  consisting 
of  4 hours  class  instruction  per  week  for  1 year. 

Election  by  courses. — In  most  high  schools,  however,  an  attempt  is 
made  to  provide  for  varying  aims  of  study  by  organizing  groups 
of  studies,  with  descriptive  titles,  such  as  “The  classical  course,” 
“The  English  course,”  “The  commercial  course,”  and  so  on.  The 
State  of  Maine  officially  recognizes  seven  such  courses  in  the  regular 
high  schools,  besides  providing  for  agricultural  high  schools  as 
separate  institutions. 

State  regulation. — Such  regulation  as  that  just  mentioned  is  based 
upon  State  aid  to  the  schools,  or  upon  the  admission  of  their  graduates 
to  State  normal  schools  or  State  universities.  Communities  receive 
grants  of  money  from  the  State  treasury  on  condition  that  certain 
conditions  of  equipment  are  met  and  that  the  courses  of  study 
suggested  by  the  State  authorities  are  efficiently  maintained.  In 
certain  cases  State  university  officials  inspect  the  schools  to  see 
that  the  instruction  is  of  satisfactory  quality. 

In  many  States  this  dictation  and  supervision  is  confined  to  careful 
definition  of  the  subjects  of  study  and  of  the  time  that  may  be 
allotted  to  them,  leaving  the  grouping  into  “courses”  to  be  done  by 
the  local  authorities.  This  is  in  line  with  the  plans  now  in  vogue  for 
defining  requirements  for  admission  to  college — in  which  many  more 
subjects  are  provided  for  than  any  one  student  can  possibly  think 
it  wise  to  take,  so  that  individual  preferences  and  aptitudes  can  be 
accommodated,  and  the  total  achievement  estimated  by  a uniform 
though  somewhat  artificial  standard  of  replaceable  educational 
values.  Among  studies  which  all  pupils  are  expected  to  include  in 
their  work  are,  generally,  English  language  and  literature,  history, 
and  2 years  of  mathematics,  including  plane  geometry  and  algebra. 

The  minimum  requirement. — Where  the  State  authorities  define 
in  detail  the  various  “courses”  of  study  among  which  the  pupil 


14 


MATHEMATICS  IN'  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


may  choose,  algebra  and  plane  geometry  generally  appear  in  all  such 
courses.  This  is  the  case  even  in  such  specialized  courses  as  those 
labeled  “agricultural”  or  “commercial,”  but  Maine  excepts  the 
“household  arts  course,”  in  which  there  is  only  a year  of  “mathe- 
matics” not  otherwise  described. 

Throughout  the  country  there  is  an  apparent  minimum  of  over 
3 years  of  mathematics  required; 1 this  includes,  however,  a year 
or  so  that  might  properly  be  classed  as  elementary  school  work, 
being  arithmetic  drill  of  a purely  mechanical  type,  studied  solely 
for  the  sake  of  its  commercial  applications. 

The  'principal. — The  principal  or  executive  head  of  a high  school 
gives  his  whole  time  to  administrative  duties  in  the  largest  schools. 
As  we  pass  to  smaller  and  smaller  schools  we  find  that  the  principal 
must  devote  more  and  more  of  his  time  to  teaching,  until  in  small 
towns  the  high-school  principal  has  only  a short  time  each  day  for 
the  duties  peculiar  to  his  position.  More  time  is  often  secured  for 
them  by  making  him  also  superintendent  of  schools,  or  by  combining 
all  the  schools  into  one  institution  with  kindergarten,  elementary, 
and  high-school  departments. 

In  the  absence  of  general  laws  regulating  the  high-school  studies 
throughout  the  State,  the  principal  of  a small  school  has  great  influ- 
ence in  changing  the  character  and  extent  of  the  work  done,  some- 
times even  to  the  extent  of  completely  changing  the  aims  and 
fortunes  of  the  school.  An  energetic  man  in  this  position  can  always 
materially  affect  the  methods  of  teaching  and  the  details  of  the 
material  covered,  if  the  subject  is  one  upon  which  his  opinion  is 
definitely  formed. 

The  head  of  the  department  of  mathematics. — Where  two  or  more 
are  teaching  mathematics  in  one  school,  the  custom  is  growing  of 
having  one  teacher  designated  as  head  of  the  department.  Some- 
times he  is  selected  by  the  principal,  more  often  by  the  superin- 
tendent of  schools  or  by  the  school  board.  His  duties  include  a 
more  or  less  definite  responsibility  for  the  work  in  mathematics 
throughout  the  school,  especially  with  a view  to  the  coordination 
of  parallel  courses;  he  conducts  department  meetings,  confers  with 
the  principal,  informs  himself  as  to  textbooks  and  teachers  available 
for  future  work.  His  advice  or  direction  is  sometimes  effective 
upon  the  topics  of  instruction,  generally  effective  upon  the  methods. 

Cooperation. — The  body  of  teachers,  in  a high  school  separately 
organized  (i.  e.,  not  in  the  same  building  with  the  elementary  school 
or  not  having  the  superintendent  of  schools  as  principal),  has  little  or 
no  influence  upon  the  teaching  of  mathematics  in  the  elementary 
school.  A considerable  influence,  on  the  other  hand,  is  exerted 
upon  high-school  mathematics  by  the  existence  of  college  entrance 


Mr.  E.  E.  Whitford,  in  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  April,  1910. 


PUBLIC  GENERAL  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


15 


standards.  Within  a few  years  an  additional  influence  has  been 
the  organization  of  associations  of  secondary  school  teachers  of 
mathematics  and  of  kindred  subjects,  in  which  college  instructors 
have  participated.  Less  than  half  of  the  high  schools  of  the  country 
are  represented  in  these  associations,  and  their  effect  seems  rather  to 
have  been  the  awakening  of  interest  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  than 
actual  reform  on  the  part  either  of  subject  matter  or  of  method. 

The  teachers. — The  best  of  the  high-school  teachers  of  mathe- 
matics, with  rare  exceptions,  have  no  more  knowledge  of  mathematics 
than  would  be  indicated  by  a 1 year’s  course  in  the  calculus.  The 
great  majority  of  them  have  not  even  that.  Standards  are,  however, 
improving,  the  principal  obstacle  being  ignorance  and  indifference 
on  the  part  of  educational  authorities.  This  obstacle  is  more  obvious 
in  States  where  there  is  no  State  university  at  the  head  of  the  educa- 
tional system,  or  where  there  is  no  State-wide  organization  of 
education.  The  city  superintendent  of  schools  is  generally  more 
an  organizer  than  a scholar,  and  represents  the  demand  for  elemen- 
tary education  rather  than  for  secondary,  for  practical  education 
rather  than  for  college  preparation;  and  thus  far  mathematics  in 
high  schools  continues  to  point  its  signboards  toward  the  university. 
As  a whole,  then,  the  result  is  a lack  of  emphasis  on  preparation  of 
teachers  of  mathematics.  In  the  smaller  high  schools  it  is  not 
uncommon  to  find  the  bright  young  girl  who  was  studying  solid 
geometry  last  year  teaching  algebra  or  geometry  this. 

Racial  restriction. — Throughout  the  South  negroes  are  excluded 
from  the  high  schools  where  white  pupils  are  taught.  In  certain 
localities  separate  high  schools  are  provided  for  the  negroes;  work 
done  in  them  is,  with  very  few  exceptions,  of  a distinctly  inferior 
character. 

Promotions. — In  about  75  per  cent  of  the  high  schools  promotions 
are  annual,  in  the  rest  semiannual.  In  the  South  and  in  the  smaller 
schools  promotion  is  more  often  by  class;  elsewhere  by  subject. 

THE  CURRICULUM. 

Directive  influences. — The  curriculum  in  mathematics  is  determined 
in  general  by  the  admission  requirements  of  colleges.  This  is,  of 
course,  confessedly  so  in  the  States  in  which  there  is  a complete  and 
State-wide  organization  of  education,  with  the  university  recognized 
as  the  final  stage.  It  is  also  true  in  other  States,  and  even  in  the 
smaller  communities  where  few,  if  any,  of  the  pupils  may  be  planning 
to  go  to  college,  and  where  the  local  school  committee  disclaim  the 
intention  of  following  university  guidance;  and  it  is  true  of  the  mathe- 
matical curriculum  even  where  it  is  not  true  of  other  subjects  of  study. 
The  reason  for  this  nearly  universal  dependence  on  college  definitions 


16 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


is  that  mathematics  is  not  otherwise  defined  by  any  authority  that 
the  schools  feel  willing  to  accept. 

The  definite  and  legal  enactment  of  all  public  high-school  courses 
of  study  is  in  all  cases  made  by  the  school  committee  (often  called 
the  school  board,  or  the  trustees).  Only  occasionally  does  this  body 
contain  members  able  or  willing  to  decide  upon  details  of  a subject 
that  seems  to  the  ordinary  layman  so  abstract  as  mathematics. 
Where  the  definitions  of  the  university  are  not  accepted  bodily,  the 
advice  of  the  principal  is  generally  sought,  occasionally  that  of  the 
head  of  the  department,  or  of  the  special  teacher  of  mathematics. 

Importance  of  the  textbook. — There  are  States  in  which  the  text- 
books are  prescribed;  in  one  all  the  textbooks  of  mathematics  are 
prescribed  as  those  of  a certain  author,  reliance  being  placed  on  the 
publishers  to  keep  his  productions  up  to  date.  Some  of  the  teachers 
replying  to  the  questions  of  the  committee  state  that  no  deviations 
from  the  textbooks  are  allowed;  but  this  is  doubtless  the  decree  of  the 
local  authorities  rather  than  of  the  State,  and  is  undoubtedly  due  to 
the  unpleasant  experience  of  trying  to  connect  the  work  of  a radical 
experimenter  with  that  of  a successor  incapable  of  appreciating  and 
pursuing  a wide  and  uncharted  departure  from  the  orthodox  course. 

Correlation  of  mathematical  subjects  with  each  other. — The  different 
branches  of  high-school  mathematics  are  not  in  general  correlated 
with  each  other,  but  are  pursued  one  after  the  other  with  such  differ- 
ences of  method  and  of  point  of  view  that  algebra  is  often  forgotten 
by  the  time  geometry  is  completed.  Of  recent  years  the  teachers  in 
a small  number  of  schools  have,  of  their  own  accord  and  with  con- 
siderable difficulty,  arranged  the  geometry  work  so  that  algebra  can 
be  applied  to  some  of  the  numerical  problems  given  in  illustration  of 
the  metrical  theorems.  More  than  anything  else  the  subject  of 
proportion  is  treated  algebraically.  In  a still  smaller  number  of 
high  schools  there  is  a well-organized  blending  of  the  different  sub- 
jects, algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry,  into  a general  and  pro- 
gressive course  in  mathematics. 

The  customary  independence  of  these  mathematical  subjects  is 
restricted  almost  everywhere  by  the  requirement  that  a pupil  must 
have  “passed  algebra”  before  he  is  permitted  to  begin  geometry. 

Correlation  with  science. — The  mathematics  work  is  little  correlated 
with  physics,  though  many  schools  insist  on  algebra  at  least,  and 
sometimes  geometry  or  even  trigonometry,  before  beginning  physics. 
The  requirement  of  algebra  for  chemistry  students  also  is  not 
unknown.1 

1 An  Ideal  state  of  things  is  described  by  Miss  Thirrauthis  Brookman,  as  the  result  of  12  years’  develop- 
ment in  the  high  school  of  Lincoln,  Nebr.  Here  an  “inspirational”  half-year  course  in  general  science 
serves  as  an  introduction  to  a course  in  mathematics,  where  each  week’s  work  is  “a  definite  and  clear-cut 
section  of  a well-proportioned  system,”  including  algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry.  Pupils  showing 
marked  inability  in  the  general  science  introduction  are  not  urged  to  enter  the  work  in  mathematics.  — 
School  Review,  January,  1910. 


PUBLIC  GENERAL  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


17 


THE  SUBJECT  MATTER. 

Elementary  algebra  and  'plane  geometry. — Every  regular  high  school 
in  the  United  States  offers  algebra  and  plane  geometry  for  at  least 
one  year  each.  Half  of  them  give  algebra  for  an  extra  half  year;  less 
than  20  per  cent  give  algebra  for  two  full  years.  A very  few  schools 
give  algebra  for  two  years  and  a half,  and  a very  few  give  plane 
geometry  for  a year  and  a half. 

Solid  geometry,  trigonometry,  and  college  algebra. — Solid  geometry 
for  a half  year,  plane  trigonometry  (often  with  spherical  right  tri- 
angles, occasionally  with  the  general  spherical  triangle1)  for  a half 
year,  and  advanced  algebra,  so  called,  including  certain  special 
topics  listed  below,  for  a half  year,  are  given  in  some  of  the  larger 
high  schools  or  in  some  of  the  smaller  ones  that  definitely  prepare 
for  college. 

The  textbook  as  evidence. — The  fact  that  few  of  the  higli-school 
teachers  of  mathematics  are  thoroughly  trained  in  their  subject  and 
that  the  subject  matter  is  settled  for  the  most  part  without  their 
initiative  indicates  that  the  content  of  the  curriculum  will  be  closely 
defined  by  the  textbooks  used.  Tliis  is  also  the  comment  of  publish- 
ing houses  in  discussing  new  textbook  projects:  “We  must  have  a 
book  that  the  ordinary  teacher  can  follow  without  change;  it  is  only 
the  exceptional  teacher  that  can  strike  out  independently  of  its 
guidance.” 

The  kind  of  textbook  in  general  use  up  to  12  or  15  years  ago, 
and  the  kind  most  widely  used  to-day,  will  enable  us  to  define  the 
subject  matter  and  the  methods  of  algebra,  geometry,  and  trigo- 
nometry as  presented  to  more  than  75  per  cent  of  the  high-school 
pupils  of  the  United  States.  Hereon  is  based  the  following  outline.2 

THE  ORTHODOX  SYLLABUS. 

I.  Algebra  to  Quadratics. 

Introductory. — Definitions  and  “axioms,”  discussion  of  negative 
quantities,  brief  practice  in  algebraic  expression  and  interpretation, 
one  or  two  lessons  in  the  use  of  algebra  for  problems  so  simple  that 
algebra  adds  to  their  difficulty. 

The  four  operations. — Addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and 
division,  completed  successively  in  that  order,  with  formal  rules  of 
manipulation  (not  necessarily  stated  in  advance);  literal  and  frac- 
tional coefficients  and  exponents  used;  ingeniously  involved  paren- 
theses, brackets,  and  braces;  and  expressions  sometimes  more  com- 
plicated than  most  of  the  pupils  will  ever  see  again. 

1 More  than  a half  year  is  taken  In  this  case. 

2 For  the  purpose  of  this  outline  only,  “numbers”  will  be  understood  as  expressed  without  Utters,  and 
“problems”  will  be  understood  as  “clothed”  in  words. 

9560°— 11 2 


18 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Factors. — Factoring  expressions,  such  as  the  difference  of  two 
squares,  ax2  -\-bx-\-  c,  xn±yn  (often  with  “ demonstrations,”  as  of  the 
case  where  the  sign  is  + and  n is  odd);  factoring  “by  parts ;”  forms 
like  x4  + x2y2  + y4',  expressions  such  as  can  be  obtained  from  the  sim- 
pler forms  by  substituting  binomials  for  one  or  more  of  the  letters. 
Usually  no  application  is  made  of  these  feats  except  in  the  reduction 
of  fractions,  and  in  highest  common  factor  and  least  common  mul- 
tiple, which  follow  as  introductory  to  fractions. 

Highest  common  factor  and  lowest  common  multiple.  — Highest  com- 
mon factor,  first  by  factoring,  then  by  the  Euclidean  method.  A 
demonstration  is  usually  given  for  this,  but  is  hardly  ever  assimi- 
lated by  the  pupils.  Not  seldom  the  proof  given  is  applicable  only 
to  numbers — that  is,  it  will  not  hold  for  literal  expressions  in  which, 
as  is  usual,  some  of  the  dividends  have  to  be  multiplied  and  some 
monomial  factors  have  to  be  saved  out.  Lowest  common  multiple, 
generally  by  factoring  only,  with  a perfunctory  comment  on  the 
method  which  utilizes  the  highest  common  factor. 

Fractions. — Fractions,  with  the  rules  of  transformation  formally 
demonstrated,  and  the  four  operations  each  completed  in  its  turn. 
Expressions  of  ingenious  complexity  are  handled  under  each  head. 

Simple  equations  and  problems. — “Simple”  equations,  that  is, 
equations  of  the  first  degree  with  one  unknown  letter,  and  abounding 
in  parentheses  and  fractions;  and,  at  last,  problems  to  be  solved  by 
means  of  such  equations,  except  that  the  equations  needed  for  the 
purpose  are  really  simple. 

Linear  elimination  and  problems. — Two-letter  linear  equations, 
including  fractional  and  literal  equations;  three-letter  equations  of 
the  first  degree,  and  occasionally  simple  four  or  five  letter  sets. 
Equations  solved  for  the  reciprocals  of  the  letters  involved.  Prob- 
lems leading  to  equations  of  the  first  degree  in  two  or  more  letters. 
Literal  equations  are  scattered  at  random  under  this  topic  and  the 
preceding  one. 

Inference  of  equations. — The  model  examples  wrorked  out  in  the  text- 
book generally  indicate  the  inference  of  an  equation  from  the  preceding 
work  by  means  of  phrases  printed  at  the  side,  such  as  “transposing,” 
“clearing  of  fractions,”  “adding  to  eliminate  the  x terms,”  etc.  No 
expectation  is  indicated  that  the  pupil  will  use  any  substitute  for 
these  annotations. 

Neglect  of  practice  in  devising  equations. — The  number  of  problems 
given  under  this  topic  and  the  preceding  one  is  generally  insufficient 
to  give  real  facility  in  algebraic  expression,  and  their  introduction 
seems  isolated,  an  interruption  in  the  progress  of  manipulation. 
Haste  or  neglect  at  this  point  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  no  topic 
is  more  difficult  to  test  adequately  in  a written  examination  than  the 


PUBLIC  GENERAL  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


19 


devising  of  equations,  and  where  time  is  scant  it  will  be  devoted  to 
togics  that  show. 

Involution  and  evolution. — Under  the  title  “Involution”  next  are 
treated  powers  of  numbers  and  of  monomials,  and  squares  and  cubes 
of  binomials;  under  the  title  “Evolution”  are  treated  square  roots 
and  cube  roots  of  polynomials.  Some  details  of  the  theory  of  expo- 
nents are  necessarily  included  under  these  heads. 

Radicals  and  radical  equations. — Radicals,  including  the  rationali- 
zation of  binomial  denominators,  and  the  square  root  of  a binomial 
surd  (generally  given  without  adequate  demonstration);  radical 
equations,  carefully  selected  or  constructed  so  as  to  give,  upon  ration- 
alization, equations  of  the  first  degree.  Extraneous  solutions,  some- 
times declared  admissible  because  of  the  “ambiguous”  sign  of  the 
square  root.  Problems  again,  few  in  number,  leading  with  suitable 
choice  of  letters  to  radical  equations. 

Exponents. — Theory  of  exponents,  without  any  mention  of  loga- 
rithms; good  correlation  with  the  preceding  topic. 

II.  Quadratics  and  Beyond. 

Quadratics  in  one  and  two  unknowns. — Quadratics  in  one  unknown, 
first  without  the  second  term  (“pure”  quadratics)  and  then  com- 
plete quadratics  (“affected”  quadratics);  problems  leading  to  such 
quadratics.  Linear-quadratic  pairs,  elimination  by  substitution; 
special  cases  of  quadratic  pairs  solved  by  devices  suited  to  each 
case;  special  emphasis  on  symmetrical  equations,  solved  by  reducing 
to  values  for  x + y and  x — y.  Very  few  problems.  Literal  equa- 
tions at  random  under  this  topic. 

Ratio  and  proportion. — Ratio  and  proportion,  including  the  tra- 
ditional transformations  of  a proportion;  examples  of  literal  equa- 
tions and  of  problems  to  which  proportion  can  be  applied  if  one  insists ; 
no  mention  of  its  application  in  geometry,  and  no  comment  on  the 
relation  of  this  subject  to  fractional  equations.  This  topic  is  not 
referred  to  under  any  other  part  of  the  work  in  algebra. 

The  progressions. — Arithmetical  progression;  formulas  for  the  nth 
term  and  for  the  sum  of  the  terms,  any  three  of  the  five  constants 
being  given,  to  find  the  other  two. 

Geometrical  progression;  formulas  for  the  nth  term  and  for  the 
sum  of  the  terms,  certain  groups  of  three  of  the  five  constants  being 
given  to  find  the  other  two  constants.  Formula  for  the  “sum  of  the 
series”  when  the  ratio  is  less  than  one  and  the  number  of  terms 
indefinitely  great;  recurring  decimals. 

Inserting  means. — Arithmetic  and  geometric  mean;  insertion  of 
two  or  more  arithmetic  or  geometric  means  between  two  given  num- 
bers. 


20  MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

Binomial  theorem. — The  binomial  theorem  for  positive  integral 
exponents;  proof  of  the  same;1  application  to  powers  of  a binonjjal 
of  which  the  terms  may  be  complicated  with  fractions,  with  radical 
signs  or  with  exponents  that  may  or  may  not  be  positive  or  integral. 
Formula  by  which  any  term  of  any  power  may  be  written  down. 

HI.  Plane  Geometry. 

The  jive  books. — The  sequence  in  all  the  ordinary  textbooks  is  that 
of  Legendre;  five  books,  the  first  on  lines,  angles,  triangles,  and  other 
polygons;  the  second  on  circles  and  the  measurement  of  angles; 
the  third  on  proportion  (treated  as  an  algebraic  subject)  and  similar 
figures;  the  fourth  on  areas;  the  fifth  on  regular  polygons  and  the 
measurement  of  the  circle. 

Incommensurables. — Incommensurable  ratios  occur  in  Books  II, 
III,  IV,  and  V;  in  most  schools  an  attempt  is  made  at  every  one  of 
these  points  to  master  the  explanations  given  in  the  book. 

Construction. — Geometrical  constructions,  to  be  made  as  with 
Euclid  by  the  use  of  the  compass  and  unmarked  straightedge,  are 
given  in  a logical  place  among  the  other  propositions.  Locus  theo- 
rems are  given,  beginning  with  the  bisectors  of  angles  and  the  perpen- 
dicular bisectors  of  lines  in  Book  I. 

Original  exercises  (“riders”). — Exercises  are  given  for  practice  in 
the  invention  of  demonstrations  similar  to  those  in  the  text,  and  in 
the  application  of  available  theorems  to  numerical  data.  These  ex- 
ercises reach  the  number  of  500  or  600,  and  are  often  accompanied 
by  suggestive  notes  or  diagrams.  They  are  for  the  most  part  rigidly 
confined  to  subject  matter  like  that  in  the  text,  so  that  successful 
practice  with  them  does  not  add  materially  to  the  geometrical  infor- 
mation of  the  student. 

IV.  Solid  Geometry. 

Order  of  topics. — This  includes  successively  the  following  topics: 
Perpendicular  and  parallel  lines  and  planes;  diedral,  triedral  and  poly- 
edral  angles  (including  the  ratio  of  incommensurable  diedrals);  equiv- 
alence and  congruence  among,  and  the  measurement  of,  parallel- 
opipeds,  prisms,  pyramids,  cylinders,  and  cones;  the  geometry  of 
great-circle  diagrams  on  a spherical  surface,  with  scant  reference  to 
the  corresponding  «polyedral  angles  at  the  center  of  the  sphere;  the 
surface  and  volume  of  the  sphere. 

Mensuration  theorems. — Development  is  almost  never  used  for  the 
lateral  areas  of  cones  and  cylinders,  and  the  assumption  that  there  is 
a quantity  spoken  of  as  “the  area”  of  a cylinder,  cone,  or  a sphere  is 
tacitly  made  (a  similar  assumption  having  been  made  for  the  “length” 
of  the  circumference  in  plane  geometry),  the  .areas  of  successively 


1 In  most  classes  this  proof  is  omitted  in  teaching. 


PUBLIC  GENERAL  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


21 


approximating  figures  approaching  this  assumed  quantity  as  a limit. 
The  important  distinction  between  area  and  volume  in  this  respect 
is  not  commented  upon. 

Method  of  limits. — There  are  about  a dozen  places  in  plane  and  solid 
geometry  in  which  the  method  of  limits  is  used  to  deal  with  the  in- 
commensurable numbers  which  have  arisen  in  the  work.  In  nearly 
all  cases  the  proofs  are  so  cast  that  a variable  number  is  determined 
in  two  different  ways  independent  of  each  other,  and  use  is  made  of 
the  following  “ Theorem  of  Limits 

“If  two  variables  are  equal  and  each  approaches  a limit,  the  limits 
are  equal.” 

Pupils  seem  to  be  able  to  learn  to  repeat  the  words  of  this  theorem 
while  failing  in  many  cases  to  appreciate  the  cogency  of  the  proof  in 
which  it  is  used.  The  treatment  of  limits  in  geometry  is  the  source 
of  much  discontent  not  only  among  the  teachers  themselves,  but  also 
among  the  university  examiners  and  professors. 

V.  Trigonometry. 

Introductory. — Definition  of  the  functions  of  an  acute  angle;  general- 
ization to  angles  in  any  quadrant.  Representation  of  the  functions 
by  lines  drawn  on  a unit  circle;  change  in  the  values  of  functions  from 
one  quadrant  to  another. 

Formulas. — Proof  of  the  formulas  for  the  sine  and  cosine  of  the 
sum  and  of  the  difference  of  two  angles;  of  the  tangent  of  the  sum  and 
of  the  difference;  of  the  sine,  cosine,  and  tangent  of  the  double  and 
the  half  of  an  angle;  formulas  for  the  transformation  of  the  sum  or 
the  difference  of  two  sines  or  two  cosines  into  products;  practice  in 
the  use  of  all  these  formulas  in  reductions. 

Logarithms. — Generally  logarithms  are  studied  at  this  point. 

Triangles. — Application  of  logarithms  to  computation  of  a right 
triangle;  proofs  of  formulas  for  an  oblique  triangle,  using  trigono- 
metric algebra  as  much  as  possible.  Simple  applications  to  survey- 
ing and  navigation. 

VI.  Advanced  Algebra. 

Topics  treated. — Under  this  head  are  given  various  disconnected 
topics  including:  Theory  of  quadratic  equations,  with  graphs  of 
y = ax2  + bx  + c;  solution  of  numerical  equations  of  higher  degree  in 
one  unknown,  with  graphical  illustration;  occasionally  successive 
derivatives  of  algebraic  polynomials,  geometrically  interpreted,  are 
incidentally  taken  up  as  far  as  advisable  in  utilizing  graphs  for  ex- 
planation; occasionally  trigonometric  solutions  are  given  for  certain 
equations.  Choice  and  chance.  Determinants,  with  practice  in  reduc- 
tion and  evaluation  (the  multiplication  theorem  omitted).  Indeter- 
minate coefficients. 


22 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Purpose. — The  sole  purpose  in  this  course  seems  to  be  to  furnish 
information  that  may  be  useful  in  later  mathematical  study. 

Oonfusion  of  title. — In  many  schools  the  latter  part  of  the  course  in 
elementary  algebra  described  previously  is  styled  “ Advanced  algebra.’  ’ 
This  usage  is  confusing  and  should  be  avoided. 

VII.  Arithmetic. 

In  addition  to  the  subjects  which  are  generally  recognized  as  secon- 
dary school  studies,  many  high  schools  give  a half  year  in  arithmetic. 
In  smaller  schools  and  in  districts  where  the  elementary  schools  are 
not  so  effective,  either  on  account  of  short  terms  or  on  account  of 
more  recent  establishment  of  public  school  education,  this  is  given  at 
the  beginning  of  high  school  work;  in  other  schools  it  is  given  after 
the  years  devoted  to  algebra  and  geometry,  and  is  called  “ Advanced 
arithmetic.”  The  topics  are  not  in  any  respect  different  from  those 
treated  in  elementary  schools,  though  the  problems  are  somewhat 
more  difficult  and  aim  at  a closer  correlation  with  commercial  prac- 
tice. There  is  a decided  purpose  to  attain  facility  and  accuracy  in 
routine  operations.  Little  or  no  effort  is  made  to  treat  arithmetic 
as  a science,  or  as  having  any  real  connection  with  the  other  mathe- 
matical subjects  in  high  school  work. 

GROWTH  OF  THE  COLLEGE  REQUIREMENT. 

Harvard  College  as  Example. 

Advance  of  the  last  60  years . — The  definition  which  we  have  just 
completed  of  the  subjects  of  mathematics  covered  in  high  school 
work  represents  a very  considerable  advance  over  the  conditions  60 
years  ago.  This  change  can  be  well  traced  by  a study  of  the  require- 
ments for  admission  to  Harvard  College. 

Early  textbooks. — In  1845  Lacroix’s  Arithmetic,  Euler’s  Algebra, 
Davies’s  First  Lessons  and  his  Introduction  to  Geometry  “to  VII  of 
Proportions”  and  “Algebra  to  the  Extent  of  Square  Root”  were  re- 
quired for  admission;  this  was  a larger  requirement  than  was  made 
at  that  time  by  any  other  New  England  college. 

In  1866  Chase’s  Common  School  Arithmetic,  Sherwin’s  Common 
School  Algebra  ‘To  Section  XXXVIII, ” and  Hill’s  Second  Book  in 
Geometry,  parts  I and  II,  were  required.  The  algebra  require- 
ments so  defined  omitted  radicals  and  fractional  exponents,  pro- 
portions, and  algebraic  and  geometric  progressions.  The  scope 
of  the  geometry  requirement  is  considerably  less  than  that  of  the 
subject  of  plane  geometry  to-day;  it  is  developed  in  the  textbook 
referred  to  by  first  acquainting  the  pupil  with  the  facts  of  geometry, 
and  then  discussing  the  methods  of  proof,  together  with  some  sug- 
gestion of  how  proofs  can  be  arrived  at. 

The  next  year  the  metric  system  was  added  to  the  arithmetic 
requirement,  and  algebra  was  defined  as  “through  quadratics.”  No 


PUBLIC  GENERAL  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


23 


reference  was  made  to  a particular  textbook  for  these  two  subjects; 
but  elementary  plane  geometry  was  defined  by  the  “first  13  chapters 
of  Pierce’s  Treatise.  ” In  the  next  year  the  practical  use  of  logarithms 
(not  the  theory)  was  advised,  and  was  required  the  following  year. 

Elective  requirements.- — In  1870,  while  the  old  subjects  of  examina- 
tion were  retained  for  such  as  chose  to  take  them,  an  alternative  spe- 
cification was  made  with  a much  reduced  requirement  in  Latin  and 
Greek  and  an  increased  requirement  in  mathematics.  This  in- 
cluded permutations,  probability,  determinants,  in  algebra;  solid 
geometry;  theory  and  use  of  logarithms;  plane  trigonometry  “by 
the  analytic  method”;  elementary  mechanics  and  hydrostatics. 

For  some  years  the  experiment  was  tried  of  accepting  plane  analytic 
geometry  as  an  examination  subject;  but  it  seems  to  have  been  on  the 
whole  unsatisfactory,  and  within  the  last  10  or  12  years  it  has  not 
been  included  among  the  alternative  requirements  for  admission. 

Changes  in  subject  matter. — The  textbooks  by  Thomas  Hill,  re- 
ferred to  above,  contained  a few  numerical  exercises  and  “originals” 
(riders),  and  did  not  rigidly  limit  the  subject  by  the  compass-and- 
ruler  canon;  Davies’s  Legendre,  which  was  much  more  widely  used, 
was  merely  Euclid  rearranged ; it  was  studied  more  often  as  a classic 
document  than  as  a scientific  textbook;  and  it  contained  no  originals. 
Chauvenet’s  geometry,  published  about  1870,  contained  good  origi- 
nals, not  very  carefully  graded,  281  of  them  on  the  five  “books”  of 
plane  geometry.  It  was  not  until  1875,  and  then  only  for  an  “op- 
tional” examination,  that  originals  in  geometry  appeared  among  the 
requirements  for  admission  to  Harvard  College;  for  this  the  exercises 
in  Chauvenet’s  geometry  were  recommended  as  affording  a good 
preparation. 

In  the  textbooks  of  algebra  50  years  ago  much  more  stress  was 
placed  on  logical  exposition  than  on  the  solution  of  problems.  The 
development  of  arithmetic,  as  followed  in  the  textbooks  of  the  ele- 
mentary school,  was  faithfully  imitated  in  algebra,  and  various 
“operations”  (some,  like  the  square  and  cube  root  of  polynomials, 
having  no  conceivable  use,  and  others  mere  pedantic  elaborations  of 
methods  that  in  simpler  form  were  well  worth  while)  were  laboriously 
discussed  and  exploited  before  the  use  of  equations  in  discussing 
problems  was  entered  upon. 

The  algebras  of  Todliunter  and  Hamblin  Smith,  in  England,  were 
followed  in  America  by  Wentworth’s  Algebra,  published  about  1881. 
The  exercises  in  the  latter  book,  which  were  widely  commended  by 
the  teachers  of  the  day  as  “well  chosen,  numerous,  and  carefully 
graded,  ” were  the  selling  feature,  and  the  book  sprang  into  great 
popularity  at  once.  The  idea  was  to  “learn  by  doing,”  and  since 
that  time  the  exercises  have  been  of  much  greater  importance  in  text- 
books and  in  teaching  than  before. 


24 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Causes  of  change. — The  changes  thus  noted  in  the  school  work  ol' 
algebra  and  geometry  are  the  result  of  attempts  to  take  subjects 
that  were  originally  a part  of  the  college  curriculum  and  adapt  them 
to  the  comprehension  of  high -school  pupils.  Abstract  discussion 
was  to  be  replaced  by  means  for  practical  drill;  the  teacher,  rather 
than  the  mathematical  scholar,  was  the  arbiter  in  choosing  books. 
At  first  he  rejected  books  like  Hill’s  and  Sherwin’s,  which  were  actu- 
ally better  adapted  to  his  classes,  for  those  which  had  been  familiar 
to  him  in  his  own  work  in  college.  From  those  the  progress  was 
gradual.  Ten  years  ago  a prospectus  of  the  two  books  last  referred 
to  would  have  seemed  quite  up  to  date. 

RECENT  PROGRESS. 

The  last  10  years. — In  the  last  10  years  changes  in  the  details  of 
high-school  mathematics  have  been  radical  and  rapid.1  They  are 
largely  the  result  of  the  active  interest  taken  in  the  work  of  high- 
school  teachers  by  university  professors,  and  of  the  conference  be- 
tween high-school  men  of  different  localities.  Both  of  these  influ- 
ences have  made  themselves  felt  through  teachers’  associations.  So 
far  as  the  changes  and  tendencies  referred  to  have  actually  begun  to 
affect  teaching,  they  appear  in  recently  published  textbooks  in  good 
use.  For  this  reason  the  committee  has  examined  some  thirty  of  the 
recent  high-school  books  on  algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry, 
and  presents  the  results  of  that  examination  here. 

The  order  of  topics. — In  almost  all  these  books  geometry  is  sup- 
posed to  follow  a year’s  work  in  algebra,  though  there  are  one  or  two 
books,  whose  success  is  still  not  completely  assured,  which  essay  a 
combination  of  the  two  subjects.  A combination  (or  “blending”) 
of  plane  and  solid  geometry  does  not  seem  to  have  been  seriously 
attempted. 

In  algebra  the  order  of  topics  is  only  slightly  varied  from  the 
following: 

1.  Introduction,  negative  numbers,  etc. 

2.  “The  four  operations.  ” 

3.  Factors,  H.  C.  F.  and  L.  C.  M.  by  factoring. 

4.  Fractions. 

5.  Simple  equations  and  problems. 

6.  Elimination,  linear  systems. 

7.  Powers  and  roots,  exponents,  radicals. 

8.  Quadratic  equations. 

9.  Elimination  of  quadratics. 

10.  Literal  equations,  generalization. 

11.  Proportion,  “the  progressions,”  logarithms. 

12.  The  binomial  theorem. 

1 See  “Present  Tendencies  in  the  Teaching  of  Geometry”  (in  the  United  States)  inA.W.  Stamper's 
History  of  the  Teaching  of  Geometry,  New  York,  Columbia  University  (1906). 


PUBLIC  GENERAL  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS.  25 

In  geometry  the  order  of  development  is  still  mostly  that  of  Le- 
gendre, the  five  books  of  plane  geometry  being  successively  polygons, 
circles,  similar  figures,  areas,  and  regular  polygons;  and  the  solid- 
geometry  order  being  planes  and  lines,  polyhedral  angles,  prisms  and 
pyramids,  and  the  “three  round  bodies.  ” Two  books  transpose  the 
third  and  fourth  books  of  plane  geometry ; here  and  there  also  is  shown 
a disposition  to  group  propositions  in  smaller  lists  than  the  “books/ ; 
without,  however,  changing  the  order  much. 

The  textbooks  in  trigonometry  agree  fairly  well  on  the  topics 
which  should  be  taken,  but  differ  widely  in  their  estimate  of  the  rela- 
tive importance  of  these  topics. 

A common  arrangement  of  topics  is  the  following:  Functions  of  an 
acute  angle;  solution  of  right  triangles  by  natural  functions  and  by 
logarithms;  functions  of  any  angle;  general  value  of  an  angle;  the 
addition  and  subtraction  formulas ; formulas  for  double  an  angle  and 
half  an  angle;  the  conversion  formulas;  and  the  solution  of  oblique 
triangle  by  logarithms.  In  addition  to  these  topics,  we  find  the 
radian  measure,  inverse  functions,  and  the  line  representation  of 
functions,  and,  in  some  books,  graphical  discussion  of  functions  and 
a careful  treatment  of  the  measurement  of  angles  near  0°  and  90°. 

Graphical  methods  of  discussion. — For  some  15  years  there  has 
been  increasing  pressure  for  the  introduction  of  Cartesian  coordinates 
as  an  instrument  of  study  in  elementary  algebra.  It  began  to  appear 
in  the  schoolbooks  about  1898.  All  but  one  of  the  books  here 
examined  make  use  of  this  device ; sometimes  it  is  given  in  a separate 
chapter,  in  one  case  in  an  appendix.  In  a few  others  it  is  made  an 
effective  part  of  the  structure  of  the  subject.  The  word  “function” 
is  sometimes  used,  but  even  without  it  the  work  generally  begins  by 
plotting  curves  in  which  y is  a non-algebraic  function  of  x,  so  that  the 
student  gets  some  insight  into  the  functional  relation. 

The  graph  of  a two-letter  linear  equation  is  pointed  out  as  a straight 
line.  No  proof  is  given,  though  one  book  remarks  that  the  “proof 
follows  easily  from  the  geometry  of  similar  triangles.”  Elimination 
of  linear  pairs  is  illustrated,  generally  also  linear-quadratic  and 
quadratic  pairs.  No  comment  is  made,  as  a general  thing,  on  the 
limitation  of  this  illustration  to  two-letter  equations. 

In  about  one-lialf  of  the  books  the  solution  of  a numerical  quad- 
ratic equation  by  the  use  of  a standard  parabola  (y=x2)  and  a straight 
edge  is  mentioned,  and  its  use  recommended  as  a check  on  the  solution 
obtained  by  the  algebraic  process. 

Computation.- — In  spite  of  the  fact  that  John  Perry’s  propositions 
for  reform  in  mathematical  teaching  have  been  widely  and  on  the 
whole  favorably  considered  in  this  country,  not  one  of  the  textbooks 
of  algebra,  and  only  one  of  those  in  geometry,  makes  any  reference 
to  the  number  of  significant  figures  in  a number  as  a criterion  of  the 


20  MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

degree  of  approximation.  None  gives  any  directions  for  economical 
methods  of  computation  having  regard  to  the  degree  of  accuracy 
warranted  by  the  data,  or  gives  problems  with  data  appropriate  for 
such  practice. 

In  a geometry  textbook  of  excellent  character  and  long  use, 
problems  appear  in  which  the  data  are  such  as  would  occur  under 
the  actual  circumstances  described  in  the  problem;  but  no  directions 
were  given  for  dealing  economically  with  the  difficulties  of  arithmetic 
thus  introduced,  and  the  problems  were  considered  unsuitable  by 
the  schools.  In  the  more  modern  books  here  examined  the  data  are 
all  of  the  predigested  sort  (one  or  two-figure  integers). 

In  trigonometry  the  subject  of  approximate  computation  in 
general,  and  the  fact  that  only  approximate  results  can  be  obtained 
by  the  use  of  trigonometric  functions,  are  rarely  referred  to. 

Checks. — The  practice  of  checking  the  solution  of  an  equation  in 
algebra  by  substituting  the  roots,  and  checking  an  algebraic  trans- 
formation by  substituting  arbitrary  values,  appears  in  almost  all 
the  algebra  textbooks.  In  trigonometry  the  subject  of  checks  for 
the  solution  of  triangles  is  not  carefully  treated — several  books  give 
no  checks  except  the  obvious  one  for  the  angles  when  the  sides  of  the 
triangle  are  given.  The  topic  does  not  appear  at  all  in  geometry. 
No  reference  is  made  anywhere  to  methods  of  checking  the  details  of 
computation;  it  being  assumed,  no  doubt,  that  the  matter  has  been 
adequately  treated  in  the  study  of  arithmetic.  The  textbooks  in 
that  subject,  and  the  irresponsible  habits  of  the  pupils  in  computing, 
do  not  furnish  good  ground  for  such  an  assumption. 

Notation. — In  algebra  there  is  a tendency  to  break  the  monopoly 
that  the  letter  £ has  had  in  representing  numbers  whose  value  is  sought. 
The  symbol  ^ for  “is  not  equal  to”  and  the  symbol  = for  algebraic 
identity  have  come  into  use.  In  geometry  the  symbol  = is  apparently 
favored  for  congruence,  instead  of  which  already  had  good  author- 
ity. For  the  exceedingly  mysterious  thing  which  some  authors  call 
the  “ intrinsic”  sign  of  a number,  a diminutive  plus  or  minus  sign  is 
sometimes  used. 

The  notation  of  lower-case  letters  for  lines  and  for  lengths  of  lines 
has  at  last  been  introduced  into  elementary  geometry  textbooks, 
to  the  great  advantage  of  the  algebraic  proofs.  This  appears  in  three 
of  these  books,  one  of  which  applies  it  very  imperfectly.  The  same 
book  also  uses  lower-case  letters  to  represent  the  number  of  degrees 
in  an  angle,  though  analogy  to  the  unlimited  and  the  limited  straight 
lines  would  suggest  using  a capital  for  both  the  point  and  its  asso- 
ciated magnitude,  the  angle. 

Logical  terms. — The  technical  terms  of  logic  are  mostly  avoided. 
The  term  “reductio  ad  absurdum”  occurs  in  three;  the  same  thing  is 
called  “indirect  proof”  in  four  others;  the  “method  of  exclusion”  is 


PUBLIC  GENERAL  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


27 


pointed  out  in  three.  “Reductio  ad  absurdum”  and  the  1 ‘method 
of  exclusion”  are  both  classified  as  “indirect  proof”  in  one  book, 
while  “indirect  proof”  and  the  “method  of  exclusion”  are  both 
classified  as  “reductio  ad  absurdum”  in  another.  One  book  manages 
to  avoid  all  mention  of  these  terms. 

The  logical  inverse  is  called  the  converse  in  all  current  textbooks, 
and  there  is  no  exception  in  these  latest  books.  The  obverse  is  so 
called  in  one  book,  is  called  the  opposite  in  two  others,  and  is  omitted 
in  the  rest.  The  contraposite  is  so  called  in  one,  is  called,  curiously, 
the  contradictory  in  another,  and  is  not  mentioned  in  the  rest, 
although  one  book  points  out  the  equivalence  of  the  converse  and  the 
opposite. 

The  term  “immediate  inference”  is  given  and  much  used  in  one 
book.  Homothetic  position  is  used  for  the  similarity  theorems  in 
two  of  these  textbooks,  but  under  different  names  (“radially  situated,” 
“in  perspective”),  and  in  only  one  of  them  is  it  systematically  used 
as  a means  of  demonstration. 

Innovations. — The  changes  in  the  subject  matter  of  algebra  have 
been  referred  to  under  preceding  heads.  Those  in  geometry  are  much 
less  extensive,  no  doubt  because  of  a widespread  belief  in  the  invul- 
nerability of  the  logical  structure  represented  by  the  successively 
dependent  propositions.  The  treatment  of  incommensurable  mag- 
nitudes in  geometry  seems,  in  particular,  to  be  protected  by  sacred 
tradition. 

The  theorem  of  limits,  namely,  that  “if  two  variables  are  equal  and 
each  approaches  a limit,  the  limits  are  equal,”  is  used  systematically 
in  all  but  two  of  the  books  examined,  and  one  of  these  puts  it  in  an 
appendix. 

The  similarity  theorems  are  based  on  the  area  theorems  in  two. 
Axial  and  central  symmetry  are  both  used  in  three,  and  neither  appears 
alone.  The  idea  of  symmetry  is  used  for  comment  and  illustration 
rather  than  as  a method  of  attack  or  as  a resource  in  argument. 

A decided  innovation  is  the  custom  of  explaining  methods  of  attack 
for  new  theorems;  this  is  contained  in  almost  all  of  the  newer  text- 
books. 

The  word  “congruent”  is  used  in  four  books,  one  of  the  others 
using  the  old-fashioned  phrase,  “equal  in  all  respects.”  Only  one 
of  the  books  using  the  word  “congruent”  uses  the  word  “equal”  in 
the  sense  of  “equivalent.” 

In  solid  geometry  also  there  are  few  innovations — that  is,  innova- 
tions so  far  as  really  popular  use  is  concerned.  Among  them  are 
shaded  figures  or  photographs  of  actual  models,  the  spherical  degree 
(or  “spherid”  as  one  book  calls  it)  as  the  unit  of  area  on  the  sphere, 
and  the  prismoidal  formula.  None  of  the  books  speaks  of  a “unit  of 
solid  angle;”  it  is  always  a “unit  of  area  on  the  sphere.”  Some, 


28 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


even  of  the  most  enterprising  of  these  authors,  adhere  to  the  trirec- 
tangular  triangle  as  a unit.  The  prismoidal  formula  is  apparently 
not  introduced  as  a means  of  simplifying  the  logical  structure;  it  is 
rather  a new  addition  to  the  old  task. 

Problems  in  algebra. — Much  more  space  is  given  to  equations,  and 
to  problems  giving  rise  to  equations,  as  a response  to  the  frequently 
repeated  contention  of  teachers,  uttered  in  magazine  articles  and  in 
teachers’  associations,  that  the  equation  should  be  the  fundamental 
work  at  least  for  the  first  year.  In  most  cases,  however,  the  prepara- 
tory study  of  transformations  (multiplication  and  division,  factoring, 
fractions,  etc.)  is  carried  to  a degree  far  beyond  what  is  necessary  for 
the  manipulation  of  any  reasonably  probable  equations,  certainly 
beyond  what  are  given  during  first-year  work.  The  study  presents, 
therefore,  a somewhat  disconnected  aspect — first,  transformations 
treated  in  a systematic  and  fairly  complete  fashion,  with  a few  intru- 
sive illustrations  of  the  application  of  them  to  equations  that  do  not 
need  much;  then,  equations  treated  as  material  for  practice  of  a 
small  part  of  this  manipulation;  and,  finally,  problems,  hopefully 
sought  from  newer  quarries,  designed  to  show  how  equations  might 
arise  that  could  be  managed  by  this  manipulative  skill. 

It  would  probably  be  easy  for  a young  person  of  good  judgment, 
engaged  in  reviewing  his  high-school  algebra,  to  learn  that  problems 
cause  the  invention  of  equations,  and  that  transformations  are  neces- 
sary for  the  solution  of  equations.  The  prominence  given,  however,  to 
this  systematic  development  of  what  must  be  considered  the  mechani- 
cal side  of  algebra  tends  to  weaken  the  interest  of  the  pupil  in  that 
part  of  the  subj  ect  that  is  of  most  value,  not  only  to  him  whose  educa- 
tion stops  with  the  high  school,  but  surely  also  with  the  future 
student  of  engineering  or  of  pure  mathematics;  the  study,  that  is, 
of  expressing  the  conditions  of  actuality  in  mathematical  form,  and 
of  interpreting  mathematical  results  in  terms  of  time,  space,  and 
things. 

The  problems  in  all  these  books  are  very  plentiful;  sometimes  the 
teacher  is  warned  that  the  work  should  not  include  the  solution  of  all 
the  problems,  and  that  their  profusion  is  his  opportunity  to  vary 
his  work  from  class  to  class  and  to  specify  fresh  problems  for  review 
lessons.  While  the  character  of  the  problems  in  three  of  the  books  is 
strictly  orthodox,  the  others  take  their  data  freely  from  geometry, 
physics,  and  even  from  engineering  and  dietetics  (!).  There  is  no 
hesitation  in  utilizing  the  properties  of  similar  triangles,  or  the  pheno- 
mena of  falling  bodies;  but  there  is  a chaste  reluctance  to  do  anything 
more  than  mention  the  existence  of  reasons  at  the  back  of  the  facts 
and  formulas  used.  Our  old  friend  the  clock  problem  survives  the 
dead  and  buried  hare  and  hound,  and  the  solution  in  odd  elevenths 
of  a second  continues  to  pass  without  challenge. 


PUBLIC  GENERAL  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


29 


Long  division,  square  root,  and  generally  cube  root  of  algebraic 
expressions  are  still  treated  at  length,  without  any  comment  on  the 
futility  of  the  pupil’s  attempt  when  the  result  does  not  “come  out 
even.”  1 

The  comment  that  an  extraneous  root  of  a radical  equation  can  be 
made  to  satisfy  the  equation  1 1 by  suitably  choosing  between  the  two 
possible  signs  of  a square  root”  is  passing  out  of  use. 

Problems  in  geometry. — The  number  of  “ original”  exercises  to 
which  the  pupil  is  expected  to  apply  his  newly  acquired  knowledge 
varies  from  600  to  1,200  in  plane  geometry,  and  from  300  to  600  in 
solid.  Some  of  them  use  freely  the  results  of  the  modern  geometry 
of  the  triangle  and  of  projective  geometry,  but  without  any  intro- 
duction of  the  corresponding  modern  methods  in  the  text.  One 
book,  however,  includes  the  nine-point  circle,  the  radical  axis,  and 
the  notion  of  reciprocal  theorems  in  the  regular  text,  but  omits  all 
mention  of  symmetry. 

Some  effort  is  made  to  create  a “practical”  atmosphere,  and  one 
or  two  modern  books  are  rich  in  allusions  to  and  illustrations  of  such 
things  as  surveying,  parquetry,  and  architecture.  They  are  dealt 
with,  however,  by  the  sometimes  cumbrous  methods  of  Euclidean 
geometry,  instead  of  by  such  means  as  practical  men  would  use. 

The  fundamental  definitions  of  trigonometry  appear,  and  in  a 
couple  of  books  the  tables  of  natural  functions;  in  one  there  are  two- 
place  tables,  in  the  other  a four-place,  while  in  both  is  used  what 
seems  to  be  a three-figure  angle  (degrees,  and  tenths  by  interpolation). 

Loci. — The  definition  of  a locus  is  introduced  at  the  very  beginning 
in  one  textbook;  in  Book  II  in  another;  in  most  of  them  it  appears  in 
Book  I in  connection  with  the  theorems  about  perpendiculars  and 
bisectors.  In  no  textbook  does  the  locus  of  an  algebraic  equation  in 
two  variables  appear,  though  this  would  seem  a not  inadvisable 
corollary  of  the  introduction  of  graphs  into  algebra.  The  nearest 
thing  to  it  is  the  problem  to  find  the  locus  of  a point  moving  so  that 
the  figures  determining  it  retain  certain  numerical  properties,  as  in 
the  locus  of  the  vertex  of  a triangle  with  fixed  base  and  constant 
perimeter.  The  “real”  or  “practical”  locus  problem  is  still  rare;  a 
type  of  such  is  the  artisan’s  way  of  testing  the  cross-section  of  a 
cylindrical  core  box  with  a steel  square. 

While  no  reference  whatever  is  made  to  the  locus  of  an  equa- 
tion in  the  text  books  on  geometry,  some  of  the  trigonometries  use 
it  in  tracing  the  changes  in  the  values  of  sine,  tangent,  etc.,  as  the 
angle  varies ; all  of  them,  however,  make  some  reference  to  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  trigonometric  ratios  by  lines  related  to  a unit  circle. 
Onfy  one  comments  on  the  important  fact  that  here  we  have  a line 
representing  a pure  number. 


See  Missouri  Teachers’  Course  in  Algebra,  § I,  (6),  § X,  (c).  School  Science,  April,  1908. 


30 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Problems  in  trigonometry. — The  problems  in  trigonometry  text- 
books comprise  the  proofs  of  identities  and  the  numerical  solution  of 
equations  as  opportunities  for  practice  in  the  transformations  of 
trigonometric  expressions;  and  also  the  solutions  of  plane  triangles, 
with  applications  to  questions  of  surveying,  civil  engineering,  and 
navigation.  The  pupil  is  expected  to  remember  all  the  formulas 
referred  to  on  page  21. 

Spherical  trigonometry  is  usually  considered  a college  subject,  but 
spherical  right  (and  quadrantal)  triangles  are  often  dealt  with  in  the 
secondary  school.  With  these  the  so-called  Napier’s  Rules  furnish 
the  possibility  of  memorizing  formulas,  apparently  an  indispensable 
requisite  in  subjects  offered  for  admission  examinations. 

Only  one  of  these  books  mentions  the  fact  that  oblique  triangles 
may  be  solved  by  dividing  them  into  right  triangles.  The  idea  of 
projection  and  of  the  angle  functions  as  projection  ratios  does  not 
enter  into  these  books.  One  book  refers  to  it,  but  makes  little  use 
of  it. 

The  solution  of  oblique  triangles  comes  late,  following  the  addition 
and  subtraction  formulas.  One  book  gives  a geometric  proof  for  the 
tangent  formula.  Angles  are  generally  expressed  in  degrees,  minutes, 
and  seconds;  two  books  have  degrees,  minutes,  and  decimals  of  a 
minute,  and  one  has  a set  of  examples  in  which  degrees  and  decimals 
of  a degree  are  used.  Few  books  have  a discussion  of  the  theory  of 
logarithms.  It  is  evidently  assumed  that  the  student  has  received 
from  algebra  a knowledge  of  the  nature  and  properties  of  logarithms 
sufficient  for  the  practical  application  to  the  solution  of  triangles. 
The  use  of  the  augmented  characteristic  in  the  case  of  a negative 
logarithm  is  almost  universal. 

We  find  in  one  textbook  the  radian  measurement  introduced  on 
the  second  page  in  the  book  and  no  further  use  made  of  it,  while  in 
another  book  it  is  found  well  along  in  the  book,  where  an  excellent 
discussion  of  it  is  given,  and  frequent  use  is  made  of  it  in  equations, 
identities,  and  problems.  We  find  a similar  condition  of  affairs  when 
we  look  for  the  inverse  functions. 

Only  one  of  the  books  completes  the  solution  of  plane  oblique  tri- 
angles before  entering  upon  the  discussion  of  the  standard  formulas  of 
trigonometric  algebra. 

EXAMINATIONS. 

Before  the  high  school. — Examinations  are  not  generally  required 
of  pupils  applying  for  admission  to  high  school  if  they  have  been 
advanced  through  the  regular  grades  of  the  school  system  up  to  that 
point.  Pupils  from  private  schools  or  from  distant  communities 
are  in  general  examined  for  admission. 

In  the  high  school. — Examinations  are  required  for  promotion 
each  year  and  for  graduation.  In  a very  large  percentage  of  the 


PUBLIC  GENERAL  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


31 


schools  replying  to  our  questions  pupils  attaining  high  marks  (gener- 
ally 90  per  cent)  in  class  work  are  excused  from  these  examinations. 

After  the  high  school. — Examinations  are  required  for  passing 
from  high  school  to  university  except  for  pupils  certified  from  an 
“accredited”  high  school;  that  is,  one  of  which  the  university  has 
officially  approved  the  course  of  study  and  method  of  teaching. 
This  privilege  is  continued  only  to  those  schools  whose  pupils  hear 
out  in  the  main  the  favorable  opinions  expressed  on  their  certificates. 

Effect  of  examinations. — As  to  the  effect  of  these  several  classes  of 
examinations  on  pupils  and  teachers,  diametrically  opposite  view's 
are  expressed,  the  weight  of  opinion  being  apparently  faAmrable 
so  far  as  the  examinations  in  the  high  schools  themselves  are  concerned. 
Various  modifications  of  the  university  admission  examinations  are 
suggested,  such  as  permitting  the  pupil  to  take  all  his  books  into  the 
examination  room  and  to  use  them  as  he  chooses;  the  perfection 
and  extension  of  the  accrediting  system  is  also  suggested. 

“Accrediting”  elementary  schools. — For  passing  from  elementary 
schools  to  high  schools  a few  suggestions  were  made  looking  toward 
a system  similar  to  the  certifying  of  high-school  pupils  for  college,  a 
system  in  which  the  high  schools  should  maintain  an  attitude  of 
friendly  criticism  toward  the  elementary  schools,  testing  their  work 
rather  bv  its  efficiency  as  preparation  for  subsequent  study  than  by  a 
written  examination. 

METHODS. 

Relative  popularity. — In  the  questionnaire  issued  by  this  committee 
12  methods  wrere  listed,  the  names  being  taken  from  well-known 
books  on  the  teaching  of  mathematics.  The  replies  indicated  clearly, 
by  practice  or  preference,  that  five  of  these  methods  were  most  popular: 

Measurement  and  computation. 

Laboratory  method. 

Use  of  models. 

Use  of  cross-section  paper. 

Individual  method. 

Next  in  order  of  popularity,  after  a considerable  interval,  come 
the  following : 

Combination  of  algebra  and  geometry. 

Out-of-door  work. 

Paper  folding. 

Observational  geometry,  to  precede  deductive  geometry. 

The  least  popular  of  the  12  suggestions  offered  were  the  com- 
bination of  plane  and  solid  geometry  and  of  geometry  and  trigo- 
nometry; next  to  them  in  unpopularity,  curiousty  enough,  is  the 
“heuristic”  method;  and,  in  view  of  the  noticeable  tendency  in 
recent  and  widely  adopted  textbooks,  the  inference  is  unavoidable 


32 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS, 


that  this  apparent  unpopularity  is  due  to  the  fact  that  “heuristic” 
is  a hard  word. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  low  position  of  “observational”  geometry 
in  these  reports  is  significant.  A progressive  teacher  in  Arkansas 
writes : “We  tried  a six  weeks’  course  in  observational  geometry  in  the 
second  high-school  year  and  saved  time  by  it,  but  the  pupils  did  not 
like  it;  they  were  too  old.”  The  most  successful  work  in  observa- 
tional geometry  has  been  in  schools  where  it  could  be  done  by  pupils 
of  12  years  of  age;  the  six-year  high  school  is  probably  a necessary 
condition  for  the  best  use  of  this  expedient. 

Outdoor  work  and  paper  folding  depend  on  local  conditions  and 
individual  teachers,  respectively.  One  high-school  teacher  borrows 
a transit  from  the  city  engineer  every  spring.  Paper  folding,  used 
occasionally  for  symmetry  propositions  at  the  beginning  of  geometry, 
has  not  been  found  available  for  much  else. 

The  combination  of  algebra  and  geometry  has  a good  start  in  the 
sense  that  algebra  is  applied  to  the  discussion  of  geometry  problems 
involving  numerical  relations,  but  except  in  isolated  cases  there  has 
been  no  blending  or  interweaving  of  the  two  subjects  into  one. 

The  five  topics  listed  as  the  most  popular  emphasize  the  decided 
tendency  to  cultivate  the  intuitional  side,  to  utilize  sight,  touch, 
and  muscular  sense  as  avenues  to  the  pupils’  intelligence. 

Separate  problem  book. — One  or  two  attempts  have  been  made  by 
publishers  to  present  algebra  by  means  of  a manual  and  an  exercise 
book  separately,  but  except  for  review  work  this  plan  is  hardly 
ever  followed..  Principles  and  practice  appear  not  only  in  the  same 
book,  but  as  nearly  as  possible  on  the  same  page. 

The  use  of  models. — Models,  in  most  cases  made  by  the  pupils 
themselves  with  cardboard,  wire,  and  fine  cord,  or  thread,  are  very 
much  used  in  solid  geometry. 

The  model  for  equivalent  parallelopipeds  and  for  the  dissection  of  a 
triangle  prism  into  three  equivalent  pyramids  can  not  generally 
be  so  made,  and  the  school  owns  the  patterns,  if  it  is  not  so  fortunate 
as  to  own  the  right  sort  of  teacher.  The  spherical  blackboard 
is  generally  used. 

Squared  paper. — Cross-section  paper  is  very  much  used,  generally 
for  the  illustration  of  elimination,  sometimes  also  for  the  introduction 
of  the  idea  of  function.  A considerable  opportunity  here  for  the 
correlation  of  algebra  and  geometry  seems  to  be  entirely  neglected. 
Little  or  no  attempt  is  made  to  find  approximate  solutions  graphically, 
in  cases  where  elementary  algebra  wi  11  not  help  out. 

Computation. — Measurement  and  computation  are  undertaken  in 
true  schoolroom  style.  No  attempt  is  made  to  work  to  a specified 
degree  of  accuracy,  or  to  acquire  convenient  and  systematic  habits 
of  computation.  Logarithms  are  only  used  in  the  trigonometry 
class,  and  the  slide  ride  has  not  appeared  in  high  schools. 


PUBLIC  GENERAL  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


33 


Improvement  of  problems. — Search  is  being  made  everywhere  for 
problems  that  make  a more  direct  appeal  to  the  interest  of  the  pupil 
than  the  collections  handed  down  by  previous  generations.  Even  in 
the  not  infrequent  case  where  these  problems  are  themselves  highly 
improbable  as  instances  of  perplexity  in  human  beings,  some  gain  is 
made  by  clothing  the  inventions  of  the  schoolmaster  in  the  words  of 
people  that  walk  the  streets  to-day,  and  a great  many  of  them  are 
“real”  problems  of  “practical”  import. 

The  marks. — The  marks  by  which  pupils  are  ranked  and  promoted 
are  most  frequently  based  on  oral  recitations  and  on  exercises  written 
out  in  the  classroom;  written  examinations  at  stated  intervals  and 
the  teacher’s  general  estimate  of  the  pupil’s  power  and  achievement 
are  also  utilized  for  this  purpose;  and  least  often  exercises  written  out 
at  home  or  voluntary  original  work. 

Failures. — Failures  are  reported  as  low  as  3 per  cent  of  the  member- 
ship of  the  class  and  as  high  as  45  per  cent;  most  of  the  reports  are 
evenly  distributed  from  5 to  25  per  cent.  The  State  superintendent’s 
report  for  New  Hampshire  is  probably  a typical  result  for  small  high 
schools;  it  contains  the  following  details: 


Results  of  examinations. 


Number 

passed. 

Number 

failed. 

Per  cent 
failed. 

First  year  algebra 

1,666 

364 

385 

19 

Second  year  algebra 1 

45 

11 

Third  year  algebra1 

668 

23 

3 

Plane  geometry,  Books  I and  II 

1,243 

134 

10 

Plane  geometry,  completed 

632 

23 

3 

Solid  geometry 

169 

7 

4 

Advanced  arithmetic 

590 

95 

14 

Trigonometry 

84 

1 

i Second  and  third  year  algebra  are  not  consecutive. 


All  the  results  reported  are  likely  to  give  too  low  an  estimate  of 
the  number  of  failures,  mostly  because  they  are  tested  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  teacher  conducting  the  course,  and  with  a view  to 
deciding  whether  work  assigned  has  been  performed;  not  by  ascer- 
taining the  pupil’s  efficiency  in  a subsequent  course  of  study  for 
which  his  high-school  work  is  a necessary  preparation.  A special 
report  on  failures  in  high-school  mathematics  has  been  prepared  by 
a subcommittee  of  which  Mr.  William  Betz  is  chairman. 

Unsatisfactory  records. — The  pupils’  marks  in  different  studies  are 
generally  entered  on  a permanent  record,  available  for  reference  in 
subsequent  years.  The  keeping  of  these  records  is  an  irksome  task, 
involving  a considerable  amount  of  clerical  labor  after  the  actual 
teaching  has  been  completed ; it  is  often  neglected.  So  far  as  furnish- 
ing data  from  educational  experience  is  concerned,  it  is  practically 
worthless,  and  will  continue  to  be  so  until  it  is  very  much  expanded. 

9560°— 11 3 


34 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Valuable  details  unattainable. — Any  investigator  consulting  a high- 
school  record  would  be  unable  to  ascertain  whether  a pupil  is  proficient 
in  numerical  computation,  in  algebraic  manipulation,  in  knowledge 
of  mathematical  facts,  in  comprehension  of  successive  logical  depend- 
ence, in  mathematical  invention  and  ingenuity.  These  are  presum- 
ably the  qualities  his  mathematical  studies  are  to  develop.  A pupil 
at  the  head  of  the  rank  list  might  be  presumed  to  be  excellent  in  all, 
and  one  at  the  foot  to  be  a failure  in  all,  though  this  is  not  neces- 
sarily so;  a pupil  midway  between  head  and  foot  may  have  con- 
spicuous defects  in  some  of  these  and  conspicuous  excellencies  in 
others,  and  it  would  be  extremely  important  to  have  this  fact 
definitely  known. 

Educational  values. — Again  the  various  educational  improvements 
suggested  from  time  to  time,  such  as  the  practice  of  checking  numer- 
ical work,  the  use  of  cross-section  paper,  the  use  of  a textbook  without 
full  ready-made  demonstrations,  may  produce  results  that  are  not 
aimed  at,  which  can  only  be  discovered  by  the  isolation  of  these  marks. 
In  general,  such  records  as  these  would  be  indispensable  for  long- 
continued  educational  experiment,  or  for  statistical  investigation. 

No  device  suggested. — The  great  majority  of  our  replies,  while 
admitting  that  such  a system  of  records  was  not  in  use,  were  decidedly 
in  favor  of  it,  but  expressed  great  doubt  as  to  its  feasibility.  The 
only  suggestions  made  for  the  purpose  were  to  the  effect  that  specially 
ruled  class  books  (marking  lists)  would  be  desirable. 

Mathematical  museums. — Practically  every  high  school  has  some 
mathematical  instruments,  models,  etc.,  but  mathematical  museums 
comparable  in  any  degree  with  that  at  Columbia  University  are  very 
rare,  even  in  university  towns. 

Mathematical  clubs  for  pupils. — Of  mathematical  clubs  to  which 
the  pupil  has  access,  there  are  very  few.  There  is  one  at  the  Stuy- 
vesant  High  School  for  Boys  in  New  York,  and  one  is  promised  at 
the  William  Penn  High  School  for  Girls  in  Philadelphia.  The 
McKinley  High  School  in  St.  Louis  reports  as  follows: 

The  Mathematical  Club  of  the  McKinley  High  School  has  been  organized  for  three 
years.  During  the  earlier  part  of  the  organization  the  history  of  elementary  mathe- 
matics was  studied.  Topics  were  assigned  to  the  different  members  of  the  club  and 
reports  were  made  upon  these.  Along  with  this  work  mathematical  curiosities  and 
puzzles  were  presented  and  discussed.  The  more  recent  work  has  had  to  do  with  the 
use  of  the  slide  rule  and  all  kinds  of  graphics  olutions;  problems  were  selected  that 
would  show  wide  use  of  the  slide  rule,  and  other  problems  to  show  the  value  of  graphic 
methods.  Mathematical  puzzles  were  continued. 

AIMS. 

General  culture  and  college. — The  aim  of  high-school  education,  so 
far  as  mathematics  is  concerned,  is  general  culture,  and  at  the  same 
time  is  preparation  for  college.  There  is  a slight  preponderance  of 
popularity  in  favor  of  the  former  reply,  but  the  latter  is  close  enough 


PUBLIC  GENERAL  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


35 


to  it  to  make  it  clear  that  in  the  minds  of  school  committees  and  other 
official  bodies,  general  culture  seems  to  need  the  sort  of  mathematics 
that  is  prescribed  for  admission  to  college.  A considerable  fraction — 
from  25  per  cent  in  the  Middle  West  to  75  per  cent  in  the  Atlantic 
States — include  preparation  for  technical  institutes  as  a part  of 
the  purpose  that  mathematical  education  is  to  fulfill. 

Not  for  occupation. — Of  the  careers  that  teachers  are  consciously 
looking  forward  to  for  their  pupils,  those  of  the  merchant  or  ac- 
countant, the  civil  or  mechanical  engineer,  the  teacher,  the  farmer, 
and  the  “ woman  of  the  house”  are  frequently  mentioned.  It  may 
well  be  doubted  whether  the  mathematical  training  received  in  high 
schools  gives  added  efficiency  to  any  degree,  in  any  of  these  callings ; 
that  is  to  say,  the  effect  of  the  kind  formerly  acclaimed  and  now  dis- 
credited under  the  name  of  general  discipline;  certainly  not  to  any 
greater  degree  than  the  same  amount  of  time  and  interest  applied 
to  geology,  or  chemistry-,  or  even  to  music.  The  pupil  learns  to  solve 
algebraic  equations,  but  does  not  apply  them  to  devising  balanced 
rations  for  the  farm  stock  out  of  the  crop  he  raises;  he  learns  about 
similar  triangles,  but  knows  not  so  much  as  his  grandfather  about  the 
thrust  on  a girder,  or  about  the  way  of  mapping  a river,  or  of  estimating 
the  amount  of  excavation  in  grading  the  house  lot.  He  is  brighter 
and  keener,  because  he  has  been  educated,  and  he  has  self-reliance 
because  he  has  done  things  by  his  own  thinking  power;  but  he  has  had 
nothing  directly  contributory  to  the  special  knowledge  or  aptitude 
required  for  these  occupations  that  he  may  follow — except  teaching; 
surely  he  can  teach  what  he  has  been  taught,  and  he  does.  Thus 
schools  inherit. 

The  college  determines  the  aim  of  high-school  work. — Since  the  high 
school  does  not  prepare  by  means  of  mathematical  teaching  for 
occupations  in  which  the  pupils  may  subsequently  engage,  and  since 
mathematics  as  deemed  desirable  for  general  culture  is  defined  by  the 
entrance  examinations  of  the  university,  the  whole  question  of  the 
aim  of  this  subject  in  high  schools  must  be  decided  by  the  views  of 
university  people,  and  made  known,  aside  from  the  scanty  informa- 
tion of  catalogues,  by  the  character  of  examination  questions.  On 
this  account  the  report  on  examinations  will  be  of  great  interest. 

The  presumption  is,  then,  that  the  subjects  of  high-school  mathe- 
matics contain  information  and  cultivate  aptitudes  that  are  neces- 
sary and  useful  in  college  mathematical  work;  or  that  so  far  as  they 
do  not  do  so,  they  are  more  useful  in  other  ways  than  subjects  that 
would  do  so.  This  is  not  true. 

No  systematic  study  of  the  desiderata. — The  subject  of  geometry,  for 
example,  passed  down  from  the  university  to  the  high  school,  con- 
tinued to  be  taught  with  little  change  of  content  or  method  as  a 
consequence  of  the  transfer.  There  is  no  indication  that  the  present 


36 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS, 


syllabus  of  high-school  mathematics  has  been  adjusted  by  university 
professors  to  the  needs  of  their  departments.  Nobody  knows  what 
parts  of  it  are  absolutely  necessary  for  subsequent  work  in  exact 
science,  or  whether  any  of  the  necessary  parts  could  with  advantage 
be  postponed  to  the  university  and  replaced  by  topics  of  interest 
and  of  greater  value  to  high-school  pupils. 

The  question  is  not  discussed  in  such  a systematic  way  as  that. 
Changes  that  have  been  brought  about,  mostly  additions,  have  been 
fortunate  guesses,  proposed  by  tentative  examination  questions  and 
afterwards  reenforced  by  argument  and  formal  demand.  Such  are 
the  locus  problem  and  the  “original”  or  “rider”  in  geometry,  the 
use  of  graphs  in  algebra.  Within  a few  years  some  inconsiderable 
omissions  have  been  made,  such  as  the  division  process  for  H.  C.  F. 
in  algebra,  the  square  root  of  a binomial  surd,  and  so  on;  and  a 
decidedly  critical  attitude  has  been  maintained  against  the  traditional 
type  of  problems  based  on  highly  impractical  data.  All  these 
things,  while  not  aimless,  can  fairly  be  called  tinkering  rather  than 
scientific  reconstruction. 

Influence  of  teachers ’ associations. — The  formation  of  associations 
of  mathematical  teachers,  in  which  university  professors  are  actively 
interested,  is  bringing  about  a different  attitude  on  this  subject. 
Several  of  them  have  prepared  and  published  reports  on  aims  and 
methods  in  algebra  and  geometry.  The  most  thorough  and  scien- 
tific work  may  be  expected  from  the  committee  appointed  recently 
by  the  National  Education  Association  to  form  a syllabus  of  ele- 
mentary geometry.  The  plans  of  that  committee  include  an  inquiry 
into  all  the  considerations  that  should  weigh  in  determining  the 
scope  of  the  subject,  and  its  membership  is  such  as  to  warrant  the 
expectation  of  valuable  results. 


II.  REPORTS  OF  SUBCOMMITTEES. 


SUBCOMMITTEE  1.  BOYS,  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 

In  order  to  obtain  material  for  this  report,  questionnaires  were  sent 
to  25  boys’  high  schools — all  that  could  be  found — in  various  parts 
of  the  United  States.  Replies  were  received  from  10  of  these  schools, 
and  this  report  is  a summary  of  the  information  thus  received. 

Though  the  number  of  schools  which  sent  replies  to  the  question- 
naires was  not  large,  they  include  some  of  the  largest  and  most 
important  schools  in  the  United  States.  Of  the  10  schools  replying, 
one  has  2,800  pupils;  four  have  between  1,000  and  2,000;  three, 
between  500  and  1,000;  and  two,  less  than  100.  Two  are  situated  in 
the  Southern  States,  three  in  New  England,  two  in  New  York,  one  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  two  in  Maryland. 


BOYS*  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 

ORGANIZATION. 


37 


In  eight  of  these  schools  the  department  of  mathematics  is  organ- 
ized with  a head  usually  nominated  by  the  principal  of  the  school, 
with  the  approval  of  the  superintendent  of  schools.  No  information 
was  obtained  in  regard  to  the  general  management  of  the  department. 

In  six  of  the  schools  the  teachers  of  mathematics  have  to  teach 
other  subjects,  and  in  half  of  the  schools  they  have  work  other  than 
teaching,  such  as  the  supervision  of  athletics,  pupils’  organizations,  or 
journalism. 

The  teachers  of  mathematics  are  generally  members  of  some  asso- 
ciation of  teachers  of  mathematics,  and  four  of  the  schools  report 
that  these  associations  have  some  influence  on  the  teaching  of  mathe- 
matics in  the  high  school.  It  does  not  appear  that  there  is  any 
similar  influence  exerted  by  the  mathematical  departments  on  the 
teaching  of  arithmetic  in  the  elementary  schools. 

The  average  age  of  pupils  at  entrance  is  about  14  years;  three 
schools  report  the  age  as  15  years,  and  one  as  13  years.  In  all  the 
schools  the  available  work  in  mathematics  extends  throughout  the 
entire  school  course.  The  four  schools  in  the  South  and  in  Maryland 
report  racial  restrictions  against  certain  classes  of  pupils,  presumably 
against  the  negro.  Promotions  in  seven  of  these  schools  are  annual, 
in  three  semiannual;  by  class  in  four,  and  by  subject  in  six.  The 
reports  in  regard  to  the  per  cent  of  the  whole  number  of  pupils  taking 
mathematical  courses  are  unreliable,  owing  evidently  to  a misunder- 
standing of  the  question. 

THE  MATHEMATICAL  CURRICULUM. 

The  mathematical  curriculum  is  generally  determined  by  school- 
board  courses  of  study,  and  these  are  influenced  largely  by  the 
requirements  of  higher  institutions  of  learning.  Four  schools  report 
that  recommendations  made  by  the  principal  and  approved  by  the 
superintendent  have  great  weight  in  determining  and  modifying 
the  curriculum. 

The  different  branches  of  mathematics  are  correlated  in  six  of  the 
schools.  The  correlation  generally  means  some  sort  of  combination 
of  algebra  and  geometry,  or  geometry  and  trigonometry.  In  nine 
of  the  schools  the  course  in  mathematics  is  progressive,  in  the  sense 
that  admission  to  second-year  mathematics  is  conditioned  upon  the 
satisfactory  completion  of  the  first-year  course,  and  so  on.  Mathe- 
matics is  correlated  with  other  studies  in  about  half  of  these  schools, 
and  physics  is  usually  mentioned  as  such  a study.  One  school 
states  that  algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry  are  required  of 
pupils  who  take  physics.  Another  school  says  that  the  science, 
drawing,  and  mathematics  departments  are  working  together  by 


38 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


furnishing  problems  and  explanations  which  relate  to  the  other 
departments.  Six  of  the  schools  made  a report  on  the  sequence  of 
topics  in  the  course.  Five  of  them  begin  with  some  work  in  arith- 
metic, and  then  take  algebra,  plane  geometry,  solid  geometry,  and 
trigonometry  in  the  order  mentioned.  Two  schools  report  spherical 
trigonometry  and  one  analytical  geometry. 

EXAMINATIONS. 

Usually  pupils  coming  into  these  schools  from  the  elementary 
schools  of  the  town  or  city  are  admitted  without  examination.  All 
but  two  schools  require  examinations  for  graduation.  In  one  school 
pupils  who  attain  high  rank,  90  per  cent  or  more,  are  excused  from 
the  examinations  for  graduation. 

Five  of  these  schools  secure  the  admission  of  their  pupils  to  higher 
institutions  of  learning  by  certificate,  and  five  by  examination. 

Opinion  is  divided  as  to  the  effect  of  these  examinations,  though  a 
small  majority  of  answers  seem  to  indicate  that  the  teachers  believe 
that  the  examinations  for  graduation  and  for  admission  to  higher  in- 
stitutions have  a good  effect,  both  on  the  teaching  of  mathematics  and 
upon  the  pupil’s  attitude  toward  the  subject.  In  the  case  of  those 
schools  that  are  not  favorably  disposed  toward  these  examinations, 
it  does  not  appear  that  any  attempt  has  been  made  to  eliminate  them. 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING. 

The  laboratory  method  and  the  individual  method  of  instruction 
are  used  in  very  few  schools.  Paper  folding  and  outdoor  work  do  not 
seem  to  be  popular,  but  the  use  of  cross-section  paper  is  general. 
Observational  geometry  is  taught  in  only  a few  schools.  Some 
schools  are  trying  to  combine  algebra  and  geometry,  and  geometry 
and  trigonometry. 

The  marks  by  which  the  pupils  are  ranked  are  based  most  often  oiT 
oral  recitations,  on  exercises  written  in  class,  and  on  written  exami- 
nations at  stated  intervals.  The  teacher’s  estimate  of  the  pupil’s 
power  and  achievement  is  also  an  important  factor  in  determining  the 
mark.  In  six  schools  written  home  work,  and  in  eight  schools  volun- 
tary home  work  are  also  used. 

The  per  cent  of  failures  varies  from  10  per  cent  in  one  school  to  40 
per  cent  in  another,  but  most  of  the  schools  report  from  15  to  25  per 
cent  of  failures,  with  an  average  of  20  per  cent  for  all  the  schools. 

Very  little  attempt  seems  to  have  been  made  to  devise  a method  of 
marking  by  which  it  would  be  possible  to  determine  from  the  pupil’s 
marks  or  record  whether  he  is  proficient  in  numerical  accuracy,  alge- 
braic manipulation,  knowledge  of  geometrical  facts,  comprehension 
of  logical  dependence,  or  mathematical  invention  and  ingenuity. 
Three  schools  report  such  a method  in  use,  and  one  of  these  is  the 


GIKLS*  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


39 


largest  boys’  high  school  in  the  United  States;  the  other  schools  seem 
to  take  little  interest  in  the  subject.  One  report  says  that  such  a 
system  would  be  useful  “only  for  the  purpose  of  diagnosing  talent.” 
Only  two  schools,  both  in  New  York  City,  have  access  to  a museum 
of  mathematical  models  and  instruments.  One  school,  also  in  New 
York  City,  has  a mathematical  club  where  officers  and  members  are 
pupils  of  the  school. 

AIMS  OF  MATHEMATICAL  TEACHING. 

All  the  schools  report  that  the  aim  of  mathematical  teaching  is 
general  culture  and  preparation  for  college.  It  is  evidently  assumed 
that  either  one  of  these  includes  the  other.  Seven  of  the  schools  also 
prepare  their  pupils  for  technical  schools. 


SUBCOMMITTEE  2.  GIRLS’  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 

The  report  of  subcommittee  2,  on  girls’  high  schools,  is  based  on 
the  results  of  a questionnaire  prepared  by  the  members  of  Committee 
III,  and  sent  out  by  the  Bureau  of  Education  to  all  the  secondary 
schools  which  came  within  the  province  of  that  committee.  Replies 
were  received  from  12  girls’  high  and  Latin  schools.  These  reports 
have  been  tabulated  and,  in  so  far  as  possible,  the  facts  and  opinions 
elicited  from  individual  schools  on  each  question  have  been  summa- 
rized. While  on  many  points  attitudes  have  proved  so  divergent  that 
general  conclusions  are  impossible,  the  replies  as  a w hole  indicate  the 
general  trend  of  mathematical  teaching  methods  in  this  small  but 
important  group  of  schools. 

The  field  of  investigation  undertaken  in  the  questionnaire  was 
divided  into  five  main  heads:  Organization,  curriculum,  methods  of 
examination,  methods  of  teaching,  and  aims  of  teaching.  A careful 
examination  of  the  returns  in  these  departments  suggested  the  value 
of  grouping  replies  to  certain  questions  by  the  geographical  sections 
represented,  namely,  Greater  Boston,  the  Middle  States  and  the 
Southern  States.  This  plan  was  followed  wherever  there  was  an 
approach  to  uniformity  among  schools  of  each  section  combined  with 
marked  sectional  differences.  In  certain  other  instances  the  main 
divergences  appeared  between  the  larger  and  the  smaller  schools. 
Three  schools  were  represented  in  the  Greater  Boston  group,  five  in 
the  Middle  States,  and  four  in  the  South. 

Summaries  have  been  prepared  for  each  of  these  groups  and  for 
the  entire  group  of  12  schools.  This  report  will  concern  itself,  in  the 
main,  with  the  entire  group,  indicating  sectional  differences  and  indi- 
vidual peculiarities  whenever  they  appear  to  be  pronounced. 


40 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Taking  up  in  detail  the  five  main  heads  covered  by  the  investiga- 
tion, namely,  (1)  organization,  (2)  curriculum,  (3)  examinations, 
(4)  teaching  methods,  (5)  aims  of  teaching,  the  facts  established  and 
the  opinions  expressed  have  been  arranged  in  order  under  these 
headings  as  follows : 

ORGANIZATION. 

Here  the  most  marked  divergence  appears,  between  the  three  sec- 
tions represented,  in  the  matter  of  regulative  powers  attached  to  the 
office  of  principal.  In  the  Middle  States,  the  principal's  power  de- 
pends largely  upon  his  personal  influence;  in  Greater  Boston  he  pos- 
sesses general  regulative  power  within  the  limits  of  a course  of  study 
fixed  by  the  school  board  and  acts  in  conjunction  with  the  school 
board;  in  the  South,  on  the  other  hand,  the  entire  responsibility  seems 
to  rest  with  the  principal.  In  the  Pennsylvania  schools  the  principal 
exercises  his  power  in  an  advisory  capacity,  but  takes  formal  action  only 
by  authority  of  the  superintendent  of  schools.  In  Greater  Boston  the 
principal's  activity  is  confined  largely  to  making  recommendations  to 
superior  officers  of  the  school  board.  In  the  South  the  principal 
shapes  the  policy  and  guides  the  work  of  the  mathematical  depart- 
ment. 

With  two  exceptions,  and  these  in  the  case  of  smaller  schools,  the 
mathematical  departments  are  organized  with  a head  who  is  nomi- 
nated usually  by  the  principal,  approved  by  the  superintendent  and 
elected  by  the  school  board.  In  one  school,  the  Cambridge  (Mass.) 
Girls'  High  School,  the  head  is  chosen  by  the  teachers  of  the  mathe- 
matical department.  A typical  method  of  management  is  outlined  in 
the  report  of  the  Reading  Girls'  High  School:  “ Departmental  meet- 
ings are  held  once  a week;  methods,  plans,  etc.,  are  discussed;  class 
work  is  kept  parallel;  representative  papers  of  students  are  submitted 
to  and  approved  by  the  head  of  the  department." 

In  the  Philadelphia  High  School  for  Girls  the  departmental  manage- 
ment is  described  as  follows: 

We  hold  departmental  meetings  once  a month  for  teachers  of  the  upper  classes. 
At  these  meetings  we  discuss  the  textbooks  to  be  used,  the  eliminations  to  be  made 
from  the  texts  we  are  using,  the  ground  to  be  covered  in  a given  time  (not  as  a rule  less 
than  15  weeks),  the  examinations  to  be  given  at  the  end  of  the  half  year,  the  needs  of 
the  classes  as  determined  by  the  maturity  of  the  pupils  and  by  their  previous  prepara- 
tion; often  the  needs  of  some  special  individuals.  * * * 

The  head  of  the  department,  having  but  three  classes  each  day,  finds  time  to  visit 
the  other  classrooms,  and,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  younger  members  of  the  depart- 
ment, to  regulate  the  teaching,  partly  by  suggestion  and  sometimes  by  taking  charge 
of  the  lesson. 

Once  during  each  half  year  we  try  to  have  a simultaneous  test  for  the  pupils  taking 
first-year  algebra  and  one  for  those  taking  first-year  geometry.  * * * The  head 
of  the  department  assumes  the  responsibility  for  all  pupils  promoted  with  conditions 
in  mathematics,  planning  their  work  for  them  * * * to  enable  them  to  remove 
the  conditions  as  speedily  and  successfully  as  possible. 


GIRLS , HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


41 


In  nine  schools,  the  teachers  of  mathematics,  excepting  the  depart- 
mental head,  are  required  to  teach  other  subjects  in  order  to  fill  out 
their  personal  programs.  In  three  schools  the  work  of  mathematics 
teachers  is  confined,  in  the  main,  to  mathematical  subjects. 

The  schools  are  practically  unanimous  in  failing  to  require  super- 
vision of  athletics,  journalism,  or  pupils’  organizations  from  teachers 
of  mathematics,  but  in  the  matter  of  clerical  work  they  are  about 
evenly  divided  in  practice,  about  half  of  the  schools  requiring  clerical 
service  from  the  mathematics  teachers. 

In  four  of  the  schools  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  cooperate  with 
other  schools  in  furthering  special  aims  of  pupils.  The  Philadelphia 
Girls’  High  School  makes  special  provision,  at  the  end  of  two  years 
from  entrance,  for  the  transfer  of  girls,  wdiose  aims  are  thereby 
furthered,  to  technical  schools.  The  Girls’  High  Schools  and  the 
Girls’  Latin  School  of  Boston  transfer  and  receive  pupils  with  great 
freedom  whenever  such  change  ministers  to  the  vocational  or  college 
preparatory  needs  of  the  pupil. 

Attempts  to  influence  the  mathematical  instruction  in  the  elemen- 
tary schools  are  made  by  four  of  the  Girls’  High  Schools.  This  influ- 
ence is  exerted  in  two-  ways — through  mathematical  associations  and 
through  the  personal  affiliations  of  teachers.  The  graduates  of  the 
Philadelphia  High  School  for  Girls,  for  example,  go  in  large  numbers 
to  the  Normal  School  and  later  become  elementary-school  teachers. 
By  personal  affiliations  with  these  teachers  the  mathematical  depart- 
ment of  the  Girls’  High  School  of  Philadelphia  is  able  to  bring  con- 
siderable influence  to  bear  upon  the  teaching  of  mathematics  in  the 
elementary  schools  of  Philadelphia. 

Exactly  half  of  the  schools  report  that  the  mathematical  teaching 
in  them  is  affected  by  the  higher  educational  institutions.  The 
influence  thus  exerted  comes  through  the  admission  requirements  of 
the  normal  schools,  colleges,  and  technical  schools;  and  through  the 
mutual  efforts  of  college  and  high-school  instructors  in  mathematical 
associations  and  committee  work.  Seven  of  the  schools  are  represented 
in  such  associations  and  six  of  these  report  that  such  membership  has 
resulted  in  a helpful  and  stimulating  influence  on  the  mathematics 
teaching  of  the  school. 

The  average  age  of  pupils  entering  the  schools  for  the  first  time 
varied  from  13  to  17  yeari£  In  two  schools  the  average  was  13  years; 
in  six,  14  years;  in  three,  15  years;  and  in  one  southern  school  17 
years.  The  time  required  for  graduation  is  the  standard  four  years 
of  the  regular  secondary  course.  In  the  Boston  Girls’  Latin  School 
a six  years’  course  is  offered,  the  first  two  years  of  which  receive  pupils 
who  would  otherwise  be  pursuing  the  two  final  years  of  the  elementary- 
school  course.  The  mathematical  course,  as  a rule,  covers  the  entire 


42 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


four  years,  either  as  a required  or  as  an  elective.  In  four  of  the  schools 
only  the  course  is  limited  to  three  years. 

Eight  years  is  the  normal  time  allowance  assigned  to  the  elementary 
course  that  precedes  admission  to  the  secondary-school  course,  though 
in  two  of  the  southern  schools  seven  years  only  are  required. 

No  race  restriction  whatever  is  imposed  upon  candidates  for  admis- 
sion to  the  schools  of  the  Northern  and  Middle  States,  but  in  the 
Southern  States  none  but  white  girls  are  accepted  for  membership. 

Promotions  in  four  of  the  schools  are  semiannual,  in  the  remainder 
annual;  in  five  schools  pupils  are  promoted  by  class,  in  four  by  sub- 
ject, and  in  two  by  both  methods. 

The  number  of  pupils  registered  in  the  schools  under  investigation 
varied  from  135  to  3,629.  In  the  12  schools  there  were  a total  of 
14,650  pupils,  an  average  of  1,221  to  each  school.  Reports  of  the 
per  cent  of  pupils  in  the  school  taking  mathematics  of  the  several 
years  were  incomplete.  The  summary  of  the  southern  group  gives 
the  following  averages:  First  year,  65  per  cent;  second  year,  20  per 
cent;  third  year,  15  per  cent;  fourth  year,  5 per  cent.  For  the  Mid- 
dle States  the  following  average  is  given:  First  year,  42  per  cent;  sec- 
ond year,  27  per  cent;  third  year,  15  per  cent;  fourth  year,  5 per  cent 
for  one  school  and  1 per  cent  for  another  school.  In  the  Boston  Girls’ 
Latin  School  the  full  mathematical  course  is  required  from  all  the 
pupils  in  each  year  of  the  course. 

The  percentage  of  the  total  membership  of  the  school  made  up  of 
graduates  varied  from  3.5  per  cent  to  23  per  cent.  The  average  per- 
centage of  the  schools  reporting  on  this  point  was  13  per  cent. 

MATHEMATICAL  CURRICULUM. 

In  six  of  the  schools  the  mathematical  ^prriculum  is  affected  by  the 
admission  requirements  of  higher  institutions;  it  is  prescribed  in 
the  case  of  10  schools  by  school-board  courses  of  study,  which  are  pre- 
pared in  the  case  of  6 of  them  with  the  constructive  assistance  of  the 
principal,  acting  in  consultation  with  the  head  of  the  mathematical 
department.  In  general  the  means  of  modifying  the  mathematical 
curriculum  are  the  same  as  those  by  which  that  curriculum  is  originally 
determined.  The  same  machinery  must  be  set  in  motion  for  revision 
that  was  employed  for  organization  and  construction.  In  eight  of  the 
schools  an  attempt  is  made  to  correlate  instruction  among  the  several 
branches  of  the  mathematical  curriculum.  No  general  statement  of 
the  method  employed  is  possible,  since  in  all  schools  the  correlation 
is  informal  and  depends  for  effectiveness  very  largely  upon  the  indi- 
vidual teacher.  The  subjects  are  taught,  generally,  as  separate 
branches,  but  the  materials  furnished  by  one  subject  are  employed  in 
another.  This  is  increasingly  true  of  the  use  of  applied  problems, 
which  are  drawn  from  all  the  available  sources. 


girls'  high  schools. 


43 


In  eight  of  the  schools  a serious  effort  is  made  to  correlate  the  mathe- 
matical instruction  with  that  of  the  naturally  allied  branches  of 
science  and  drawing.  This  correlation  appears  principally  in  the 
use  of  applied  problems  from  physics  and  chemistry  and  in  special 
instruction  in  those  topics  of  the  mathematical  course  most  funda- 
mental to  the  study  of  these  sciences.  The  best  developed  plan 
reported  was  that  in  use  at  the  Reading  High  School,  which  has  worked 
out  a scheme  somewhat  in  detail,  from  which  the  following  is  quoted : 
Mathematics  is  correlated  with  the  study  of  science  in  this  school,  but  more  espe- 
cially as  regards  chemistry  and  physics.  Problems  in  chemistry,  given  from  time  to 
time  throughout  the  course,  require  the  student’s  ability  to  make  and  solve  simple 
algebraic  equations.  The  college  preparatory  physics  course  presupposes  a thorough 
grasp  of  algebra  and  plane  geometry  in  order  to  understand  the  forming  of  the  various 
formulae.  Continual  use  is  also  made  of  this  knowledge  in  solving  numerous  problems 
throughout  the  course. 

Mathematics.  Drawing. 

The  relation  of  numbers applied  in  aesthetic  drawing  to  the  size  used  for  a 

study. 

Fractional  division for  copying  in  reduced  or  enlarged  form,  and  for  size 

of  component  parts. 

Proportion used  in  reference  to  relation  light  and  dark,  or  color; 

to  proportion  the  size  and  color  for  distant  objects. 

Proportion i3  taught  in  industrial  drawing  to  emphasize  fitness  of 

size  and  shape  for  its  purpose  of  use;  for  weight  and 
tone  of  units  in  design;  space  relation  in  reference 
to  the  distribution  of  the  finished  design. 

Proportion used  in  mechanical  and  geometric  work;  required  in 

the  instruction  for  working  drawings  of  geometric 
solids,  etc. 

Problems  in  mensuration  ap- 


plied to  surfaces used  in  circular  work,  and  conic  sections. 

Do used  to  determine  the  amount  of  material  for  mak- 

ing models. 


Generally  speaking,  admission  to  a course  in  any  other  subject 
does  not  depend  upon  the  completion  of  a given  course  in  mathe- 
matics, except  in  so  far  as  failure  to  pass  in  a mathematical  subject 
would  result  in  the  loss  of  promotion  to  the  next  higher  class.  Courses 
are  often  so  arranged  that  in  order  to  take  up  a particular  subject, 
such  as  physics,  a pupil  must  have  reached  a specified  upper  class  and 
hence  must  have  completed  a certain  amount  of  mathematics.  In  this 
sense  only  is  admission  to  a non-mathematical  subject  conditioned 
upon  the  completion  of  a course  in  mathematics. 

In  75  per  cent  of  the  schools  the  mathematical  course  is  progressive, 
in  the  sense  that  a given  course  of  mathematics  must  have  been  com- 
pleted as  a condition  precedent  to  a pupil’s  admission  to  the  course  of 
a subsequent  year. 

The  following  outline  of  a mathematical  course  submitted  by  the 
High  School  for  Girls  of  Reading,  Pa.,  is  typical  of  the  courses  offered 


44 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


by  the  best  schools  and  is  complete  for  all  the  subjects  offered  in  the 
secondary  school  mathematical  courses  for  this  group: 

Arithmetic. 

Denominate  numbers. 

Percentage. 

Simple  percentage. 

Profit  and  loss. 

Trade  discount. 

Interest. 

Simple. 

Accurate. 

Compound. 

Bank  discount. 

Taxes. 

Duties. 

Insurance. 

Ratio. 

Proportion. 

Partnership. 

Involution. 

Evolution. 

Mensuration. 

Metric  system. 

Greatest  common  divisor. 

Least  common  multiple. 

Review  principles  preparatory  to  study  of  algebra. 

Pupils  are  expected  to  solve  practical  problems  in  any  one  of  these  subjects. 
Algebra. 

Four  fundamental  operations. 

Factoring. 

Highest  common  factor.  Least  common  multiple. 

Fractions. 

Linear  equations : Numerical,  literal. 

Problems  depending  on  linear  equations  of  one  or  more  unknown  quantities. 
Graphic  solutions. 

Radicals,  including  square  and  cube  root. 

Exponents,  fractional  and  negative. 

Quadratic  equations:  Numerical,  literal. 

Problems  depending  on  quadratic  equations. 

Binomial  theorem  for  positive  integral  exponents. 

The  formulas  for  the  nth  term,  and  the  sum  of  the  terms  of  arithmetic  and 
geometric  progressions  with  applications. 

Throughout  the  course  pupils  are  required  to  solve  numerous  problems  which  in- 
volve putting  questions  into  equations.  Some  of  these  problems  are  chosen  from 
mensuration,  from  physics,  and  from  commercial  and  everyday  life. 

Plane  Geometry. 

The  theorems  and  about  200  original  exercises  are  studied.  Special  stress  is  laid 
upon  construction  work.  About  two  weeks  time  is  spent  on  the  theory  of 
limits.  Locus  problems  are  made  interesting  to  the  pupil,  who  is  given  frequent 
opportunity  of  applying  all  the  geometric  principles  taught  and  of  working  out 
demonstrations  for  himself.  The  work  is  done  very  slowly  at  first,  and  but  one- 
third  of  the  course  is  covered  the  first  term. 


GIRLS , HIGH  SCHOOLS. 


45 


Solid  Geometry. 

The  theorems  and  constructions  of  the  text  are  studied.  The  solution  of  numer- 
ous original  exercises,  including  locus  problems,  is  required. 

Trigonometry. 

Definitions  and  relations  of  the  six  trigonometric  functions  as  ratios;  circular 
measurement  of  angles.  Proofs  of  formulas,  particularly  for  the  sine  and  cosine 
and  tangent  of  the  sum  and  difference  of  two  angles,  of  the  double  angle,  and 
the  half  angle,  the  product  expressions  for  the  sum  or  the  difference  of  two  sines 
or  of  two  cosines,  etc.  Solution  of  trigonometric  equations  of  a simple  character. 
Theory  and  use  of  logarithms.  The  solution  of  right  and  oblique  triangles  and 
practical  applications. 

EXAMINATIONS. 

In  eight  of  the  schools  examinations  in  mathematical  subjects 
(mainly  arithmetic)  are  required  for  admission.  In  practically  all 
of  the  schools  mathematical  examinations  are  required  for  graduates 
who  are  candidates  for  admission  to  higher  institutions.  Many  of 
these  institutions,  of  course,  will  receive  candidates  on  certificates  of 
proficiency  furnished  by  the  school.  Noncertificated  pupils  are  in  all 
cases  subjected  to  examination.  The  schools  are  substantially  unani- 
mous in  the  opinion  that  these  several  classes  of  examinations  have  a 
beneficial  effect  both  on  the  teaching  of  mathematics  and  on  the 
pupil’s  attitude  toward  the  subject.  As  one  teacher  puts  it:  “The 
effect  is  toward  thoroughness  and  accuracy  in  work.  The  average 
student  dislikes  examinations  but  examinations  do  not  make  the 
student  dislike  mathematics.” 

In  three  schools  only  have  important  recent  changes  in  the  depart- 
ment of  examinations  been  introduced.  Such  changes  have  been  in 
the  direction  of  exemption  of  pupils  with  a high  term  average  from 
final  examinations  and  the  increase  of  weight  given  to  the  recitation 
mark  over  the  examination  record.  The  system  of  exemption  from 
final  examinations  by  schools  and  the  substitution  of  certificates  for 
examinations  by  the  higher  institutions  are  the  chief  proposals  made 
for  the  elimination  of  the  various  kinds  of  examinations  now  in 
vogue.  They  have  proved  satisfactory  where  adopted  and  furnish 
an  indication  of  the  growing  tendency  to  place  less  emphasis  on  the 
value  of  the  single  formal  test  furnished  by  the  examination  and  to 
give  greater  weight  to  a continuous  record  covering  an  extended 
period. 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING. 

Under  this  heading  the  attempt  was  made  to  determine  whether 
each  of  12  specified  methods  was  in  use  in  the  school  making  the 
report  and  also,  irrespective  of  its  adoption,  whether  the  person 
making  the  report  considered  that  method  educationally  desirable. 
These  replies  will  be  considered  in  detail,  as  follows: 

The  “laboratory  method”  was  in  use  to  a limited  extent  in  a little 
more  than  one-half  of  the  schools  and  was  considered  desirable  by 


46 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


more  than  one-half.  The  “heuristic  method”  and  the  “individual 
method  ” were  in  use  in  exactly  one-half  of  the  schools  and  were  con- 
sidered educationally  desirable  by  seven  schools.  Little  interest 
was  manifested  in  the  discussion  of  “paper  folding”  or  “outdoor 
work,”  only  two  schools  reporting  these  methods  as  in  use  and  only 
three  expressing  the  opinion  that  they  were  of  value  in  teaching. 
Most  of  the  schools  employed  models  and  felt  that  their  use  was 
justified  by  the  results.  Seven  schools  made  use  of  “measurement 
and  computation,”  and  of  “cross-section  paper,”  while  only  one 
school  preceded  the  study  of  formal  deductive  geometry,  by  “obser- 
vational” geometry,  although  five  of  the  schools  believed  this  prece- 
dence to  be  educationally  sound.  Six  schools  teach  “algebra  and 
geometry”  somewhat  in  combination,  though  in  a purely  informal 
manner  and  under  the  separate  captions  of  algebra  and  geometry. 
Three  replies  indicate  a similar  treatment  of  “plane  and  solid  geome- 
try” and  of  “geometry  and  trigonometry.” 

Opinions  expressed  in  the  replies  varied  as  to  the  “stage  of  the 
pupil’s  progress  at  which  the  emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  grasp 
of  logical  relations  rather  than  upon  manipulative  skill,”  from  10 
years  of  age  to  15  years  of  age.  The  majority  of  the  replies,  how- 
ever, leaned  to  the  ninth  or  the  tenth  school  year,  indicating  that 
this  transfer  of  emphasis  should  be  made  during  either  the  first  or  the 
second  high-school  year. 

The  basis  for  marking  mathematical  work  appeared  to  be  as  fol- 
lows: All  the  schools  mark  on  recitations  made  orally  in  class; 
only  three  give  any  considerable  weight  to  written  home  work, 
whereas  all  schools  make  written  class  work  an  important  element 
in  determining  the  pupil’s  rank;  eight  schools  allow  credit  for  volun- 
tary original  work;  four  give  weight  to  the  teacher’s  general  estimate 
of  the  pupil’s  power  and  accomplishment,  and  all  the  replies  indicate 
that  examinations  furnish  at  least  a partial  basis  in  the  final  rank, 
such  examinations  occurring  either  at  stated  intervals  or  at  the 
term’s  end. 

Reports  of  the  percentage  of  failures  in  mathematics  from  various 
causes  varied  from  “percentage  of  final  failures  almost  0”  to  30  p 
cent.  The  average  of  failures  reported  was  13  per  cent. 

While  only  two  schools  reported  methods  of  marking  from  which 
it  was  possible  to  determine  a pupil’s  proficiency  in  such  details  as 
“numerical  accuracy,”  “algebraic  manipulation,”  “knowledge  of 
geometrical  facts,”  “comprehension  of  logical  dependence,”  and 
“mathematical  ingenuity,”  five  schools  considered  such  a method 
of  marking  desirable.  Six  schools,  however,  were  opposed  to  such 
a system  and  only  one  school  came  forward  with  a suggestion  in  any 
way  practicable  for  registering  such  records  of  capacity,  in  the  detail 
indicated  by  the  questions.  This  suggestion  was  an  outline  of  the 


COEDUCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  EAST. 


47 


method  employed  by  teachers  in  making  their  class  reports  in  that 
high  school.  “Each  teacher  makes  a report  of  her  classes  six  times 
a year,  in  which  she  specifies  whether  one  of  the  five  items  mentioned 
in  which  proficiency  may  be  shown  or  indifference  is  responsible  for 
each  pupil’s  failure.” 

In  six  of  the  schools  there  were  available  for  use,  or  the  pupils  had 
access  to,  collections  of  mathematical  instruments,  models,  and  devices 
for  mathematical  instruction.  The  most  notable  of  such  collections 
is  that  of  the  Teachers  College  of  Columbia  University,  New  York 
City. 

AIMS  OF  TEACHING. 

In  their  mathematical  teaching,  all  the  schools  aim  at  culture, 
as  not  being  inconsistent  with  the  special  purposes  which  the  school 
was  designed  to  serve.  Nine  of  the  schools  were  either  wholly  or  in 
part  preparatory  for  college  and  three  fitted  for  technical  or  normal 
schools. 

In  the  six  occupations  listed  under  “vocational  aims”  one  school 
gave  preparation  for  the  occupation  of  “draftsman;”  two  for  that 
of  computer;  and  five  for  that  of  accountant  or  merchant.  There 
were  no  girls’  schools  that  gave  training  for  the  professions  of  sur- 
veyor or  civil  or  mechanical  engineering.  In  addition  to  the  aims 
classified  three  schools  directed  their  mathematical  training  toward 
the  equipment  of  the  teacher  of  mathematics. 


SUBCOMMITTEE  3.  COEDUCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN 

THE  EAST. 

The  questionnaire  sent  out  by  the  Bureau  of  Education,  at  Wash- 
ington, for  this  committee,  met  with  a most  generous  response. 
The  teachers  of  the  secondary  schools  in  the  Northern  Atlantic 
States — including  Maryland — cooperated  most  heartily,  and  several 
hundred  replies  were  received  by  the  chairman.  So  many  and  so 
varied  were  these  that  a serious  difficulty  arose  concerning  the  col- 
lating of  the  information  there  recorded.  The  district  assigned  to  the 
committee  was  divided  into  sections,  and  the  replies  from  a section 
given  to  each  member  of  the  committee  for  investigation.  The  com- 
mittee worked  for  many  weeks  compiling  a statistical  report  which 
was  sent  by  the  chairman  to  the  chairman  of  the  general  committee 
on  public  general  secondary  schools,  to  be  incorporated  in  the  final 
report.  To  make  a statistical  report  is  fairly  easy,  but  when  it  comes 
to  giving  a summary  in  essay  form,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  do  the 
subject  justice.  The  fact  that  the  answers  to  the  questionnaire  have 
been  so  many  and  so  varied,  and  given  by  so  many  different  indi- 
viduals, who,  of  necessity,  often  have  considered  the  questions  from 


48 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


a narrow  point  of  view,  makes  it  unwise  to  attempt  to  collate  this 
large  mass  of  material  in  a scientific  way.  While  the  reports  of  all 
the  members  of  this  committee  were  excellent,  the  one  by  Miss  Mary 
Gould,  of  the  Roxbury  (Mass.)  High  School,  covers  so  well  the  con- 
ditions existing  in  all  the  district,  that  the  chairman  has  incorporated 
it  below  in  this  report. 

REPORT  OF  MISS  MARY  GOULD,  OF  ROXBURY  (MASS.)  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

The  following  report  is  based  on  data  sent  by  teachers  of  mathematics  in  the  general 
secondary  schools  in  the  district  assigned  to  the  committee.  As  the  number  of  pupils 
in  schools  sending  answers  to  questionnaires  varies  from  32  to  2,380,  and  the  conditions 
differ  widely,  we  shall  attempt  to  give  only  the  consensus  of  opinion  expressed  re- 
garding: 

a.  The  organization, 

b.  The  mathematical  curriculum, 

c.  Examinations, 

d.  Methods  of  teaching, 

e.  Aims  of  mathematical  teaching. 

The  mathematics  department  in  schools  where  there  are  several  teachers  of  the 
subject  is  usually  organized  under  a head,  who  is  responsible  to  the  principal.  While 
the  committee,  superintendent,  and  principal  have  full  power  to  regulate  the  instruc- 
tions of  all  schools  in  the  vicinity,  the  curriculum  and  methods  of  instruction  are  sel- 
dom changed  except  at  the  request  of  those  actually  engaged  in  the  work. 

In  the  lowest  class,  committees  of  teachers  selected  by  the  head  of  the  department 
set  the  limit  to  be  reached  by  all  divisions  of  the  class  from  week  to  week,  prepare 
uniform  tests,  state  which  topics  are  to  be  omitted  and  which  are  to  be  elaborated  more 
or  less  fully  than  the  text.  Within  these  limits,  each  teacher  has  freedom  of  methods. 
In  the  second  and  third  classes  the  same  outline  is  followed  but  with  greater  freedom. 
In  the  highest  class  the  work  is  usually  in  the  hands  of  one  teacher  and  there  is  little 
or  no  restriction. 

On  the  teaching  staff  of  the  department  there  is  usually  at  least  one  who  teaches  only 
mathematics,  but  there  are  others  who  teach  other  subjects  also,  often  science,  some- 
times English,  foreign  languages,  or  history.  In  the  larger  schools  little  or  no  outside 
work  in  the  supervision  of  athletics,  journalism,  or  pupils’  organizations  is  expected 
of  a teacher,  although  in  most  cases  they  have  the  work  which  a session  room  entails. 

Most  cities  and  towns  in  this  region  have  but  one  secondary  school,  so  that  contact 
with  other  teachers  and  cooperation  with  them  comes  mainly  through  mathematical 
associations.  By  discussions  carried  on  at  the  meetings  of  such  associations  the  college 
indirectly  influences  the  methods  of  presenting  mathematics  at  the  secondary  schools. 
We  regret  that  the  secondary  schools  do  not  in  their  turn  help  the  elementary  teacher. 

Boys  and  girls  are  sent  to  a secondary  school  after  an  eight  or  nine  year  course  in  the 
grades,  at  about  15  years  of  age,  to  take  a four-years’  course  (some  schools  give  a three- 
years’  commercial  course) . They  are  usually  obliged  to  take  algebra  and  geometry  in 
the  first  and  the  second  years  respectively;  college  students  are  required  to  continue  a 
third,  and  in  some  cases  a fourth,  year  study  of  mathematics.  Promotion  comes 
annually  by  class,  about  10  to  15  per  cent  graduating  each  year. 

The  curriculum  of  the  mathematics  department  is  largely  determined  by  the  object 
which  the  school  has  in  view;  in  the  college  preparatory  courses  the  college  admission 
requirements  mold  the  course;  in  the  general  and  commercial  courses,  the  school 
board  and  principal  prescribe  such  studies  and  textbooks  as  seem  to  lead  toward  the 
ultimate  purpose  of  the  pupil.  Teachers  may,  on  the  recommendation  of  the  princi- 
pal, modify  the  requirements  by  application  to  the  school  board.  Although  corre- 
lation of  the  different  branches  is  not  highly  developed,  there  is  a tendency  to  make 


COEDUCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  EAST.  49 

mathematics  a progressive  subject,  and  to  correlate  it  with  physics,  chemistry,  and 
mechanical  drawing. 

In  running  through  the  curriculum  of  this  department,  we  shall  omit  an  outline  of 
arithmetic  as  it  is  taught  first  in  the  grammar  grades. 

In  algebra  the  order  of  the  topics  is: 

First  year  work. 

Fundamental  notions  and  operations,  removing  and  insertion  of  parenthesis, 
simple  equations  without  fractions;  symbolic  expressions  preparatory  to  problems, 
solution  of  problems  leading  to  equations  of  first  degree  without  fractions;  factoring 
(usual  cases),  highest  common  factor,  including  cases  which  can  not  be  done  by 
factoring;  lowest  common  multiple,  including  some  unfavorable  cases;  reduction, 
addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division  of  fractions,  complex  fractions  of 
medium  difficulty,  solution  of  numerical  and  literal  equations  of  the  first  degree 
containing  fractions,  problems  leading  to  such  equations;  simultaneous  equations 
in  two  and  three  unknowns  (three  usual  methods  of  elimination),  both  numerical  and 
literal,  problems  leading  to  simultaneous  equations.  Powers  and  roots  of  monomials, 
squares,  cubes,  and  a few  higher  powers  of  binomials,  square  root  of  polynomials  and 
of  numbers.  Theory  of  exponents,  simple  cases,  without  formal  proof  of  the  laws  of 
exponents,  surds,  addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division  of  surds, 
omitting  complicated  cases;  harder  problems  than  before  leading  to  equations  of  the 
first  degree.  Pure  and  affected  quadratics,  completion  of  the  square  and  solution  by 
factoring.  Numerical  quadratic  equations  and  some  simple  literal  ones.  Some  of 
the  simpler  cases  of  simultaneous  quadratic  equations.  Problems  leading  to  all  kinds 
of  quadratics  studied.  Graphs  and  graphical  methods  are  used  to  some  extent.  The 
aim  in  this  course  is  skill  in  manipulation,  and  not  primarily  to  develop  logical  power. 

Geometry , second  year  work. 

The  usual  amount  of  plane  geometry,  theorems,  constructions,  and  computations. 
In  the  prescribed  course,  only  the  simplest  originals,  theorems,  and  constructions 
are  required,  but  a considerable  number  of  numerical  examples  based  upon  theorems 
proved  are  required.  The  subjects  of  loci,  incommensurables,  and  variables  are 
very  briefly  handled. 

In  the  elective  (college  preparatory)  course  a much  larger  number  of  originals 
(500  to  600),  both  theorems  and  constructions,  is  required.  Loci,  incommensurables, 
and  variables  are  required  and  are  fully  treated.  In  this  year  four  periods  weekly  of 
prepared  lessons  and  one  unprepared  lesson  are  given. 

In  third  school  year,  plane  geometry  is  reviewed  for  half  the  year  by  college  pre- 
paratory students,  and  greater  attention  is  paid  to  originals,  loci,  variables.  The 
usual  amount  of  solid  geometry  (including  elementary  spherics)  with  exercises  is 
followed  for  half  a year,  by  those  preparing  for  scientific  or  technical  schools. 

The  course  in  geometry  just  described  is  the  one  usually  followed  in  the  larger 
schools,  but  the  committee  is  not  willing  to  say  that  it  is  the  universal  course;  in  most 
schools,  however,  geometry  is  taught  either  for  two  whole  years,  or  for  parts  of  two 
years.  The  periods  per  week  are  usually  three  hours  if  the  two  whole  years  are  taken 
in  preparation.  It  is  very  hard  to  get  a course  which  would  even  approximate  a 
universal  one  in  this  subject,  because  the  methods  and  the  time  of  preparation  vary 
exceedingly  in  the  different  schools. 

In  the  third  year  all  college  preparatory  students  have  one-half  year  of  algebra, 
five  periods  a week.  The  work  of  the  first-year  algebra  is  reviewed,  but  the  harder 
examples  omitted  on  first  reading  are  mostly  done,  and  the  following  new  subjects 
are  taken  up:  Theory  of  exponents  and  surds  completed.  The  demonstrations  of  the 
laws  of  operation  now  required.  Interpretation  of  negative,  infinite,  and  zero  results 
and  simple  indeterminate  forms,  imaginaries,  harder  literal  quadratics  and  simul- 
taneous quadratics  (all  the  principal  methods  of  solution),  theory  of  quadratics, 
remainder  and  factor  theorem,  ratio,  proportion,  progressions,  binominal  theorem 
for  positive  integers  (proof  by  mathematical  induction  required),  simple  inequalities. 

In  fourth  year  for  half  the  year  the  following  subjects  are  taken:  Permutations  and 
combinations,  method  of  indeterminate  coefficients,  resolving  into  partial  fractions, 
binominal  theorem  for  negative  and  fractional  exponents,  plotting  of  equations  and 
graphs,  and  theory  of  equations  (the  usual  amount),  including  transformation,  Sturm’s 
theorem,  and  Homer’s  method  of  solving  numerical  equations  of  higher  degrees. 

In  fourth  year  (second  half)  the  usual  amount  of  plane  trigonometry,  including 
solution  of  trigonometrical  equations,  solution  of  right  and  oblique  triangles,  appli- 
cations to  concrete  problems,  use  of  logarithms  and  tables. 

9560°— 11 4 


50 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Teachers  agree  that  examinations  produce  uniformity  in  work  and  prevent  marked 
divergence  in  the  instruction.  Tests  are  required  for  admission,  and  for  graduation 
as  well  as  during  the  course. 

In  development  of  the  subject  a teacher  is  allowed  to  use  any  method  that  brings 
results;  at  times  teachers  use  the  laboratory,  heuristic,  or  individual  methods;  they 
find  museums,  colored  crayons,  measurement,  and  computation,  paper  folding, 
models,  and  cross-section  paper  helpful.  To  some  extent  algebra  is  combined  with 
geometry;  solid  with  plane  geometry;  and  geometry  with  trigonometry. 

Observational  geometry  should  precede  deductive  geometry,  but  seldom  does; 
and  outdoor  work  in  mathematics  is  decidedly  in  its  infancy. 

After  the  pupil  has  attained  some  degree  of  skill  in  manipulation  from  his  first 
year’s  work  in  algebra,  emphasis  is  placed  on  the  logical  relations  found  in  deductive 
geometry  and  increasingly  thereafter  in  his  continuation  of  algebra.  The  teacher 
judges  of  the  pupil’s  progress  by  his  oral  recitations,  written  home  work,  written  class 
work,  and  voluntary  original  work.  A greater  per  cent  fail  than  in  any  other  subject, 
estimates  from  10  to  25  per  cent  being  sent  in.  While  it  is  desirable  to  estimate 
separately  the  pupil’s  measure  of  proficiency  in  numerical  accuracy,  algebraic  manipu- 
lation, knowledge  of  geometric  facts,  comprehension  of  successive  logical  dependence, 
and  mathematical  invention  and  ingenuity,  no  system  of  marking  has  yet  been 
devised  recording  such  estimates. 

Most  schools  have  a hierarchy  of  aims  in  their  mathematics  course;  the  instruction 
strives  to  promote  general  culture,  to  prepare  for  college,  or  technical  school,  or  if  the 
pupil  is  to  go  out  into  the  world  immediately,  to  suggest  the  occupation  of  homemaker, 
civil  or  mechanical  engineer,  surveyor,  draftsman,  computer,  merchant,  or  skilled 
worker  in  various  local  manufactures. 

Two  topics  have  been  considered  by  the  committee,  which  were 
not  on  the  questionnaire:  (1)  the  advisability  of  separating  the  girls 
and  boys  in  the  mathematics  classes;  and  (2)  the  ability  of  the  girls 
as  compared  to  that  of  the  boys. 

There  seems  to  be  no  general  movement  to  make  such  a segregation 
of  sexes  in  mathematical  classes,  although  it  is  almost  unanimously 
believed  that  such  a step  would  be  advisable  in  certain  grades  of  the 
work.  In  the  school  where  a large  number  of  boys  are  preparing  to 
enter  the  higher  technical  schools,  the  classes  in  higher  mathematics 
are  composed  entirely  of  boys,  and  much  better  work  is  being  done 
than  in  the  corresponding  mixed  classes.  Even  in  the  elementary 
subjects  it  has  been  found  in  such  schools  that  better  results  are  ob- 
tained if  the  segregation  takes  place  early  in  the  course.  However, 
a strong  objection  to  this  scheme  has  been  made  by  some  members  of 
the  committee.  It  seems  to  be  the  general  opinion  that  the  average 
boy  shows  more  ability  in  mathematics  than  the  average  girl,  but  also 
that  he  does  not  work  so  faithfully.  In  a mixed  class  this  greater 
ability  of  the  boy,  and  the  greater  faithfulness  of  the  girl,  react  most 
advantageously  on  each  other.  This  question  of  the  difference  in 
ability  of  the  girl  and  the  boy  is  a many-sided  one.  Every  teacher 
in  a mixed  school  has  found  in  the  mathematics  class  many  girls  who 
could  do  the  work  as  well  as  the  boy,  and  who  by  steady  application 
to  work  has  obtained  a higher  mark  than  he.  But  the  average  girl 
meets  the  situation  at  the  start  with  a prejudice  “ex  matre,”  and  is 


COEDUCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  MIDDLE  WEST.  51 

therefore  handicapped.  Another  fact  that  is  noted  is  this : In  ele- 
mentary algebra  the  girl  does  as  good  work  as  the  boy;  in  geometry 
not  nearly  so  good.  In  advanced  algebra  and  trigonometry,  the  boy 
shows  an  ability  which  is  far  ahead  of  the  girl.  Yet,  we  are  free  to 
confess  that  his  greater  natural  ability  is  often  outclassed  by  the 
steady,  patient  endeavor  of  the  girl  Perhaps  it  would  be  safer  to 
say  that  the  girl  does  not  show  as  great  an  ability  as  the  boy,  even 
though  she  may  have  it. 

The  committee  finds  from  the  replies  which  were  sent  in  that  the 
conditions  are  still  somewhat  chaotic  in  many  schools — a lack  of  or- 
ganization; crowded  curricula;  the  teaching  of  algebra  and  geometry 
by  many  teachers  who  have  neither  liking  for  the  subjects  nor  ability 
to  teach  them;  the  use  of  poorly  prepared  text  books;  and  usually 
the  use  of  methods  which  are  mechanical  and  ill-adapted  to  the  needs 
of  the  present  generation  of  secondary  school  students.  An  honest 
effort  is  being  made  in  many  schools  to  reform  these  conditions,  and 
the  committee  sees  signs  of  a coming  era  of  saner  methods,  of  better 
departmental  work,  and  of  closer  correlation  of  subjects  pertaining 
to  mathematics. 

SUBCOMMITTEE  4.  COEDUCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN 
THE  MIDDLE  WEST. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Source  of  data. — In  preparing  this  report  the  committee  has  secured 
data  from  a number  of  sources.  Reports  of  various  mathematical 
associations  and  of  boards  of  education  and  magazine  articles  have 
furnished  a great  deal  of  material.  Some  of  the  information  has  been 
secured  by  correspondence.  The  main  source  of  information,  how- 
ever, has  been  the  questionnaire  sent  out  by  the  United  States  Bureau 
of  Education.  This  questionnaire  was  sent  to  every  high  school  in 
the  Middle  West.1  About  600  replies  were  received  by  the  chairman. 
These  replies  were  sent  to  each  member  of  the  committee,  who  ex- 
amined them  carefully  for  data  on  one  or  more  points  of  the  report. 
The  results  of  this  examination,  together  with  matter  secured  from 
other  sources,  are  presented  in  the  following  statement. 

ORGANIZATION. 

Departments. — Except  in  the  high  schools  of  large  cities  the  mathe- 
matics can  not  be  said  to  be  organized  into  departments.  Like  the 
other  subjects,  it  receives  the  attention  made  possible  by  the  size  of 
the  teaching  force.  If  this  teaching  force  is  small,  mathematics  is 
taught  by  those  who  have  other  subjects  also.  In  the  large  high 

1 The  “Middle  West”  was  regarded  as  including  the  States  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Michigan,  Illinois,  Wisconsin, 
Missouri,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  Kansas,  Nebraska,  North  Dakota,  and  South  Dakota, 


52 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


schools  a better  organization  is  found.  One  or  more  teachers  give 
their  entire  time  and  energy  to  the  teaching  of  mathematics,  and 
thus  the  “department”  of  mathematics  is  formed. 

About  one-fifth  of  the  replies  to  the  questionnaires  state  that  the 
schools  have  the  work  in  mathematics  organized  into  departments. 
The  department  heads  are  appointed  in  some  cases  by  the  board  of 
education,  in  others  by  the  superintendent  or  principal.  The  posi- 
tion is  sometimes  held  by  the  right  of  seniority.  No  special  rule  de- 
termines the  method  of  appointment;  it  usually  depends  on  the  wish 
of  those  interested. 

The  head  of  the  department. — The  duties  of  the  head  of  the  depart- 
ment vary.  In  some  schools  he  has  charge  of  the  organization  of  the 
mathematics  courses  and  must  see  that  the  teachers  in  the  depart- 
ment effectively  present  the  different  subjects.  He  calls  meetings  of 
the  teachers  of  the  department,  presides  therein,  and,  subject  to  the 
control  of  the  superintendent  and  principal,  he  is  in  a general  way 
responsible  for  the  work  of  the  department. 

In  other  schools  he  is  considered  a responsible  person  on  whom 
the  superintendent  or  principal  depends  to  carry  out  his  general 
policy  or  some  detail  which  concerns  the  department  as  a whole,  but 
he  is  not  responsible  for  the  organization  and  has  nothing  to  do  with 
the  class  work  of  other  teachers,  the  superintendent  or  principal 
keeping  direct  control  of  that  phase  of  the  work.  The  greater  number 
of  organizations  are  of  this  type. 

Teaching  other  subjects . — Three  teachers  of  mathematics  out  of  every 
five  teach  other  subjects  also.  About  20  per  cent  have  to  do  with 
athletics  and  one-half  that  number  are  required  to  do  clerical  work. 
In  many  of  the  smaller  schools  the  mathematics  is  taught  by  the 
superintendent,  who  must  divide  his  energies  between  class  work  and 
school  supervision. 

Transfer  of  pupils. — Chicago,  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  and  Indianap- 
olis are  the  principal  places  reporting  the  organization  of  the  sub- 
jects to  be  such  as  to  require  the  pupils  to  be  transferred  from  one 
school  district  to  another.  Cleveland,  for  instance,  has  a number  of 
high  schools.  These  high  schools  do  not  offer  the  same  courses.  A 
pupil  in  one  district,  wishing  to  take  a certain  line  of  work,  may  have 
to  be  transferred  to  the  high  school  of  another  district,  as  the  one  in 
his  neighborhood  may  not  offer  the  desired  course.  On  the  other 
hand,  St.  Louis  offers  the  same  courses  in  each  high  school  and,  con- 
sequently, there  is  no  reason  for  transfers.  This  is  true  of  most 
cities  having  more  than  one  high  school. 

Relation  between  mathematics  in  the  high  school  and  in  the  grades .— 
High-school  mathematics  is  most  closely  articulated  with  the  mathe- 
matics of  the  grades  in  the  smaller  schools.  In  these  places,  espe- 
cially if  the  superintendent  has  charge  of  the  mathematics  classes, 


COEDUCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  MIDDLE  WEST.  53 

the  connection  is  close  and  the  bearing  of  one  on  the  other  is  marked. 
In  the  larger  schools  the  connection  is  not  so  noticeable.  While  the 
course  of  study  is  arranged  in  sequence,  and  promotions  are  made  on 
basis  of  the  pupil’s  ability  to  do  the  high-school  work,  there  ik  nothing 
more.  The  high-school  teacher  of  mathematics  has  nothing  to  do 
with  the  instruction  of  that  subject  in  the  grades.  With  some  excep- 
tions, he  knows  little  or  nothing  of  the  pupil  until  he  is  enrolled  in 
his  class.  About  50  (mostly  superintendents  teaching  mathematics 
classes)  report  that  they  have  direct  influence  on  the  grade  work. 
About  100  state  that  their  influence  is  indirect;  the  remainder,  that 
they  have  no  influence. 

Determination  of  what  is  to  be  taught. — With  few  exceptions  the 
university  requirements  regulate  the  mathematics  taught  in  the  high 
school.  In  some  States  the  State  board  regulates,  while  in  others 
the  State  superintendent  has  such  authority.  Naturally  the  rela- 
tions between  the  university  and  the  high  school  are  not  as  close  as 
between  the  high  school  and  the  grades.  The  university  generally 
states  the  minimum  amount  of  work  of  good  quality  which  will 
secure  admission  for  the  high-school  graduate. 

Relations  of  the  universities  and  the  high  schools. — The  leading 
universities  have  at  least  one  conference  a year  with  the  representa- 
tives of  their  affiliated  schools.  At  these  conferences  mathematics 
sections  discuss  subjects  from  the  standpoint  of  the  university  and 
from  the  standpoint  of  the  high  school.  In  many  cases  joint  com- 
mittees are  appointed  to  make  reports.  In  this  way  the  two  institu- 
tions understand  each  other  better  than  formerly.  As  a conse- 
quence there  has  been  a helpful  modification  on  the  part  of  each. 
The  high  school  realizes  more  and  more  that  it,  as  well  as  the  univer- 
sity, is  entitled  to  an  effective  part  in  the  decision  of  the  common 
questions  of  school  life.  At  one  time  the  university  expected  the 
high  school  to  adapt  itself  to  university  requirements;  now  the  lead- 
ing universities  do  not  hesitate  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  needs  of 
the  high  school. 

Associations  of  teachers  of  mathematics. — There  are  three  kinds  of 
associations  of  teachers  of  mathematics — the  sections  in  the  conferences 
of  affiliated  schools,  the  sections  in  the  State  associations  of  teachers, 
and  the  associations  independent  of  other  organizations.  The  first 
has  been  described,  the  second  is  similar  to  it;  it  will  be  sufficient  to 
mention  one  of  the  third. 

The  Central  Association  of  Science  and  Mathematics  Teachers  is 
the  main  organization  that  has  influenced  the  teaching  of  mathematics 
in  the  Middle  West.  Its  members  are  found  in  all  the  States  cov- 
ered by  this  report.  It  began  under  its  present  name  in  1902.  Spe- 
cially appointed  committees  have  prepared  reports  on  the  different 
topics  in  secondary  mathematics,  and  those  reports  have  been  widely 


54 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


distributed.  They  have  had  a marked  influence  on  the  high-school 
courses.  Reference  to  the  work  of  these  committees  is  made  in 
another  part  of  this  report. 

The  above  influences  have  been  partly  the  cause  and  partly  the 
result  of  the  activity  on  the  part  of  the  teachers  in  the  Middle  West 
in  breaking  away  from  the  traditional  lines  in  mathematics  teaching. 
This  activity  is  more  or  less  manifest  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States, 
but  probably  in  no  place  as  much  so  as  in  this  district. 

Miscellaneous  statistics. — The  high-school  pupil  enters  at  14  years 
of  age.  He  has  had  eight  years  in  the  grades,  which  may  have  been 
preceded  by  another  in  the  kindergarten.  Four  years  in  the  high 
school  are  necessary  for  graduation. 

Twenty-five  per  cent  of  the  reports  state  that  four  years  of  mathe- 
matics are  offered,  40  per  cent  three  years,  and  the  remainder  from 
one  to  two  and  one-half  years.  Where  the  schools  are  large  enough 
there  are  different  courses,  some  of  which  may  require  four  years, 
others  only  one. 

The  percentage  of  the  pupils  entering  that  grade  varies  greatly. 
The  minimum  is  1.5  per  cent;  the  maximum  62.  The  greater  part 
is  from  12  to  25  per  cent. 

No  racial  restriction  of  pupils  is  made  except  in  a few  places  near 
Mason  and  Dixon’s  line.1 

In  55  per  cent  of  the  schools  annual  promotions  are  reported;  in  45 
per  cent  semiannual  promotions;  25  per  cent  report  promotion  by 
classes;  75  per  cent  promotion  by  subjects.  In  nearly  every  school 
mathematics  is  required  in  the  first  and  second  years;  in  the  third 
year  a number  offer  electives;  118  report  no  mathematics  in  the 
fourth  year;  44  report  that  other  mathematical  subjects,  as  commer- 
cial arithmetic,  mathematics  for  artisans,  etc.,  are  required. 

THE  MATHEMATICAL  CURRICULUM. 

Determination  of  the  curriculum. — As  a matter  of  fact,  the  university 
is  the  most  influential  factor  in  the  determination  of  the  curriculum. 
Each  university  or  college  sets  up  its  own  entrance  requirements  and 
admits  graduates  from  high  schools  whose  work  meets  these  require- 
ments, and  the  high  school  that  wishes  to  stand  well  tries  to  conform 
to  the  standard  so  set  up.  The  main  outlines  of  the  curriculum  being 
thus  virtually  fixed,  the  superintendent,  principal,  or  head  of  the 
department  arranges  the  details  of  the  course,  and,  finally,  the  school 
board  must  give  its  stamp  of  approval. 

Various  modifications  may  be  made,  such  as  the  introduction  of 
mathematics  suited  to  a commercial  course  or  to  manual  training. 
Such  modifications  are  usually  introduced  by  the  school  authorities 


1 The  parallel  of  latitude  39°  43'  N.,  famous  in  history  as  the  boundary  line  be'tween  the  former  slave- 
holding States  and  the  others. 


COEDUCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  MIDDLE  WEST.  55 

acting  upon  the  recommendation  of  members  of  the  department  of 
mathematics. 

The  subjects  taught. — In  general,  the  courses  consist  of  arithmetic, 
algebra,  and  geometry,  and  a few  schools  offer  trigonometry  and 
advanced  algebra.  In  most  places  these  branches  are  not  correlated 
or  taught  simultaneously,  but  the  prescribed  amount  of  work  in  one 
branch  is  completed  before  another  is  studied.  Correlated  work  is, 
however,  to  be  found  in  many  places.  Some  of  the  schools  in  the 
Middle  West  have  been  especially  aggressive  in  this  respect.  Refer- 
ence will  be  made  to  them  later  in  the  report.  Attempts  have  also 
been  made  to  correlate  with  physics.  Manual-training  schools  have 
introduced  courses  in  mathematics,  which  it  is  believed  will  be  more 
helpful  to  their  pupils  than  those  usually  prescribed,  and  commercial 
schools  are  making  the  same  experiment. 

Promotion  of  'pupils. — Nearly  all  the  high  schools  base  the  work  of 
any  one  term  on  the  satisfactory  completion  of  the  prescribed  work 
of  the  preceding  term.  If  his  work  in  mathematics  is  satisfactory, 
the  pupil  is  permitted  to  take  the  next  term  regardless  of  his  success 
in  other  subjects.  This  marks  a decided  advance  over  the  condition 
which  existed  a few  years  ago,  when  the  pupil  was  compelled  to  repeat 
his  work  in  all  subjects,  if  he  failed  in  one.  As  a rule  admission  to 
other  subjects  does  not  depend  on  mathematics  in  any  case  except 
physics,  chemistry,  mechanical  drawing,  and  machine-shop  work. 

The  scope  of  the  courses. — The  courses  in  algebra,  geometry,  trig- 
onometry, and  arithmetic  are  usually  in  close  conformity  with  the 
current  textbooks.  There  are,  however,  some  variations  from  this, 
since  in  most  cases  teachers  are  at  liberty  to  use  discretion  as  to  the 
order  and  emphasis  of  topics.  As  has  been  stated,  attempts  have 
been  made  to  break  away  from  the  traditional  order  of  things,  and 
these  attempts  have  furnished  many  topics  for  discussion  before  the 
mathematical  organizations.  These  discussions,  in  turn,  have  resulted 
in  some  modifications,  but  it  is  too  soon  to  make  definite  statements 
as  to  the  outcome.  It  is  sufficient  .for  the  purposes  of  this  report  to 
mention  the  existence  of  such  a movement  and  to  give  in  the  sequel 
its  main  characteristics. 

(a)  Algebra. 

Scope  of  the  customary  course. — Most  of  the  high  schools  give  a course 
in  algebra  such  as  is  presented  in  the  well-known  current  textbooks. 
The  details  of  this  course  need  not  be  discussed  here,  but  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  refer  the  reader  desiring  further  information  to  these 
textbooks. 

Modifications  proposed. — The  Middle  West  has  been  especially 
active  during  the  last  three  years  in  discussing  modifications  of  the 
algebra  courses.  A number  of  reports  have  been  made  and  the  fol- 


56 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


lowing  statement  is  intended  to  be  general  enough  to  include  their 
main  points: 

The  work  in  high-school  algebra  should  consist  of  an  elementary  course  given  during 
the  first  year  and  a more  advanced  course  given  not  earlier  than  the  third  year,  after 
demonstrati onal  geometry.  The  first  year  should  train  pupils  in  the  solution  of  prob- 
lems by  means  of  the  equation,  rather  than  exercise  them  in  abstract  manipulation. 
The  later  course,  covering  at  least  one  half  year,  should  include  the  demonstrational 
work  and  all  topics  usually  given  in  elementary  algebra.  The  kind  of  manipulation 
necessary  for  advanced  work  in  mathematics  is  best  emphasized  in  this  course. 

Proposed  omissions. — In  consequence  of  the  central  idea  proposed 
for  the  first  year,  certain  of  the  topics  usually  given  should  be  omitted 
and  the  order  of  those  retained  should  be  changed.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested that  the  following  topics  be  omitted  in  the  first  year: 

Complicated  brackets. 

H.  C.  D.  and  L.  C.  M.  by  division. 

Remainder  theorem. 

Complicated  complex  fractions. 

Simultaneous  equations  in  more  than  three  unknowns. 

Binomial  theorem. 

Cube  root  of  polynomials. 

Formal  study  of  the  theory  of  exponents. 

Extended  study  and  manipulation  of  radicals  and  imaginaries. 

Equations  containing  complicated  radicals. 

Simultaneous  quadratics  except  one  linear  and  one  quadratic. 

Theory  of  quadratics. 

A proposed  order  of  topics. — The  following  order  of  development  of 
topics  has  been  suggested: 

Additional  problems;  equations;  abstract  addition. 

Subtraction;  transposition  in  equations;  numerical  equations;  simultaneous  equa- 
tions (simple);  elimination  by  addition  and  subtraction;  abstract  subtraction ; sim- 
ple brackets. 

Multiplication  and  division  taught  together;  complicated  problems  in  long  division 
maybe  deferred  till  later;  equations  involving  multiplication;  easy  fractions  and 
fractional  equations  (monomial  denominators) ; easy  involutions;  simultaneous  equa- 
tions (other  methods  of  elimination). 

Special  cases  of  multiplication  with  easy  factoring. 

Solution  of  quadratics  by  factoring. 

Roots  and  radicals. 

Pure  quadratics;  affected  quadratics  by  completing  the  square;  simultaneous  equa- 
tions involving  one  quadratic  and  one  linear. 

Multiples  and  common  divisors  by  the  factoring  method;  addition  and  subtraction  of 
fractions. 

Multiplication  and  division  of  fractions;  easy  complex  fractions. 

Harder  fractional  equations;  verification  of  roots. 

Character  of  the  problems. — Problems  should  have  a concrete  set- 
ting; they  should  be  valuable  and  come  within  the  scope  of  the  pupil’s 
experience;  they  should  be  abundant  and,  as  far  as  possible,  be  intro- 
duced with  each  topic  studied;  they  should  be  classified  according  to 
subject  matter,  and  most  carefully  selected  and  graded.  It  is  particu- 


COEDUCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  MIDDLE  WEST.  57 


larly  necessary  that  such  problems  be  carefully  graded  beginning  with 
the  simplest,  and  that  elementary  conditions  be  comprehended. 

The  second  course. — The  later  course  should  look  upon  algebra  as  a 
study  of  functions,  and  the  various  topics  should  be  treated  from  this 
point  of  view.  This  course  prepares  for  college,  and  need  not  be  taken 
by  pupils  who  plan  to  stop  study  after  graduation  from  the  high 
school.1 

(6)  Geometry. 

Scope  of  the  customary  course. — Most  high  schools  give  a course  in 
geometry  such  as  is  found  in  the  well-known  current  textbooks,  to 
which  the  reader  is  referred  for  details  of  the  course. 

Modifications  proposed. — The  modifications  proposed  in  geometry 
have  not  been  as  extensive  or  as  radical  as  those  proposed  in 
algebra.  A study  of  the  various  reports  shows  that  the  following 
points  have  been  considered  and  strongly  recommended. 

The  introduction  should  be  a course  in  construction.  This  is  to 
familiarize  the  pupil  with  geometrical  ideas  and,  for  the  time  being, 
no  attempt  should  be  made  to  develop  the  formal  logical  processes. 

“A  free  use  of  assumptions  is  recommended,  yet  it  is  essential 
that  all  propositions  used  explicitly  in  a formal  demonstration  be 
recognized  as  either  previously  proved  or  as  belonging  to  the  list 
deliberately  left  unproved.”  Rigorous  proofs  should  not  be 
demanded  at  the  beginning.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  demon- 
stration should  be  a loose  one;  but  rather  that  the  exactness  which 
is  usually  required  in  the  beginning  shall  be  recognized  as  a matter 
of  growth  and  a result  of  later  work. 

Such  propositions  as  ‘ ‘All  straight  angles  are  congruent,  ’ ’ “All  right  angles  are  equal,  ’ ’ 
“Circles  having  equal  radii  are  congruent,”  should  not  be  demonstrated,  as  is  usually 
attempted  at  the  beginning  of  a course.  It  is  sufficient  to  regard  them  as  direct 
inferences. 

Propositions  should  be  omitted  which  are  obvious,  too  difficult,  or  unusual.  List 
of  omissions:  Square  of  side  opposite  acute  angle,  square  of  side  opposite  obtuse  angle, 
division  in  extreme  and  mean  ratio,  inscribed  decagon,  symmetry,  theorems  on 
limits,  incommensurable  cases,  maxima  and  minima,  sum  of  squares  of  two  sides 
equal  to  twice  the  square  of  half  the  third  side  increased,  etc.,  difference  of  the  squares 
of  two  sides,  etc.,  in  any  triangle  the  product  of  two  sides  equals  the  diameter  of  the 
circum-circle  multiplied  by,  etc. 

These  omissions  give  opportunity  for  emphasizing  such  topics  as  “congruence  of 
triangles,  similarity  of  triangles,  Pythagorean  theorem,  properties  of  circles,  mensura- 
tion theorems  concerning  plane  figures,  properties  of  spheres.”  2 

Solid  geometry. — The  work  in  solid  geometry  immediately  follows 
that  in  plane  geometry  in  many  schools.  In  others  a course  in 

1 The  above  statement  on  algebra  is  taken  almost  entirely  from  the  “Proceedings  of  the  Eighth  Meeting 
of  the  Central  Association  of  Science  and  Mathematics  Teachers.”  The  committee  could  have  quoted  almost 
the  same  statements  from  other  reports.  Special  mention  should  be  made  of  the  Illinois  report,  the  Indiana 
report,  and  the  reports  from  Missouri  and  Wisconsin. 

2 The  quotations  are  from  the  Illinois  report  on  geometry,  1911. 


58 


MATHEMATICS  4N  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


algebra  is  given  between  plane  and  solid  geometry.  In  either  case 
more  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  formal  deductive  side  than  in  the 
first  year.  Many  teachers  develop  the  notion  of  functionality  by 
the  introduction  of  trigonometric  functions. 

(c)  Mathematics. 

Character  of  the  courses. — Some  of  the  schools  report  courses  in 
“mathematics.”  This  differs  from  the  work  usually  given,  in  that 
arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry  are  unified.  The 
traditional  barriers  which  have  kept  these  subjects  separated  have 
been  broken  down.  Other  subjects,  notably  physics  and  chemistry, 
are  made  a part  of  this  unification.  The  old  cut  and  dried  forms  of 
treatment  are  ignored.  As  one  report  states,  “If  we  know  arith- 
metic, algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry  in  their  relations  to  one 
another,  there  will  be  no  hesitation  about  introducing  one  subject 
into  the  teaching  of  another  wherever  such  material  is  needed.” 

The  high  schools  at  Lincoln,  Nebr.,  Indianapolis,  Ind.,  and  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  have  been  especially  prominent  in  this  line  of  work,  the 
first  named  being  a pioneer.  Small  schools  where  it  is  necessary  to 
combine  such  departments  as  mathematics  and  physics,  or  to  have 
all  the  mathematics  taught  by  one  teacher,  are  among  the  number 
reporting  this  plan  of  work.  There  is  no  uniform  arrangement  of 
subject  matter  in  the  schools  teaching  “mathematics.”  The  fol- 
lowing statement,  however,  is  representative: 

The  topics  usually  considered  in  the  courses  in  algebra  and  geometry  are  distributed 
throughout  the  entire  course  on  the  spiral  plan,  the  more  simple  and  concrete  ideas  at 
first;  the  more  complicated,  difficult,  and  abstract  ideas  later.  Algebra  predominates 
in  the  first  year,  geometry  in  the  second.  Arithmetical  work  is  carried  on  throughout 
the  entire  course  in  conjunction  with  other  topics  wherever  it  naturally  enters.  Some 
of  the  trigonometric  functions  may  be  made  use  of  in  connection  with  the  triangle.1 

EXAMINATIONS. 

Examinations  for  entrance  to  the  high  school. — The  first  year  of  the 
high  school  is  regarded  as  the  ninth  grade  of  the  local  system  of  graded 
schools.  A pupil  passing  the  eighth  grade  can  enter  the  ninth  just 
as  one  passing  the  seventh  can  enter  the  eighth.  But  it  is  different 
with  pupils  entering  from  another  system  of  schools.  In  that  case 
an  entrance  examination  is  required.  If  the  pupil  is  a candidate  for 
the  first  year  of  the  high  school,  this  examination  must  be  such  as 
to  satisfy  the  school  authorities  that  he  has  a knowledge  of  the  eighth- 
grade  work;  if  he  is  a candidate  for  advanced  standing,  he  must  show 
by  examination  that  he  is  worthy  of  advanced  credit.  Occasionally 
schools  take  candidates  on  trial.  A few  weeks’  test  in  the  classroom 


1 The  quotations  are  from  a report  entitled  “Unifying  Mathematics,”  in  the  “ Proceedings  of  the  Eighth 
Meeting  of  the  Central  Association  of  Science  and  Mathematics  Teachers.” 


COEDUCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  MIDDLE  WEST.  59 

will  be  regarded  in  the  light  of  an  examination.  Arithmetic  is  one 
of  the  principal  subjects  in  the  entrance  examination. 

Examinations  for  entrance  to  college. — Universities  do  not  give  en- 
trance examinations  to  graduates  of  their  own  accredited  high  schools. 
But  if  the  candidate  for  entrance  is  a graduate  of  a high  school  not 
on  the  accredited  list,  an  examination  is  required.  The  North  Central 
Association  of  Colleges  and  Secondary  Schools  has  brought  it  about 
that  graduates  from  the  strong  high  schools  of  this  district  can  enter 
without  examination  any  of  the  higher  institutions  of  the  Middle 
West. 

Effect  of  examinations. — We  pass  next  to  the  consideration  of  the 
following  question  from  the  questionnaire:  “What  is  the  effect  of 
these  several  classes  of  examinations  ( a ) on  the  teaching  of  mathe- 
matics in  your  school?  ( b ) on  the  pupil’s  attitude  toward  the 
subject  ?” 

The  replies  are  tabulated  as  follows:  To  the  first,  249  say  the 

effect  is  good ; 24  that  it  is  bad ; 54  say  it  is  not  noticed.  To  the  second, 
194  say  the  effect  is  good;  34  that  it  is  bad;  and  63  say  that  it  is  not 
noticed.  It  is  interesting  to  note  from  these  replies  that  more  see 
good  effects  on  teaching  than  see  good  effects  on  the  pupil’s  attitude. 

METHODS. 

The  methods  in  use. — The  replies  to  the  question  concerning  the 
methods  used  in  teaching  secondary  mathematics  do  not  always  make 
distinction  between  ‘ 1 methods  ’ ’ and  ‘ ‘ devices.  ’ ’ Those  used  most  are 
the  laboratory  method,  individual  method,  measurement  and  com- 
putation, and  cross-section  paper.  The  largest  number  state  that 
they  use  measurement  and  computation.  Some  of  the  replies  state 
that  all  these  methods  and  devices  were  used  during  the  year. 

As  already  stated,  a number  of  schools  make  a combination  of 
arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  and  trigonometry.  It  is  not  to  be 
inferred,  however,  that  this  combination  always  means  correlation. 
It  may  mean  the  teaching  of  the  subjects  simultaneously — for  example, 
geometry  three  hours  in  the  week  and  algebra  two. 

The  following  special  methods  or  schoolroom  devices  are  taken  from 
the  reports : 

1 . Individual  problems. 

2.  Have  the  pupils  make  models. 

3.  Find  the  value  of  7r  by  rolling  a disk  on  a yardstick. 

4.  Use  colored  crayons. 

5.  Small  drawing  board,  T square,  and  triangle  for  each  pupil. 

6.  Use  a “composite  figure ” from  which  the  pupil  selects  material 
to  prove  various  propositions. 

7.  Make  lantern  slides  from  construction  problems  thoroughly 
worked  out. 


60 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


8.  Use  stereopticon. 

9.  Have  small  sections  in  the  class. 

10.  Give  geometrical  drawings  first. 

11.  Complete  reviews  should  he  printed  on  the  mimeograph  and 
distributed  to  each  pupil. 

12.  Pupils  should  make  figures  in  solid  geometry  from  prepared 
clay  and  toothpicks. 

13.  Use  equation  balances. 

14.  Use  the  transit. 

15.  In  Book  VI  use  a large  sheet  of  cork  and  knitting  needles. 

When  logic  should  be  emphasized. — Of  the  replies  to  the  question: 

“At  what  stage  in  the  pupil's  progress  should  the  emphasis  be  placed 
upon  his  grasp  of  logical  relations  rather  than  upon  his  manipulative 
skill  V*  40  per  cent  state  that  it  should  be  during  the  second  year,  25 
per  cent  the  first  year,  20  per  cent  the  third  year,  and  the  remainder 
during  the  fourth  year  or  “throughout  the  course."  These  data 
support  the  claim  of  teachers  who  believe  that  geometry  should  be 
given  during  the  second  year  rather  than  the  first.  As  has  been 
stated,  this  subject  is  found  in  most  of  the  schools  after  one  year  of 
algebra. 

Grading. — Pupils  are  graded  on  oral  recitations,  written  home 
work,  written  class  work,  voluntary  class  work,  written  examina- 
tions at  stated  intervals  or  at  the  end  of  the  term,  and  on  the  teacher's 
general  estimate  of  the  pupil's  power  and  achievement.  Oral  recita- 
tions are  used  by  nearly  everyone,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  550 
stated  they  always  considered  them.  Examinations,  written  class 
work,  and  the  teacher's  general  estimate  are  favored  in  the  order 
given. 

Exemptions. — In  many  schools  exemptions  from  examination  are 
given;  That  is,  if  a pupil  attains  a specified  grade,  say  90,  on  his  class 
work,  home  work,  etc.,  he  need  not  take  the  final  examination. 

Failures. — The  percentage  of  pupils  who  fail  runs  from  10  to  85 
per  cent.  No  other  point  considered  in  this  report  presents  such  ex- 
tremes. The  greatest  number  of  replies  state  that  10  per  cent  fail. 
Twenty  per  cent,  25  per  cent,  and  15  per  cent  occur  in  the  order  given. 
The  replies  giving  10  per  cent  of  failures  are  usually  from  the  smaller 
schools  where  the  number  is  such  that  the  individual  pupil  can  be 
looked  after  more  closely  and  the  pace  adapted  to  his  ability.  The 
large,  well-organized  schools,  where  the  standards  are  highest,  report 
not  less  than  20  per  cent,  the  number  usually  being  between  25  and 
35  per  cent. 

Discriminating  marks. — The  questionnaire  asks,  “Are  the  methods 
of  marking  mathematics  in  your  school  so  arranged  that  it  is  possible 
to  conclude  from  the  pupil's  marks  on  record  whether  he  is  proficient 
in  numerical  accuracy,  algebraic  manipulation,  knowledge  of  geomet- 
rical facts,  comprehension  of  successive  logical  dependence,  and 


COEDUCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  MIDDLE  WEST.  61 

mathematical  invention  and  ingenuity?”  Eighty  per  cent  report 
“No”  and  20  per  cent  “Yes,”  though  75  per  cent  say  such  a record  is 
desirable.  Some  state  they  include  all  of  these  points,  though  more 
emphasis  is  placed  on  one  or  two  than  on  the  others. 

Various  suggestions  were  made  for  securing  such  a method  of 
marking : 

1 . Use  of  letters — 

Ae,  excellent  in  accuracy. 

Mf,  fair  in  manipulation. 

2.  Card  system. 

3.  Grade  20  per  cent  as  perfect  in  each. 

Mathematical  clubs. — Some  of  the  large  schools  have  mathematical 
clubs.  The  Engineering  Club  at  the  McKinley  High  School,  St. 
Louis,  Mo.,  is  typical.  Its  membership  is  limited  to  35,  and  restricted 
to  pupils  of  the  junior  or  the  senior  class,  whose  general  record  is 
good  and  whose  interest  in  mathematics  is  such  as  to  cause  them  to 
seek  membership.  One  of  the  mathematics  faculty  is  moderator 
and  sees  that  the  efforts  of  the  members  are  directed  along  worthy 
lines.  Committees  arrange  the  programs  and  see  that  each  one  does 
his  part.  It  is  understood  that  the  success  or  failure  of  the  semester’s 
work  depends  on  the  club  and  not  on  the  faculty  representative.  So 
far  the  results  have  been  very  satisfactory. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  topics  considered  during  one  year: 
Field  work — 

Surveys  and  computations  necessary  for  a proposed  extension 
of  a street  railway  line,  including  maps  and  profiles. 

Surveys  for  a proposed  extension  of  a city  street. 

Triangulation,  or  measurement  of  inaccessible  distances. 

Reports — 

Principles  of  bridge  building. 

Gold  mining. 

Ice-making  plant. 

Electrical  transmission. 

Sewage  disposal. 

Raising  of  the  Maine. 

Points  dealing  with  the  construction  of  the  new  bridge,  sinking 
of  the  new  caissons,  etc. 

Efficiency  of  electric  batteries. 

Problems  dealing  with  the  aeroplane. 

AIMS  OF  MATHEMATICS  TEACHING. 

Character  of  the  replies. — The  information  which  the  committee 
secured  from  the  questionnaire  on  the  “aims  of  mathematics  teaching” 
is  not  satisfactory.  The  statements  were  in  many  cases  indefinite. 
In  view  of  this  fact  it  seems  advisable  to  tabulate  the  replies  and  to 
make  no  attempt  at  generalizations. 


62 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


The  general  aim. — In  answer  to  the  question  “Is  the  aim  of  mathe- 
matical instruction  in  your  school  general  culture?”  400  said  “Yes.” 
Three  hundred  and  fifty  state  their  aim  is  to  prepare  for  college;  125 
prepared  for  technical  school,  while  25  do  not  make  such  a prepara- 
tion. 

Preparation  for  specific  occupations.  — The  replies  to  the  question 
concerning  preparation  for  certain  specified  occupations  are  as  follows: 


1.  Civil  engineer 47  yes,  29  no. 

2.  Surveyor 35  yes,  36  no. 

3.  Draftsman 31  yes,  37  no. 

4.  Mechanical  engineer 47  yes,  36  no. 

5.  Computer 45  yes,  38  no. 

6.  Accountant  or  merchant 171  yes,  31  no. 


School  teaching,  agriculture,  housekeeping,  office  work,  carpen- 
tering, all  receive  frequent  mention  in  the  answers  to  this  question. 


SUBCOMMITTEE  5.  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  COEDUCA- 
TIONAL HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH. 

Throughout  the  South,  as  in  other  parts  of  the  United  States,  the 
public  high  schools  that  are  not  especially  designed  for  vocational 
ends,  as  few  are,  are  intended  to  follow  an  elementary  school  course 
of  seven  or  eight  years.  Some  of  the  States  specifically  prescribe 
courses  of  study  necessary  for  approval  by  the  State  inspector.  This 
approval  in  many  cases  is  a prerequisite  for  the  allotment  of  pecu- 
niary aid  from  the  State  treasury,  or  for  admission  to  the  State 
university  or  to  the  State  normal  schools. 

For  the  purposes  of  this  investigation  a list  of  questions  was  sent 
to  school  officials  and  high-school  principals  in  all  parts  of  this  region. 
Replies  were  received  from  80  of  the  persons  so  addressed.  So  far 
as  those  replies  are  pertinent,  the  following  conclusions  appear.1 

ORGANIZATION. 

In  61  per  cent  of  the  schools  the  principal  has  effective  influence 
over  the  teaching  of  mathematics.  In  47  per  cent  of  the  schools 
there  is  a head  of  the  mathematics  department  or  a special  teacher 
of  mathematics,  selected  in  three-fourths  of  the  cases  by  the  school 
board  or  by  the  superintendent  of  schools,  and  in  the  other  fourth 
by  the  principal.  The  teachers  of  mathematics  have  other  subjects 
to  teach  in  59  per  cent  of  the  cases,  have  charge  of  or  supervision  of 
school  athletics,  journalism,  or  social  activities  in  24  per  cent,  and 
have  clerical  work  in  addition  to  teaching  in  17  per  cent. 

The  school  is  represented  in  associations  of  teachers  of  mathe- 
matics in  44  per  cent  of  those  replying;  the  effect  of  such  associa- 

1 Percentages  are  of  the  number  of  schools  replying  to  the  question.  Some  of  the  questions  were  regret- 
tably so  framed  as  not  to  elicit  full  replies. 


COEDUCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


63 


tions  upon  the  teaching  in  the  school  is  in  a comparatively  small 
proportion  of  cases  reported  as  beneficial. 

Throughout  this  region  separate  schools  are  provided  for  whites 
and  for  negroes.  In  some  cases  the  statement  is  squarely  made  that 
separate  schools  with  identical  courses  of  study  are  offered  to  the  two 
races,  but  there  is  a clear  implication  that  in  many  of  the  smaller 
communities  at  least  the  opportunities  for  secondary  education  are 
restricted  to  whites. 

Promotions  are  annual  in  76  per  cent  of  the  schools  replying,  semi- 
annual in  the  others;  by  subject  in  44  per  cent,  by  class  in  56  per 
cent. 

The  percentage  of  the  whole  school  membership  graduating  each 
year  varies  widely,  as  shown  by  the  following  table: 


Number  of  schools  reporting. 

9 

21 

23 

13 

2 


Per  cent  of  pupils  graduated. 

0 to  5. 

6 to  10. 

11  to  15. 

16  to  20. 

20  or  more. 


THE  MATHEMATICS  CURRICULUM. 

Course. — The  course  of  mathematics  in  87  per  cent  is  determined 
by  the  admission  requirements  of  higher  institutions.  Decisive 
action  is  in  all  cases  taken  by  the  school  board;  the  principal  is  an 
influential  adviser  in  82  per  cent  and  the  head  or  special  teacher  of 
mathematics  in  71  per  cent. 

The  different  branches  of  mathematics  are  correlated  with  each 
other  in  70  per  cent,  and  the  successive  years  of  mathematics  are 
dependent  on  the  previous  years’  work  in  96  per  cent.  (The  replies 
to  the  former  question  undoubtedly  indicate  a higher  degree  of  cor- 
relation than  actually  exists  among  the  different  branches  of  the 
study.  The  meaning  of  the  question  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
clear.) 

Some  correlation  is  found  between  mathematics  and  physics  in 
58  per  cent,  and  success  in  the  algebra  course  at  least  is  insisted  upon 
for  admission  to  the  study  of  physics  in  32  per  cent. 

Content  of  the  curriculum. — Half  a year  of  arithmetic  is  given  hi  80 
per  cent,  and  an  additional  half  year  in  a few  others,  say  3 per  cent. 
Algebra  is  given  for  a year  at  least  in  all  the  schools,  for  a year  and  a 
half  at  least  in  40  per  cent,  for  two  years  in  21  per  cent,  and  for  two 
and  a half  years  in  3 per  cent.  Arithmetic  is  given  after  algebra, 
either  as  review  or  as  “higher  arithmetic”  in  14  per  cent.  “Higher 
arithmetic”  as  used  here  means  evidently  more  involved  problems 
and  commercial  applications  of  the  same  principles  that  are  treated 
of  in  ordinary  arithmetic,  with  the  occasional  addition  of  such  topics 
as  mensuration  and  square  root.  There  is  no  indication  of  any  con- 
sideration of  the  relative  accuracy  of  data,  of  the  number  of  sig- 


64 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


nificant  figures  as  indicating  the  degree  of  approximation,  or  of  any 
use  of  logarithms  or  the  slide  rule  as  an  adjunct  of  the  arithmetic 
work  so-called. 

Plane  geometry  is  given  for  one  year  in  all  the  schools,  for  a year 
and  a half  in  9 per  cent  of  them,  and  one  school  reports  plane  geome- 
try for  two  years.  Solid  geometry  is  given  for  half  a year  at  least  in 
75  per  cent  of  the  schools,  and  for  an  additional  half  year  in  6 per 
cent.  Plane  trigonometry  is  taught  in  58  per  cent  for  half  a year; 
one  school  reports  surveying,  three  report  spherical  trigonometry, 
one  reports  analytical  geometry. 

In  the  reports  handed  in,  physics  is  quite  frequently  listed  as  a 
mathematical  subject. 

EXAMINATIONS. 

Examinations  are  set  for  admission  to  69  per  cent,  for  graduation 
in  86  per  cent,  for  admission  to  higher  institutions  in  20  per  cent. 
The  greater  part  of  the  schools  are  accredited  to  certain  universities 
after  inspection  by  a State  or  university  inspector,  and  have  their 
graduates  examined  only  for  admission  to  distant  institutions  which 
do  not  accept  high-school  certificates.  The  custom  is  growing  of 
accrediting  elementary  schools  so  that  their  graduates  are  admitted 
without  examination  to  the  high  schools  in  their  region.  Examina- 
tions for  promotion  or  graduation  have  quite  generally  been  waived 
for  pupils  whose  marks  reach  90  per  cent  in  their  class  work. 

More  than  80  per  cent  of  the  schools  reporting  one  or  more  of 
these  examinations  as  in  use  consider  their  effect  on  both  teachers 
and  pupils  as  beneficial.  The  90  per  cent  exemption  is  enthusiasti- 
cally commended  and  also  unsparingly  condemned. 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING. 

In  the  replies  to  the  question  whether  the  methods  of  teaching 


named  in  the  following  lists  were 
desirable,  the  first  column  gives 
the  order  of  preference : 

1.  Measurement  and  computation. 

2.  Use  of  models. 

3.  “Laboratory”  method. 

4.  Individual  method. 

5.  Use  of  cross-section  paper. 

6 . Combination  of  algebra  and  geometry . 

7.  Paper  folding. 

8.  Outdoor  work. 

9.  Observational  geometry  to  precede 

deductive  geometry. 

10.  Heuristic  method. 

11.  Combination  of  solid  and  plane  ge- 

ometry. 

12.  Combination  of  geometry  and  trigo- 

nometry. 


in  actual  use  or  were  educationally 
the  order  of  frequency,  the  second 

1.  “Laboratory”  method. 

2.  Measurement  and  computation. 

3.  Individual  method. 

4.  Use  of  models. 

5.  Use  of  cross-section  paper. 

6.  Outdoor  work. 

7.  Observational  geometry  to  precede  de- 

ductive geometry. 

8.  Combination  of  algebra  and  geometry. 

9.  Heuristic  method. 

10.  Paper  folding. 

11.  Combination  of  solid  and  plane  ge- 

ometry. 

12.  Combination  of  geometry  and  trigo- 

nometry. 


COEDUCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  IN  THE  SOUTH. 


65 


There  is  a suspicion  that  the  word  ‘‘heuristic”  was  unfortunately 
chosen,  and  that  the  word  “ combination  ” would  have  been  with  ad- 
vantage replaced  by 1 ‘ interweaving  ” or  “ blending.  ” On  this  account 
the  relative  numerical  standing  of  these  replies  is  open  to  question. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  fewer  replies  were  made  to  the  question  of  de- 
sirability than  to  the  question  of  use,  the  desirability  seems  to  have  been 
considered  with  care,  and  the  replies  to  be  independently  significant. 

There  are  occasional  reports  of  details  of  method,  such  as  that 
geometry  is  taught  “with  applications  to  algebra,”  that  the  work  is 
made  “as  practical  as  the  textbooks  will  permit,”  that  the  pupils 
make  their  own  models  with  string  and  cardboard.  Where  the 
number  of  originals  given  in  geometry  is  stated,  it  ranges  from  100 
to  500;  and  one  teacher  states  that  70  to  90  per  cent  of  the  time  in 
algebra  is  devoted  to  problems. 

A school  superintendent  writes  that  he  has  long  suspected  that 
“much  of  the  algebra  game  is  not  worth  the  candle.” 

As  to  the  question  at  what  stage  in  the  pupil’s  progress  in  mathe- 
matics emphasis  should  be  placed  upon  his  grasp  of  logical  relations 
rather  than  upon  manipulative  skill,  the  replies  range  from  the  sixth 
grade  of  the  elementary  school  (11  to  12  years  of  age),  where  arith- 
metic is  the  only  mathematics  in  sight,  to  the  last  year  in  the  high 
school,  with  perhaps  a slight  preponderance  on  the  second  year  in 
the  high  school,  where  plane  geometry  is  begun.  On  the  whole  this 
question  does  not  seem  to  have  been  carefully  considered  by  our 
* correspondents. 

The  pupils  are  graded  on  the  following  grounds,  arranged  in  the 
order  of  frequency: 

Oral  recitations. 

Written  class  work. 

Written  periodical  tests  or  term  examinations. 

The  teacher’s  general  estimate  of  power  and  achievement. 

Voluntary  original  work. 

Written  home  work. 

The  question  whether  methods  of  marking  were  such  that  the 
teacher  could  infer  from  the  pupil’s  marks  on  record  whether  he  was 
proficient  in  the  several  qualities  listed  below  was  answered  by  45 
teachers,  of  whom  60  per  cent  said  that  such  inference  was  not  pos- 
sible; the  question  whether  it  was  desirable  was  answered  by  61 
teachers,  of  whom  60  per  cent  gave  a decided  affirmative.  The 
qualities  referred  to  were: 

I.  Numerical  accuracy. 

II.  Algebraic  manipulation. 

III.  Knowledge  of  geometrical  facts. 

IV.  Comprehension  of  successive  logical  dependence. 

V.  Mathematical  invention  and  ingenuity. 

9560°— 11 5 


66 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Devices  suggested  for  such  a method  of  marking  were  specially 
ruled  marking  sheets  or  class  record  books.  The  comment  was  usu- 
ally made  that  such  a method  of  marking  would  be  too  cumbrous. 

Only  2 per  cent  of  the  reply  sheets  received  reported  that  there 
were  mathematical  clubs  to  which  the  pupils  were  admitted;  only 
1 1 per  cent  that  there  were  collections  of  mathematical  instruments, 
models,  curiosities,  or  devices  for  instruction,  accessible  to  teachers  or 
pupils;  and  these  collections  were  obviously  in  most  cases  only  the 
modest  outfit  of  apparatus  for  instruction. 

AIMS. 

The  aim  of  the  mathematical  course  m practically  all  of  these 
schools,  as  indicated  by  the  content  of  the  studies,  is  college  prepara- 
tion, although  15  per  cent  of  the  replies  do  not  acknowledge  that  aim. 
The  purpose  universally  acknowledged  is  “general  culture.  ” Half  of 
the  schools  reply  to  the  question  whether  preparation  for  technical 
schools  is  a purpose  of  their  mathematical  study,  and  of  these  75  per 
cent  answer  affirmatively. 

As  to  the  question  for  what  particular  occupations  the  mathemati- 
cal work  of  the  schools  may  be  considered  preparatory,  the  following 
is  the  order  of  frequency: 

Accountant  or  merchant. 

Civil  engineer. 

Mechanical  engineer. 

Surveyor. 

Draftsman. 

Computer. 

Farmer. 

Teacher. 

Other  replies  were  “practical  work,”  trades,  “practical  finishing 
school.”  Many  of  the  schools  furnish  from  their  graduates  teachers 
for  the  elementary  schools  of  the  same  region. 


SUBCOMMITTEE  6.  COEDUCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  ON 
THE  PACIFIC  COAST. 

This  report  is  the  outcome  of  an  investigation  carried  on  by  the 
subcommittee,  through  a questionnaire  sent  out  from  the  Bureau  of 
Education  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  a somewhat  more  personal 
appeal  sent  out  by  the  subcommittee  to  the  public  secondary  schools 
of  California,  Oregon,  Washington,  Idaho,  Montana,  Utah,  Colorado, 
Arizona,  and  New  Mexico. 

The  subcommittee  feels  that,  although  about  200  replies  were 
received,  much  of  the  information  obtained  is  not  particularly  reliable, 


COEDUCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  ON  THE  PACIFIC  COAST. 


67 


because  of  the  evident  carelessness  with  which  many  of  the  answers 
were  made.  This  very  fact,  however,  leads  the  committee  to  draw 
certain  conclusions  about  the  prevailing  type  of  mathematical  instruc- 
tion in  the  secondary  schools.  Although  many  of  these  conclusions 
are  not  particularly  flattering  to  the  teaching  profession,  we  trust 
that  they  may  lead  some  to  a better  appreciation  of  the  present  con- 
ditions and  spur  them  to  more  systematic  work.  This  report  will 
follow  the  general  topics  as  set  forth  in  the  questionnaire. 

ORGANIZATION. 

The  larger  schools  naturally  have  a much  more  complete  organiza- 
tion than  the  smaller  ones,  which  fact  leads  us  to  classify  the  schools 
into  two  groups — those  with  150  or  more  pupils  and  those  with  less 
than  150.  This  classification  will  in  general  mean  city  schools  and 
country  schools  respectively,  although,  in  the  case  of  some  of  the 
union  schools,  we  may  find  some  of  the  first  class  in  country  towns. 

The  larger  schools  have  a mathematics  department,  usually  with 
a department  head  who  is  appointed  by  the  school  board  or  superin- 
tendent at  the  recommendation  of  the  principal.  In  no  case  is  the 
organization  very  formal,  although  in  the  best  schools  frequent 
informal  and  regular  formal  meetings  of  the  mathematical  teachers 
are  held. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  large  cities,  notably  San  Francisco,  Los 
Angeles,  Denver,  Portland,  and  Seattle,  the  associations  of  mathe- 
matical teachers  have  a considerable  influence  on  the  methods  of 
teaching.  This  is  not  so  much  the  direct  influence  of  papers  read  at 
the  meetings  of  these  associations  as  the  influence  which  the  writing 
of  such  papers  has  on  the  writer  to  bring  the  problem  of  teaching 
before  him  in  a clear-cut  form.  In  the  best  schools  the  majority  of 
the  teachers  feel  this  influence,  either  directly,  or  indirectly  through 
listening  to  the  papers.  The  associations  have  a beneficial  influence 
also  in  bringing  about  a uniform  interpretation  of  the  State  university 
requirements.  These  requirements  are  the  strongest  influence  upon 
the  content  and  order  of  the  mathematical  instruction,  and  frequently 
papers  upon  new  “requirements”  bring  out  discussion  which  leads 
to  a better  understanding  of  the  aim  of  such  changes.  Indeed,  the 
universities  welcome  such  suggestions  as  the  associations  are  willing 
to  offer,  and  thus  these  discussions  may  lead  to  a better  adjustment 
of  the  “ requirements”  to  existing  conditions. 

There  are  many  schools  which  disclaim  any  influence  from  the  State 
university.  Nevertheless  nearly  every  school  desires  to  be  accredited 
at  the  university;  and  even  if  this  is  not  accomplished,  the  entrance 
requirements  practically  control  the  content  of  the  courses  offered. 
In  fact,  a California  State  law  requires  the  high  schools  to  offer  a 
course  preparatory  to  the  State  university. 


68 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


The  influence  of  the  secondary-school  instruction  upon  grammar- 
school  work  is  not  very  perceptible,  although  in  some  cities  where  the 
principal  of  the  high  school  is  also  superintendent  of  schools  he  has  an 
influence  over  the  curriculum  of  both  schools,  which  naturally  tends 
toward  unifying  the  aims  of  instruction.  This  influence  is  felt  perhaps 
more  through  the  selection  of  textbooks  than  in  any  other  way- 
Since  the  textbooks,  once  selected,  must  remain  for  four  years  in 
California,  and  six  years  in  Oregon,  a great  degree  of  care  is  taken  in 
the  selection.  The  influence  of  the  principals  in  such  selections 
is  rather  strong,  because  teachers  are  often  changed  during  the  period 
of  use  of  a book,  making  it  impracticable  to  rely  on  their  recom- 
mendations. 

It  may  be  said  that  in  practically  all  cases  the  high  school  principal 
exerts  the  strongest  influence  in  the  selection  of  books,  although 
his  selection  is  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  board.  In  Oregon,  how- 
ever, an  11  unbiased  commission  of  marked  ability  ” selects  uniform 
books  for  the  grammar  and  high  schools,  thus  taking  the  whole  matter 
out  of  the  hands  of  those  directly  concerned  with  their  use. 

Most  of  the  teachers,  especially  in  the  small  schools  where  more  than 
one  teacher  is  required  for  mathematics,  spend  a part  of  their  time 
teaching  other  branches,  notably  science.  In  fact  the  student  at  the 
university  who  looks  forward  to  high-school  teaching  fits  himself  to 
handle  some  second  subject.  In  a majority  of  schools,  however,  the 
teacher  of  mathematics  is  not  required  to  participate  in  other  school 
activities,  but  it  may  be  said  that  many  do  take  advantage  of  the 
opportunity  to  become  supervisors  of  student  athletics. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  teacher,  then,  the  organization  of 
mathematical  teaching  in  the  secondary  schools  may  be  characterized 
as  very  indefinite.  Although  State  laws  and  university  requirements 
tend  to  bring  before  the  instructors  definite  topics  for  discussion  and 
thought,  the  reaction  on  the  part  of  the  great  majority  of  the  teachers 
is  very  meager.  Even  where  mathematical  associations  make  a few 
of  their  members  enthusiastic,  the  rank  and  file  of  the  teachers  do  not 
concern  themselves  seriously  with  real  problems  of  teaching. 

The  very  fact  that  there  were  few  replies  from  the  large  number  of 
questionnaires  sent  out  makes  it  plain  to  us  that  many  of  the  teachers 
do  not  concern  themselves  vitally  with  the  advancement  of  their 
profession.  It  is,  however,  undoubtedly  true  that  the  details  of  the 
work  required  of  the  teacher  are  so  Dear  to  the  limit  of  endurance 
that  little  time  or  energy  is  left  for  serious  thought  about  methods  or 
aims. 

The  formal  organization  of  departments  and  active  interest  on  the 
part  of  mathematical  teachers  are  necessarily  greatly  hampered  by 
these  conditions.  The  interest  being  also  somewhat  divided  between 
mathematics  and  other  subjects,  and  the  responsibility  of  selecting 


COEDUCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  ON  THE  PACIFIC  COAST.  69 

books  being  partially  shifted  to  others,  produce  a passivity  on  the 
part  of  the  great  majority  which  does  not  argue  well  for  rapid  future 
progress  in  mathematical  teaching. 

Conditions  could  be  improved  by  a decrease  in  the  amount  of 
routine  work,  such  as  correcting  papers,  and  a decrease  in  the  size  of 
classes.  An  increase  in  salaries  would  also,  probably,  attract  more 
active  and  efficient  men  to  the  profession  and  thus  bring  about  a 
better  spirit  among  the  workers.  Such  changes  can  not,  however, 
be  expected  immediately,  and  in  the  meanwhile  the  mathematical 
teachers’  associations  and  State  inspection  of  the  schools  for  the 
purpose  of  accrediting  at  the  State  university  are  the  remedial 
agencies  to  which  we  must  look  for  the  advancement  of  the  profession. 

Most  of  the  schools  on  the  Pacific  coast  are  so  organized  that 
students  enter  the  high  school  after  eight  years  of  elementary  training 
at  ages  ranging  from  13  to  15,  with  an  average  of  about  14.5.  The 
course  is  uniformly  four  years,  with  four  full  years  of  mathematics 
offered  in  most  cases.  Commercial  arithmetic  is  offered  in  some 
schools  but  is  usually  taken  only  by  pupils  who  have  a business 
career  in  view.  In  most  of  the  schools  only  two  years  of  mathe- 
matics are  required,  i.  e.,  elementary  algebra  and  plane  geometry. 
Those  students,  however,  who  are  preparing  for  the  engineering 
colleges  are  required  to  take  four  years. 

Promotion  in  some  of  the  larger  schools  is  semiannual,  but  in  the 
smaller  ones  it  is  annual.  This  promotion  is  uniformly  by  subject 
and  not  by  class,  a student  being  catalogued  in  that  class  with 
which  he  is  taking  the  majority  of  his  work.  The  number  of  pupils 
who  graduate  from  the  older  schools  is  about  10  or  12  per  cent  of  the 
membership  of  the  entire  school  each  year,  though  in  some  cases  the 
percentage  is  as  high  as  15. 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  pupils  the  organization  of  the  schools 
is  decidedly  uniform  throughout  the  Pacific  coast  States.  A four- 
year  course,  with  mathematics  available  each  year,  follows  eight 
years  of  elementary  school  work;  and  promotions  are  annual  and 
by  subject.  This  uniformity  makes  changes  from  one  school  to 
another  an  easy  matter  for  the  pupil,  and  barring  the  difference  in 
quality  of  instruction  a student  need  not  trouble  himself  to  go  to  the 
larger  cities  in  order  to  be  prepared  for  any  kind  of  further  study. 

This  uniformity  of  organization,  although  it  is  due  largely  to  the 
definite  requirements  of  the  State  university,  is  also  the  result  of 
public  appreciation  of  mathematical  training  as  an  effective  means  of 
preparation  for  life.  It  is,  of  course,  true  that  the  State  laws,  which 
require  the  State  universities  to  admit  without  examinations  such 
students  as  come  from  accredited  high  schools,  are  largely  responsible 
for  the  effort  on  the  part  of  each  school  to  maintain  the  required 
standard.  A significant  fact,  however,  is  that  were  this  law  a serious 


70 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


detriment  to  many  young  people,  the  public  has  the  power  to  bring 
about  the  desired  change  of  policy,  not  only  as  a State,  but  as 
individual  towns,  the  school  committees  in  which  regulate  the 
policy  of  their  high  school. 

We  may  conclude  then  that,  although  the  universities  seem  to 
control  the  organization  of  the  high  schools,  yet  this  control  does 
not  in  reality  lie  with  even  the  State  universities,  for  both  public 
sentiment  and  the  existing  demands  of  higli-school  pupils  really  dic- 
tate the  terms  which  the  universities  shall  offer. 

THE  CURRICULUM. 

The  mathematical  curriculum  is  usually  determined  entirely  by 
the  State  university  requirements,  although  the  school  board  offi- 
cially determines  the  question  for  any  given  school,  and  of  course 
has  the  authority  to  offer  courses  with  no  mathematics,  provided  it 
offers  one  course  preparatory  for  the  State  university.  Consultation 
with  the  superintendent  and  principal  is  the  formal  method  of  this 
determination,  but  it  is  the  prevalent  custom  to  accept  the  subjects 
as  laid  out  by  the  State  university.  The  order  and  method  of 
teaching  is,  however,  more  within  the  control  of  the  mathematics 
teachers,  and  can  be  changed  usually  by  conference  with  the  principal. 
The  State  universities  do  not  presume  to  dictate  the  order  of  topics 
or  even  of  subjects.  It  is,  nevertheless,  true  that  many  teachers 
and  principals  are  greatly  influenced  by  the  preference  which  the 
State  university  professors  may  have  for  certain  texts.  Thus,  if  it  is 
known  that  the  State  university  staff  has  used  or  recommended  a 
text  which  presents  the  subject  in  a certain  order,  either  that  text  or 
another  with  a similar  order  of  topics  is  liable  to  be  selected  by  many 
schools.  Indeed  the  publishers  use  the  approval  of  certain  texts 
by  the  professors  as  a strong  argument  for  their  adoption  in  the  higli 
schools. 

Some  attempt  is  made  in  the  larger  schools  to  correlate  the  algebra 
and  geometry  by  teaching  both  as  a continuation  of  arithmetic, 
and  making  them  come  under  one  general  topic,  mathematics. 
Separate  texts  are,  however,  used,  and  it  remains  largely  with  the 
individual  teachers  to  bring  about  any  really  vital  correlation. 
Correlation  with  physics,  chemistry,  and  mechanical  drawing  seems 
to  be  somewhat  widespread,  but  the  correlation  seems  to  mean 
chiefly  that  algebra  and  plane  geometry  are  required  as  preparation 
for  these  subjects,  or  that  some  problems  from  these  branches  are 
introduced  into  the  algebra  and  geometry  courses.  Original  exercises 
are  strongly  emphasized,  in  some  cases  as  many  as  500  being  worked 
in  the  year.  Some  attempt  is  made  to  obtain  problems  from  “out 
of  doors/7  but  it  can  hardly  be  said  that  there  are  many  practical 
problems  used. 


COEDUCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  ON  THE  PACIFIC  COAST.  71 

We  find  then,  that  the  mathematical  curriculum  is  determined  by 
State  authority  of  some  kind,  and  is  usually  only  slightly  controlled 
by  individual  schools.  The  interrelation  of  mathematical  subjects 
is  not  generally  brought  out,  although  a few  of  the  most  progressive 
teachers  are  trying  to  vitalize  the  work  by  breaking  down  the  barriers 
surrounding  each  chapter  of  the  text,  and  allowing  the  class  to  move 
about  in  a more  unrestricted  field,  which  gives  them  some  concept  of 
the  real  uses  and  significance  of  mathematics.  For  the  most  part, 
correlation  either  among  mathematical  subjects  or  between  them 
and  other  subjects,  seems  to  have  no  very  definite  meaning  to  the 
majority  of  teachers.  Two  causes  may  be  cited  as  responsible  for 
this.  First,  the  average  teacher  has  not  the  broad  knowledge  of 
mathematics  beyond  his  subject  which  would  enable  him  to  appre- 
ciate the  real  significance  of  the  various  topics  as  they  arise.  He  is 
not,  however,  wholly  to  blame  for  this,  because  the  present  conditions 
in  secondary  education  do  not  give  him  time  or  money  with  which 
to  put  himself  in  touch  with  this  broader  knowledge.  Nor  does  the 
remuneration  offered  in  most  schools  seem  attractive  to  those  who 
have  spent  their  time  and  money  in  thoroughly  preparing  themselves 
by  the  more  comprehensive  study  of  the  subject.  Having  therefore 
no  clear-cut  understanding  of  how  the  subjects  might  be  correlated, 
they  are  at  a loss  to  know  exactly  what  is  meant  by  their  correlation. 
Another  cause  is  that  the  textbook  publishers  and  writers,  recog- 
nizing the  desire  on  the  part  of  the  rank  and  file  to  have  a text  which 
can  be  accurately  followed  page  by  page,  have  given  us  books  in 
which  each  chapter  opens  and  closes  a topic  with  as  little  reference 
as  possible  to  other  topics.  Such  texts  run  themselves,  when  once 
set  in  motion,  and  call  for  little  teaching  on  the  part  of  the  instructor. 

Under  these  conditions  we  can  hardly  look  for  much  correlation  or 
for  much  deviation  from  the  presented  order  of  topics,  except  in  the 
case  of  a few  of  the  best  schools  where  an  exceptional  teacher  has 
become  aware  of  the  possibilities  of  the  subject. 

EXAMINATIONS. 

The  general  tendency  seems  to  be  toward  fewer  examinations  and 
toward  more  than  one  recitation  period  for  each  examination.  In 
most  of  the  schools,  pupils  are  admitted  from  accredited  grammar 
schools  without  examinations,  and  are  graduated  from  the  high 
school  on  the  basis  of  monthly  or  bimonthly  tests,  rather  than  on  a 
final  examination  covering  the  whole  course  in  mathematics,  or  even 
a whole  subject.  The  State  universities  and  many  other  higher 
institutions  accept  these  graduates  from  accredited  high  schools, 
and  thus  the  whole  system  tends  to  minimize  the  importance  of 
examinations.  There  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  on  the 
part  of  the  teachers  in  regard  to  the  desirability  of  formal  examina- 


72 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


tions.  Some  believe  that  they  tend  to  produce  superficial  work  on 
the  part  of  both  teacher  and  pupil,  because  the  real  aim  of  mathe- 
matical teaching  is  obscured  by  the  desire  to  pass  the  examination. 
On  the  other  hand,  a large  number  express  themselves  as  in  favor  of 
examinations  as  a means  of  producing  thoroughness,  as  well  as  a 
means  of  emphasizing  the  aim  of  teaching,  and  of  calling  to  the 
attention  of  the  teachers  the  defects  in  their  methods.  They  also 
claim  for  the  pupils  a larger  interest  and  greater  respect  for  the  sub- 
ject when  examinations  are  prominent. 

The  elimination  of  final  examinations,  and  even  monthly  tests,  by 
means  of  high  standing  in  daily  work,  seems  to  be  a universal  recom- 
mendation with  those  who  advocate  the  examination  as  an  incentive 
to  good  work.  This  would  indicate  that  they  consider  the  examina- 
tion not  so  much  a good  thing  in  itself,  as  a spur  to  good  daily  work. 
If  the  pupil  could  be  induced  to  prepare  himself  thoroughly  for  the 
examination,  and  then  be  excused  each  time  from  taking  it,  the 
examination  would  have  served  its  purpose  for  all.  Since,  however, 
this  is  impossible,  from  the  nature  of  the  case,  there  seems  to  be 
little  doubt  that  some  sort  of  examination  is  necessary,  though  it  be 
an  evil. 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING. 

The  specific  methods  of  teaching  mathematics  classified  as  labora- 
tory, heuristic,  paper  folding,  etc.,  seem  to  have  rather  vague  defini- 
tions in  the  minds  of  most  of  the  mathematical  teachers.  The 
answers  indicated  a general  use  of  “individual  method,”  “measure- 
ment and  computation,”  and  “cross-section  paper.”  A majority 
reported  “models”  and  “outdoor  work,”  and  Colorado  reports  the 
use  of  “charts”  in  the  review  of  geometry. 

There  is  a decided  disapproval  of  the  “laboratory  method”  of 
teaching  geometry.  Practically  none  of  the  schools  on  the  Pacific 
coast  use  it,  and  many  express  the  opinion  that  it  leads  to  looseness 
on  the  part  of  both  pupil  and  teacher.  Observational  geometry  is 
also  opposed  upon  the  same  ground.  If  the  “laboratory  method” 
and  “observational  geometry”  were  used  as  an  introduction  to  the 
formal  demonstrative  geometry,  and  the  mere  observation  of  facts 
by  the  class  were  only  a means  of  bringing  more  clearly  before  the 
pupils  what  the  real  conditions  are,  the  method  might  serve  a very 
valuable  end.  The  prevailing  opinion  seems  to  be,  however,  that 
the  work  tends  to  degenerate  into  substituting  the  evidence  obtained 
from  the  observation  of  concrete  objects  for  the  logical  proof  which 
should  follow  such  an  observation.  In  the  hands  of  some  instructors 
the  habit  of  careful  and  accurate  reasoning  may  not  sufier,  but  may 
rather  be  benefited  from  this  kind  of  work.  To  the  majority,  how- 
ever, it  is  a strong  temptation  to  laxness. 

Concerning  the  time  for  emphasis  on  logical  reasoning,  opinion  is 
somewhat  divided  between  the  second  year  and  the  first  half  of  the 


COEDUCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  ON  THE  PACIFIC  COAST.  73 

third.  The  middle  of  the  second  year  seems  to  be  the  most  generally 
accepted  time.  The  fact  that  the  second  year  is  the  time  when  geometry 
is  begun  in  most  of  the  schools  leads  us  to  question  whether  the  opin- 
ions expressed  mean  that  the  second  year  is  really  the  time  or  that, 
because  geometry  is  taken  at  this  point,  it  is  therefore  the  best  time 
to  begin  logical  reasoning.  The  fact  that  logical  reasoning  upon 
algebraic  theorems  is  somewhat  more  difficult  than  that  on  geomet- 
rical theorems  makes  it  true  that  very  little  attempt  is  made  to 
force  logical  reasoning  into  the  first  year  of  mathematics. 

It  may,  however,  be  true  that  if  high-school  mathematics  could  be 
begun  with  some  simple  forms  of  geometrical  reasoning  we  should  get 
better  results  in  all  of  the  mathematical  work.  This  process  might 
eliminate  from  the  pupil’s  mind  the  idea  that  all  mathematical  gen- 
eralizations can  be  learned  by  heart,  and  thus  avoid  some  of  the  bad 
failures  in  geometry.  If  we  could  start  the  pupil  with  the  idea  that 
he  can  and  must  reason  out  the  steps  in  a great  deal  of  his  mathe- 
matical work,  should  we  not  have  a better  attitude  toward  those  parts 
of  the  work  in  which  reasoning  is  the  only  possible  method?  First 
impressions  are  so  lasting  that  it  seems  desirable  that  those  first 
impressions  should  be  more  in  accord  with  the  real  spirit  of  mathe- 
matics than  to  have  them  so  nearly  in  line  with  the  pure  memory 
processes  of  the  grammar-school  work.  Memorizing  rules  for  each 
section  of  algebra  is  certainly  not  conducive  to  conceiving  of  algebra 
as  a generalization  of  arithmetic.  Some  topics  now  given  in  algebra 
would  probably  be  crowded  out  by  this  process,  which  must  of  course 
be  somewhat  slower,  but  in  the  end  the  increased  power  to  think 
might  well  compensate  for  such  topics  as  algebraic  cube  root  and  the 
division  of  long  polynomials.  The  demand  by  the  colleges  for  the 
11  notion  of  functionality”  1 in  algebra  is  along  this  line  of  making 
algebra  a more  logical  subject. 

All  classes  of  work — oral,  written  home  work,  written  class  work, 
original  work,  and  the  teacher’s  general  estimate  of  the  pupil’s 
ability — come  in  for  about  two-thirds  of  the  final  mark,  while  the 
formal  examination  gets  credit  for  about  one-third. 

The  tendency  toward  fewer  examinations  signifies  a decreasing 
confidence  in  the  examination  as  a test  of  ability.  This  lack  of  con- 
fidence, of  course,  makes  the  teacher  count  the  examinations  as  a 
smaller  and  smaller  fraction  of  the  total  mark  and  advocate  the  high 
standard  of  daily  work  as  a sufficient  test  for  the  final  grade. 

In  regard  to  disintegrating  the  marks  into  numerical  accuracy, 
knowledge  of  facts,  mathematical  invention  and  ingenuity,  it  may 
be  said  that  there  is  no  systematic  attempt  to  make  such  a separa- 
tion. It  is  true,  however,  that  many  teachers  unconsciously  have  a 
more  or  less  defined  method  of  marking  work  on  this  basis.  When 


1 See  requirements  of  University  of  California. 


74 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


brought  squarely  before  us,  th©  details  of  such  disintegrated  marking 
impress  most  of  us  as  too  complicated  for  the  rapid  work  which  we 
have  to  do,  but  with  a special  class  record  book  and  smaller  classes 
such  a system  might  give  us  better  information  than  we  now  get 
about  a pupil’s  ability.  It  seems  probable,  however,  that,  if  we 
could  have  the  small  classes,  the  intimate  acquaintance  which  we 
should  then  have  with  the  pupils  would  be  a much  better  basis  for 
marking  than  the  details  of  such  a system. 

There  seems  to  be  a somewhat  general  feeling  that  the  best  teachers 
adopt  no  particular  method  of  teaching,  but  try  to  acquaint  them- 
selves with  the  underlying  principles  of  the  subject  and  with  the 
general  nature  of  the  pupils  before  them,  and  then  adopt  that  method 
which  will  accomplish  the  purpose  of  the  moment  with  a reasonable 
degree  of  success.  Although  the  answers  seem  to  indicate  vague- 
ness, on  the  part  of  the  teachers,  in  regard  to  exactly  what  method 
has  been  adopted,  this  is  perhaps  due  to  the  fact  that  those  teachers 
who  have  considered  the  question  of  method  do  not  consider  them- 
selves bound  to  any  specific  one.  This  is  probably  as  true  of  marking 
as  of  methods  of  presentation. 

AIMS  OF  MATHEMATICS  TEACHING. 

General  culture  and  preparation  for  technical  schools  and  colleges 
are  both  acknowledged  by  most  of  the  high  schools  as  the  aims  of 
their  teaching.  There  is  a decided  denial  of  vocational  aims,  such 
as  civil  engineering,  surveying,  accounting,  etc.,  although  some 
schools  record  all  these  as  secondary  aims.  It  is  probably  true  that 
the  teachers  and  principals  feel  rather  strongly  on  this  point  on 
account  of  the  continual  demand  by  pupil  and  parent  for  studies 
which  will  lead  directly  to  some  vocation.  The  attitude  of  the  teacher 
has  become,  rather  naturally,  that  of  restraint  for  those  pupils  who 
wish  to  take  only  such  subjects,  and  even  only  such  topics  as  will 
furnish  knowledge  in  the  direct  line  of  a given  vocation.  The  teach- 
ers realize,  as  perhaps  parents  and  children  never  do,  that  a ground- 
work of  fundamental  principles  and  processes  must  be  laid  before  any 
success  can  be  attained  in  the  chosen  vocation,  be  it  engineering  or 
accounting.  If  we  should  ask  the  pupils  why  they  study  their  mathe- 
matics, and  could  get  a reply  for  which  they  had  not  been  coached, 
we  should  probably  find  more  emphasis  placed  upon  the  vocational 
than  the  cultural  aim. 

Although  the  aim  does  not  always  keep  itself  prominently  before 
most  of  us  during  the  details  of  everyday  work,  we  are  evidently 
more  or  less  conscious  of  very  definite  aims  in  our  teaching  of  mathe- 
matics. Were  this  not  true,  the  attempts  to  cover  certain  topics 
within  certain  stated  periods,  and  the  change  of  texts  for  the  purpose 
of  a better  presentation  of  what  we  think  is  desirable,  would  not 
concern  us  very  deeply.  These  aims  may  in  many  cases  be  only 


COEDUCATIONAL  HIGH  SCHOOLS  ON  THE  PACIFIC  COAST.  75 

preparation  for  some  college  or  technical  school,  but  general  culture 
has  a prominent  place  in  the  minds  of  most  of  the  thinking  teachers. 

On  the  whole  the  results  of  this  investigation  have  given  us  an  in- 
sight into  the  conditions  of  the  Pacific  coast  schools  which,  although 
very  disappointing  in  many  respects,  is  sufficiently  general  to  be  of 
value  in  feeling  the  pulse  of  the  whole  country.  Any  opinion  in  regard 
to  the  best  remedy  for  the  present  conditions  is  hazardous,  but  the 
committee  feels  justified  in  calling  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  most 
serious  obstacle  to  the  improvement  of  these  conditions  seems  to  be 
lack  of  professional  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  teachers.  Lacking 
this,  there  is  little  to  build  upon,  either  in  improving  methods  or 
changing  aims.  This  professional  attitude  may  be  said  to  consist  of 
two  essential  features:  First,  a broad  and  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
subject  beyond  the  borders  of  the  immediate  topic  in  hand;  second, 
and  fully  as  important,  a systematic  and  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
fundamental  principles  of  modem  mathematical  pedagogy.  Regard- 
less of  the  reasons  why  the  rank  and  file  of  the  teachers  of  mathe- 
matics do  not  possess  this  equipment,  the  desire  for  improvement 
which  would  come  from  such  a professional  training  must  be  instilled 
in  the  teachers  before  we  can  expect  to  find  much  progress  toward 
better  conditions.  It  is,  of  course,  true  that  a teacher  should  be 
first  a man  or  woman  possessed  of  the  highest  type  of  moral  character, 
but  if  that  be  the  whole  equipment,  he  is  not  yet  a teacher,  any  more 
than  he  is  a physician  or  a lawyer  or  a preacher.  The  essential  train- 
ing which  will  make  him  work  for  the  improvement  of  the  profession, 
even  when  it  is  hard  work,  must  have  as  a background  that  love  of 
his  subject  and  of  his  calling  which  can  come  only  tlirough  a deep 
appreciation  of  what  really  constitute  that  subject  and  that  calling. 
It  would  seem  that  a desirable  minimum  of  preparation  for  a secondary 
school  mathematics  teacher  should  be  so  much  of  the  subject,  at  least, 
as  is  involved  in  a first  course  in  the  calculus,  and  so  much  of  peda- 
gogical training  as  is  involved  in  one  year  of  the  history  and  one  year 
of  the  principles  of  education. 

With  such  a groundwork  of  training  for  the  majority  instead  of  for 
the  very  small  minority,  we  should  be  justified  in  expecting  a profes- 
sional spirit  which  would  lead  to  wise  and  permanent  changes  tending 
toward  better  methods,  better  aims,  and  better  content  in  the 
mathematical  curriculum. 

In  compiling  this  report,  we  have  supplemented  the  information 
furnished  by  the  questionnaires  with  the  best  judgment  we  could 
obtain  from  those  who  have  been  in  close  touch  with  the  school  sys- 
tems of  the  Pacific  coast.  The  present  tendencies  are  not  sharply 
defined,  but  we  are  justified  in  concluding  that  there  is  on  the  part  of 
many  teachers  a readiness  to  respond  to  any  sane  and  thoroughly 
organized  plan  for  improvement. 


76 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


SUBCOMMITTEE  7.  THE  PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  OF 
MATHEMATICS  FOR  THE  PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 

METHOD  OF  THE  INVESTIGATION. 

A questionnaire  was  sent  to  several  hundred  city  superintendents, 
high-school  principals,  and  teachers  of  mathematics.  One  hundred 
and  sixty-five  answers  were  received,  representing  153  cities.  Of 
these,  4 have  over  five  hundred  thousand  population  each,  20  have 
between  one  and  five  hundred  thousand,  20  have  between  fifty  and 
a hundred  thousand,  50  have  between  twenty-five  and  fifty  thousand, 
22  have  between  ten  and  twenty-five  thousand,  and  37  have  less  than 
ten  thousand.  These  reports  represent  some  900  teachers  of  mathe- 
matics in  all  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  are  probably  typical  of 
conditions  in  cities  whose  aggregate  population  is  between  fifteen  and 
twenty-five  millions.  It  may  be  assumed  that  the  large  cities  have 
on  the  whole  better  educational  facilities  than  the  smaller  towns. 
The  small  towns  could  not  easily  be  reached. 

Letters  were  also  sent  to  all  State  superintendents  and  to  many 
high-school  inspectors.  Forty-seven  replies  were  received.  The 
character  of  the  information  received  from  them  varied  so  greatly 
that  it  did  not  seem  feasible  to  tabulate  it,  but  it  was  carefully  taken 
into  consideration  in  making  general  statements. 

The  information  concerning  the  facilities  offered  by  our  univer- 
sities and  colleges  for  the  training  of  teachers  was  obtained  by  the 
examination  of  catalogues  for  1909-10. 

PRESENT  STANDARD  PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  IN  SERVICE. 

The  amount  and  quality  of  school  training  which  high-school 
teachers  in  the  United  States  have  had  varies  so  greatly  with  the 
section  of  the  country  and  with  the  size  of  the  school  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  make  any  single  statement  which  is  strictly  true  for  all. 
However,  there  is  a very  widely  prevalent  standard  which  we  may 
take  as  a point  of  departure. 

It  may  be  said  in  very  general  terms  that  the  present  standard 
high-school  teacher  is  a graduate  of  an  unspecialized  course  in  col- 
lege or  university,  without  pedagogical  training  or  special  training  in 
mathematics  beyond  the  ordinary  college  course.  This  normally 
means  that  the  teacher  has  had  eight  years  in  the  elementary  school, 
beginning  at  about  6 years  of  age,  four  years  in  the  high  school,  and 
four  years  in  the  college.  In  the  college  the  study  of  mathematics 
generally  stops  with  a first  course  in  calculus,  and  often  with  much  less. 
There  are  wide  variations  above  and  below  this  standard. 

There  are  six  or  seven  thousand  small  schools  scattered  over  all 
parts  of  the  country  which  employ  from  one  to  three  teachers,  which 
support  a course  of  from  one  to  three  years  and  which  are  generally 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHES  FOR  PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  77 

not  on  the  lists  of  approved  schools  issued  by  the  State  departments 
of  education  or  by  universities.  There  are  a number  of  States 
throughout  which  the  educational  standards  are  relatively  low. 
From  these  States  and  from  the  small  schools  statistics  are  not 
easily  obtained.  Roughly  speaking,  they  contain  about  40  per  cent 
of  the  high-school  students  in  the  United  States.  It  appears  that  the 
teachers  of  mathematics  are  largely  high-school  graduates,  most  of 
whom  have  done  some  work  in  higher  institutions,  often  normal- 
school  graduates,  with  a small  percentage  of  college  graduates.  In  a 
few  States  the  smaller  schools  generally  employ  college  graduates, 
but  these  States  are  exceptional. 

In  the  remaining  schools  of  the  country,  containing,  roughly,  60 
per  cent  of  the  total  high-school  students,  the  majority  of  teachers  are 
college  graduates,  and  of  those  who  are  not,  mostly  the  older  genera- 
tion, practically  all  have  attended  schools  above  high-school  grade  for 
from  one  to  three  years.  In  most  parts  of  the  country,  even  where 
standards  are  high,  there  is  a small  percentage  of  teachers  of  long 
experience  who  entered  the  work  before  present  standards  were 
adopted  and  who  are  not  college  graduates.  Reports  were  received 
from  152  large  schools  or  city  systems,  having  in  all  some  900  teachers 
of  mathematics.  In  these  schools,  as  shown  by  the  reports,  86.5  per 
cent  have  the  A.  B.,  or  equivalent  degree.  These  percentages. for  the 
different  sections  of  the  country  and  the  number  of  schools  reporting 
are  as  follows:  New  England,  27  reports,  94.5  per  cent;  Middle 
Atlantic  States,  39  reports,  85  per  cent;  Central  States,  56  reports, 
83.5  per  cent;  Southern  States,  12  reports,  79.5  per  cent;  Western 
States,  18  reports,  90.5  per  cent.  In  basing  conclusions  on  these 
figures,  it  should  be  noted  that  in  some  sections  these  schools  are 
exceptional,  while  in  others  they  are  fairly  typical. 

Through  the  greater  part  of  the  United  States,  systems  of  high- 
school  inspection  and  approval  are  in  operation  or  are  being  estab- 
lished, either  by  State  departments  of  education  or  by  universities. 
The  thoroughness  of  this  inspection  varies  greatly  in  different  States. 
In  approved  schools  the  percentage  of  college  graduates,  calculated 
for  whole  States,  runs  from  75  to  nearly  100,  varying  with  the 
section  of  the  country. 

TENDENCIES  TOWARD  HIGHER  STANDARDS  FOR  TEACHERS. 

That  standards  are  being  rapidly  advanced  is  indicated  by  the 
fact  that  in  by  far  the  larger  portion  of  the  country  in  schools  em- 
ploying four  or  more  teachers  and  preparing  students  for  the  univer- 
sities new  teachers  are  now  quite  generally  graduates  of  universities 
or  colleges  of  good  standing,  even  though  many  of  their  older  teachers 
are  not.  While  large  numbers  of  our  high-school  teachers  are  gradu- 
ates of  normal  schools,  that  training  is  no  longer  regarded  as  ade- 


78 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


quate  in  any  large  percentage  of  high  schools.  The  percentage  that 
have  taken  normal-school  courses  and  have  then  gone  on  through 
their  college  course  is  probably  quite  large. 

The  fight  for  the  recognition  of  the  principle  that  high-school 
teachers  should  have  the  training  represented  by  the  bachelor’s 
degree  is  practically  won.  There  is  but  a small  portion  of  the  country 
where  this  is  not  at  least  a clearly  recognized  ideal,  however  remote 
from  realization  in  practice.  It  is  at  this  point  that  the  real  questions 
arise  which  concern  the  future.  What  does  the  college  education 
which  they  receive  mean  to  the  prospective  teacher  as  such?  How 
can  its  value  to  him  be  made  greater  ? What  is  the  next  step  ? 

In  this  connection  it  is  important  to  know  what  has  thus  far  been 
done  in  the  training  of  high-school  teachers  of  mathematics  beyond 
the  unspecialized  college  course.  Of  the  900  teachers  in  large  high 
schools  above  mentioned  the  reports  indicate  that  less  than  40  per 
cent  have  specialized  in  mathematics  in  their  undergraduate  course 
or  have  taken  a master’s  degree.  The  number  who  have  done  work 
in  mathematics  equivalent  to  that  required  for  a master’s  degree  by 
our  best  universities  is  small,  probably  less  than  10  per  cent  even  in 
our  best  schools,  and  there  are  practically  none  in  the  medium-sized 
schools.  Those  who  have  the  degree  Ph.  D.  or  who  are  doing  serious 
research  work  in  higher  mathematics  are  rarely  found  teaching  in 
high  schools,  since  there  is  very  little  effective  demand  from  the  high 
schools  from  men  of  this  preparation. 

A notable  example  of  a State  in  which  the  minimum  requirement 
for  high-school  teachers  is  unusually  high  is  California.  There  the 
minimum  requirement  is  essentially  that  the  candidate  must  present 
evidence  that  in  addition  to  eight  years  in  high  school  and  college  he 
has  done  a half  year  of  graduate  study  in  a university  belonging  to  the 
Association  of  American  Universities  and  a half  year  of  practice 
teaching  in  a high  school  conducted  for  this  purpose  by  such  a 
university.  These  requirements  are  subject  to  certain  modifications 
concerning  practice  teaching  which  do  not  materially  alter  the  stand- 
ard. So  far  as  the  committee  has  learned  this  is  the  highest  mini- 
mum requirement  in  force  throughout  any  entire  State.  In  several 
cities  minimum  requirements  practically  equivalent  to  this  are  in 
force. 

Two  special  influences  have  tended  to  retard  the  naturally  growing 
demand  for  higher  training,  (1)  a feeling  that  the  specialist  in  mathe- 
matics does  not  easily  adapt  himself  to  the  needs  of  the  high  school; 
(2)  a distrust  of  the  pedagogical  training  of  the  past.  In  a word,  the 
separation  of  specialized  scholarship  from  practical  training  in  the 
art  of  teaching  has  tended  to  bring  discredit  on  both.  This  is  especi- 
ally noticeable  in  the  frequent  intense  and  even  unreasonable  opposi- 
tion to  pedagogical  training  in  the  replies  received.  In  this  connec- 
tion the  fact  should  be  noted  that  until  very  recently  only  a very  few 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  79 


institutions  in  this  country  offered  practical  training  in  the  teaching 
of  mathematics  in  connection  with  sound  higher  training  in  the 
subject  matter. 

Perhaps  the  most  hopeful  sign  for  the  future  is  the  recent  establish- 
ment in  many  universities  of  teachers’  colleges  and  schools  of  educa- 
tion where  special  attention  is  given  to  the  training  of  teachers  for 
secondary  and  higher  schools  in  connection  with  the  best  opportunities 
for  specialization  in  the  subject  matter  and  for  broad  general  culture. 
From  the  high  schools,  underneath  the  current  criticism  of  shallow 
pedagogy  and  narrow  specialization,  often  expressed  in  violent  opposi- 
tion to  one  or  the  other,  there  comes  an  apparent  strong  desire  for 
sounder  scholarship  and  real  efficiency  in  teaching.  Many  schools  now 
require  that  all  new  teachers  shall  have  had  successful  experience. 
As  this  requirement  becomes  more  general  the  necessity  for  the 
practice  school  will  become  still  more  apparent.  In  this  connection 
we  give  a brief  statement  of  the  present  status  of  facilities  for  acquir- 
ing special  pedagogical  training  in  connection  with  advanced  study 
of  the  subject  matter. 

FACILITIES  OFFERED  BY  UNIVERSITIES  FOR  THE  SPECIAL  TRAINING 
OF  TEACHERS  OF  MATHEMATICS. 

On  the  pedagogical  side  there  has  been  a remarkable  advance  in  the 
facilities  for  the  training  of  teachers  of  mathematics  for  high  schools 
in  the  universities  and  colleges  within  the  last  three  years.  Three 
years  ago  (1907)  but  10  out  of  30  of  our  leading  universities  were 
offering  courses  in  the  teaching  of  mathematics.  To-day  18  of  that 
30  are  providing  that  instruction,  while  there  are  in  all  38  universities 
and  colleges  giving  special  attention  to  such  work. 

Of  these  38,  but  11  require  practical  teaching. 

The  value  of  the  history  of  mathematics  is  becoming  recognized ; 
but  as  yet  only  29  colleges  and  universities  are  giving  explicit  courses 
in  this  subject.  Of  course  more  or  less  such  instruction  is  given 
incidentally. 

As  to  opportunities  for  training  in  the  subject  matter  nothing  need 
be  said  here.  In  all  our  better  universities  they  are  far  beyond  the 
present  demands  of  our  high  schools.  Prospective  high-school 
teachers  rarely  fully  avail  themselves  of  the  opportunities  that  are 
offered.  Some  Universities,  about  eight  in  number,  offer  courses  in 
the  logical  foundations  of  mathematics.  That  more  do  not  offer  such 
courses  is  probably  due  to  the  belief  that  an  appreciation  of  the  logic 
of  mathematics  is  better  obtained  in  courses  in  the  regular  subject 
matter  than  in  a necessarily  elementary  course  devoted  explicitly  to 
the  logic  of  the  subject  rather  than  to  any  lack  of  appreciation  of  the 
importance  of  training  in  the  logic  of  the  subject.  However,  waiving 
this  question  as  beyond  our  field,  the  question  might  well  be  raised 
whether  prospective  high-school  teachers,  whose  training  in  the 


80 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


subject  matter  is  necessarily  small,  might  not  be  benefited  by  a final 
course  whose  object  should  be  to  gather  together  their  somewhat 
fragmentary  knowledge  into  an  organized  whole,  and  perhaps  to 
give  them  some  idea  of  the  meaning,  purpose,  and  methods  of  the 
higher  mathematics  which  they  are  not  to  study. 

We  restate  a summary  of  catalogue  data  for  1909-10  by  grouping 
universities  into  three  classes.  Column  (1)  gives  the  number  of 
institutions  that  give  courses  in  the  teaching  of  secondary  mathematics; 
column  (2),  practice  teaching  in  mathematics;  column  (3),  courses  in 
the  history  of  mathematics. 

(1)  (2)  (3) 


Members  Association  of  American  Universities 13  10  7 

Members  Association  of  State  Universities 19  14  10 

Other  colleges  and  universities 16  2 16 

Totals  (omitting  duplicates) 38  19  29 


A very  significant  advance  in  this  direction  is  the  establishment  of 
a degree  with  distinction  for  prospective  teachers  of  mathematics, 
recently  announced  by  Harvard  University  in  the  following  terms:1 

The  faculty  of  arts  and  sciences  have  established  a degree  with  distinction  in  mathe- 
matics and  education,  intended  to  represent  special  preparation  for  the  work  of 
teaching  mathematics  in  secondary  schools.  This  degree  is  to  be  administered  by  a 
standing  committee  of  three  under  the  following  rules: 

In  order  to  be  recommended  for  this  degree  the  student  must  have  been  known  to 
the  committee  as  a candidate  during  at  least  the  last  two  years  of  his  course,  and  he 
must  have  carried  on  his  studies  in  his  chosen  field  under  the  guidance  of  the  com- 
mittee. 

The  degree  will  be  awarded  on  the  basis  of  the  following  courses — 

1.  Mathematics  and  allied  subjects. 

(а)  A course  in  descriptive  geometry  or  surveying. 

(б)  Three  and  one-half  courses  in  mathematics  above  the  freshman  courses. 

The  choice  must  include  Mathematics  2. 

(c)  Physics  C,  or  its  equivalent. 

( d ) A course  in  astronomy. 

The  student  is  advised  to  take  both  descriptive  geometry  and  surveying.  In  case 
he  does  so  the  requirement  under  (6)  will  be  reduced  to  three  courses  in  mathematics. 
He  also  advised  to  include  the  course  in  modern  geometry  (Mathematics  3)  among  his 
elective  courses.  He  should  in  any  case  consult  the  chairman  of  the  committee  before 
finally  making  up  his  program. 

2.  Education. 

(а)  A general  introductory  half-course  (Education  2a)  or  a half-course  in  educa- 

tional theory  (Education  5 a or  6a). 

(б)  A course  in  the  history  of  education  (Education  1). 

(c)  A course  in  secondary  education,  with  practice  teaching  (Education  36),  or 
a course  in  elementary  education,  with  practice  teaching  (Education  3c), 
or  a course  in  school  administration  (Education  3a). 

1 The  University  Gazette  (of  Harvard  University,  Cambridge,  Mass.),  May  20,  1910. 

The  restriction  expressed  in  the  words * * above  the  freshman  courses”  excludes  such  topics  as 
trigonometry  and  analytic  geometry  (introductory  course)  but  admits  a first  course  in  the  calculus  (Mathe- 
matics  2)  and  the  elements  of  mechanics. 

Physics  C is  an  experimental  course  in  physics  for  students  who  have  passed  in  physics  for  admission  to 
college. 

A course  is  the  work  implied  in  following  a series  of  lectures  occurring  three  times  a week  for  about  35 
weeks.  Four  courses,  as  a usual  thing,  constitute  a year’s  work  for  a college  student. 


PREPARATION  OF  TEACHERS  FOR  PUBLIC  HIGH  SCHOOLS.  81 

The  committee  reserves  the  power  of  exercising  an  independent  judgment  in 
each  case;  but  it  must  always  be  satisfied  that  the  program  offered  furnishes  a suf- 
ficient basis  for  distinction,  and  that  the  quality  of  the  student’s  work  justifies  his 
recommendation . 

DESIRABLE  STANDARDS  IN  TRAINING  TEACHERS  OF  SECONDARY 

MATHEMATICS. 

In  this  connection  we  must  remember  that  the  majority  of  those 
teaching  mathematics  in  our  high  schools  are  prepared  merely  on  the 
side  of  subject  matter,  while  it  is  safe  to  say  that  in  many  of  our 
smaller  high  schools  algebra  and  geometry  are  taught  by  those  who 
are  not  familiar  with  any  mathematics  beyond  these  same  subjects. 

Where  the  control  of  courses  of  study  and  the  appointment  of 
teachers  are  left  with  the  local  school  boards,  it  is  hard  to  adopt  any 
set  standards.  By  centralized  control  of  secondary  schools,  it  has 
been  possible  for  Germany  and  France  to  maintain  a high  standard 
in  selecting  teachers  for  their  institutions.  We  can  not  have  national 
control  of  education;  but  by  the  work  of  our  universities  through 
the  inspection  of  schools,  and  by  State  departments  of  education, 
much  is  now  being  done  to  elevate  standards  in  the  selection  of 
teachers. 

What  then  should  we  formulate  as  the  proper  university  training 
for  the  prospective  teacher  of  secondary  mathematics  in  the  United 
States  ? The  present  tendency  gives  us  the  key  to  an  answer.  The 
candidate  for  a certificate  to  teach  mathematics  in  our  secondary 
schools  should  be  required  to  take  (1)  advanced  courses  in  mathe- 
matics, to  include  at  least  a first  course  in  calculus;  (2)  history  of 
mathematics  and  its  bearing  on  teaching;  (3)  courses  in  the  general 
theory  of  education  and  in  the  teaching  of  secondary  mathematics, 
the  latter  being  given  by  one  familiar  with  advanced  mathematics, 
the  history  of  mathematics,  and  the  general  field  of  education;  (4) 
observation  and  practice  teaching,  in  connection  with  this  university 
training,  under  the  supervision  of  a specialist  in  mathematical  edu- 
cation. We  may  hope  that  candidates  be  not  admitted  as  full  sec- 
ondary teachers  until  they  have  shown  after  a year’s  trial  that  they 
are  specially  fitted  for  the  work.  Beyond  this  it  is  highly  desirable 
that  they  do  some  serious  work  in  higher  mathematics,  including 
some  course  which  will  give  them  a broad  and  somewhat  unified  view 
of  the  field.  The  indications  are  that  real  advance  in  our  standards 
for  the  higher  education  of  our  secondary  teachers  of  mathematics 
will  follow  lines  of  compromise  between  the  work  of  our  best  schools 
of  education  and  the  traditional  highly  specialized  course  leading  to 
the  degree  of  Ph.  D.  The  pressing  need  of  the  hour  is  that  our  high 
schools  insist  upon,  and  our  universities  equip  themselves  for  furnish- 
ing, the  minimum  preparation  outlined  above.  Such  a course  will  in 
9560°— 11 6 


82  MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

no  wise  interfere  with  the  attainment  of  broad  general  culture  and 
we  believe  will  furnish  the  best  preparation  for  the  student  who  is 
ultimately  to  teach  in  the  university. 

OTHER  FACTORS  IN  THE  EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHERS. 

Summarizing  reports  from  about  165  large  high  schools  or  city  sys- 
tems, the  following  facts  are  found : Forty-three  and  a half  per  cent 
of  the  teachers  of  mathematics  are  men.  The  lowest  percentage  of 
men  teachers,  38  per  cent,  is  found  in  New  England.  Two-thirds  of 
these  teachers  teach  only  mathematics.  In  smaller  schools  not  re- 
porting, this  proportion  is  no  doubt  very  much  less.  Excluding  four 
or  five  of  the  largest  cities,  where  the  percentage  is  considerably 
higher,  it  appears  that  about  80  per  cent  of  the  mathematics  classes 
are  taught  by  teachers  whose  chief  interest  is  in  mathematics. 
Teachers  teach  on  an  average  26  periods  of  from  40  to  45  minutes 
each,  the  number  ranging  from  20  periods  of  40  minutes  each  to 
1+0  'periods  of  1+5  minutes  each.  In  New  England  the  average  is 
23  periods.  Eighty  per  cent  of  these  schools  teach  trigonometry. 
No  general  tendency  is  discernible  toward  increasing  or  decreasing 
the  amount  of  mathematics  taught,  individual  tendencies  about 
balancing. 

The  following  questions  were  asked  concerning  salaries:  What  is 
the  highest  salary  per  year  a mathematics  teacher  receives  as  such 
for  full  work  ? What  is  the  lowest  ? What  is  the  average  % The  fol- 
lowing summary  gives  the  number  of  cities  or  high  schools  which  pay 
the  salaries  stated  at  the  top  of  the  column: 


Number  of  cities  or  high  schools  paying  certain  salaries  to  teachers  of  mathematics. 


Over 

$2,000. 

$1,501  to 
$2,000. 

$1,001  to 
$1,500. 

$751  to 
$1,000. 

$500  to 
$750. 

Total. 

number. 

Highest  salaries. 

New  England 

2 

5 

7 

9 

2 

25 

Middle  Atlantic 

4 

12 

15 

6 

2 

39 

Central 

2 

3 

28 

18 

1 

52 

Southern 

0 

2 

6 

4 

0 

12 

Western 

0 

8 

9 

1 

0 

18 

United  States 

8 

30 

65 

38 

5 

146 

Lowest  salaries. 

New  England 

0 

0 

0 

8 

16 

24 

Middle  Atlantic 

0 

0 

6 

16 

15 

37 

Central 

0 

0 

4 

31 

14 

49 

Southern 

0 

0 

0 

6 

5 

11 

Western 

0 

1 

9 

5 

0 

15 

United  States 

0 

1 

19 

66 

50 

136 

A verage  salaries. 

New  England 

1 

0 

6 

10 

6 

23 

Middle  Atlantic 

0 

i 

11 

10 

2 

28 

Central 

0 

0 

18 

20 

2 

40 

Southern 

0 

0 

3 

7 

0 

10 

Western 

0 

2 

10 

2 

0 

14 

United  States 

1 

7 

48 

49 

10 

115 

THE  SIX-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOL. 


83 


One  hundred  and  thirty-five  answers  were  received  from  superin- 
tendents and  principals  to  the  following  questions: 

In  estimating  the  prospective  value  of  a high-school  teacher  of 
mathematics,  out  of  a hundred  points,  how  many  points  would 
you  give  to  each  of  the  following? 

(1)  Knowledge  of  the  mathematics  he  is  to  teach. 

(2)  Knowledge  of  mathematics  of  higher  grade. 

(3)  Ability  in  scientific  research. 

(4)  Pedagogical  training. 

(5)  General  education  and  culture  in  other  lines  than  mathematics. 

(6)  Experience  in  teaching. 

The  following  summary  of  answers  received  is  self-explanatory: 


Question. 

Average 
of  answers. 

(1) 

36.5 

(2) 

11.1 

123  answers  ranged  from  5 to  20. 

(3) 

5.  5 

129  answers  ranged  from  0 to  10. 

G) 

11.7 

(5) 

16.0 

112  answers  ranged  from  5 to  25. 

(6) 

19.2 

110  answers  ranged  from  10  to  30. 

The  question  as  to  whether  any 
from  these  is  left  to  the  reader. 

inferences  of  value  can  be  drawn 

SUBCOMMITTEE  8.  THE  SIX- YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

The  traditional  school  organization  of  the  country  consists  of  an 
elementary,  or  grammar,  school  of  eight  grades — i.  e.,  years — and  a 
high  school  of  four  years.  It  has  been  proposed  to  shorten  the 
grammar-school  course  to  six  years,  and  to  incorporate  the  work  of 
the  last  two  grades,  the  seventh  and  eighth,  with  that  of  the  high 
school,  thus  making  the  high-school  course  one  of  six  years.  The 
work  of  the  subcommittee  is  an  investigation  of  the  curriculum  in 
mathematics  in  such  six-year  high  schools. 

Excepting  the  Boston  Latin  schools,  the  movement  for  six-year 
high  schools  covers  but  a few  years.  The  literature  is  chiefly  of  a 
general  nature,  dealing  with  the  advantages  to  be  gained  from  such 
schools,  and  containing  next  to  nothing  in  the  way  of  detail  that 
would  be  of  value  in  a report  on  the  subject  under  investigation. 
A bibliography  is  appended  to  this  report  (see  p.  94),  but  for  the 
reason  just  given  no  especial  pains  have  been  taken  to  make  it 
complete.  The  widespread  interest  taken  in  the  movement  is  per- 
haps best  indicated  by  the  fact  that  the  National  Education  Associa- 
tion (N.  E.  A.)  has  had  a committee  considering  various  aspects  of 
the  six-year  high  schools  since  1906  (cf.  bibliography,  p.  94). 


84 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


1.  ADVANTAGES. 

Among  the  advantages  claimed  for  the  six-year  high  school  are: 

(a)  The  use  of  departmental  methods  in  what  are  now  the  last 
two  years  of  the  elementary  school.  Under  the  traditional  system, 
pupils  in  the  same  grade  are  taught  various  subjects  by  but  one 
teacher,  while  the  six-year  plan  insures  specialists  for  the  teaching 
of  each  branch  of  study  two  years  earlier  than  at  present  (but  see 
sec.  2). 

(b)  The  use  of  laboratories  in  which  the  study  of  elementary 
science  might  be  begun  two  years  earlier  than  at  present. 

(c)  The  possibility  of  beginning  the  study  of  modern  languages 
earlier  than  at  present. 

(d)  The  transition  from  the  elementary  to  the  high  school  would 
be  less  abrupt  than  at  present.  This  is  insisted  on  very  strongly 
by  advocates  of  the  new  scheme. 

(e)  More  pupils  would  continue  their  schooling  beyond  the  eight 
years  of  the  traditional  elementary  school. 

(f)  The  easier  use  of  manual- training  shops  and  the  introduction 
of  industrial-training  courses. 

(g)  In  many  localities  the  new  plan  would  possess  financial  advan- 
tages; e.  g.,  it  would  permit  the  full  use  of  buildings  already  erected 
and  relieve  the  pressure  for  more  buildings  for  the  elementary  schools 
for  some  years  to  come. 

For  a fuller  account  of  advantages  claimed  see  the  N.  E.  A.  reports 
for  1907  and  1909  and  the  1909  pamphlet  of  the  New  York  City 
Club. 

2.  APPROXIMATIONS  TO  SIX-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 

(a)  Several  cities  in  the  country  have  adopted  departmental 
methods  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades,  and  some  of  these  regard 
it  as  a definite  step  toward  the  six-year  high  school,  while  others 
think  of  it  as  merely  a change  in  the  methods  of  the  elementary 
school.  Even  in  the  latter  cities  several  of  the  advantages  claimed 
for  the  six-year  high  school  have  been  enjoyed. 

(b)  In  some  cities  the  high-school  course  has  been  lengthened  to 
four  and  a half  or  five  years. 

(c)  In  some  cities  there  are  separate  schools  for  a part  of  the 
pupils  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades.  In  these  schools  the  work 
is  correlated  with  that  of  the  regular  four-year  high  school  more 
closely  than  in  the  regular  grammar  school.  Especially  bright 
pupils  from  these  schools  may,  in  some  cities,  complete  the  high- 
school  course  in  three  years. 

The  subcommittee  realized  at  the  beginning  of  the  investigation 
that  these  various  approximations  should  be  included  in  its  study. 


THE  SIX-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOL. 


85 


3.  METHOD  OF  THE  INVESTIGATION. 

Following  every  clue  received  by  correspondence  or  in  the  litera- 
ture resulted  in  the  compilation  of  a list  of  29  cities  reported  to  have 
a fair  approximation  to  the  six-year  high  school  and  of  27  cities  in 
whose  schools  departmental  methods  are  said  to  be  employed  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades.  While  the  latter  list  contains  all  cities 
of  the  sort  indicated  which  came  to  the  attention  of  the  subcommittee, 
no  especial  effort  was  made  to  compile  a complete  list.  This  was  due 
to  the  fact  that  three  important  cities  reported  by  the  Bureau  of 
Education  at  Washington  to  contain  schools  belonging  to  the  second 
class  were  investigated  personally  by  different  members  of  the  sub- 
committee during  the  last  summer  (1909)  and  found  to  offer  nothing 
of  value  for  tins  report. 

The  subcommittee  is  indebted  to  the  courtesy  of  Mr.  Charles  S. 
Hartwell,  234  Willoughby  Avenue,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  secretary  of  a 
joint  committee  of  the  teachers’  associations  of  New  York  City  and 
Brooklyn  conducting  an  extensive  investigation  of  school  organiza- 
tion, for  nearly  all  the  cities  on  both  lists,  and  for  many  helpful  sug- 
gestions. 

In  advance  of  the  information  that  the  Bureau  of  Education  had 
offered  to  circulate  questionnaires,  the  subcommittee  mailed  a cir- 
cular letter  to  the  superintendent  of  schools  in  each  of  the  cities  on 
the  two  lists,  with  a request  that  an  inclosed  letter  be  handed  to  a 
teacher  of  mathematics.  Later  a copy  of  the  second  letter,  some- 
what modified,  was  mailed  to  the  department  of  mathematics  of  the 
high  school  in  each  of  the  cities  on  the  first  list  from  which  no  reply 
had  been  received.  The  replies  from  the  cities  on  the  second  list 
indicated  that  it  was  not  worth  while  following  up  those  not  answer- 
ing the  first  letter.  Conditions  in  a few  cities  were  investigated 
personally,  and  no  letters  were  mailed  to  these  cities. 

4.  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  INFORMATION  RECEIVED. 

The  number  of  schools  investigated  is  so  small,  and  their  forms  of 
organization  and  curricula  so  varied,  that  it  is  impracticable  to  tab- 
ulate the  information  received.  Instead,  the  report  can  only  pre- 
sent a summary  of  the  situation  in  each  school  (sections  6-11),  and 
a few  general  comparisons  (section  13).  The  value  of  the  latter  must 
be  estimated  in  the  light  of  the  fact  that  the  number  of  schools  is 
small  and  that  the  conditions  in  different  parts  of  the  country  vary 
a great  deal. 

The  subcommittee  is  able  to  report  upon: 

(a)  Five  schools  organized  on  precisely  the  lines  indicated  in  sec- 
tion 1.  (Section  6.) 


86 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


(b)  Two  schools  approximating  that  organization  very  closely. 
(Section  7.) 

(c)  Two  five-year  high  schools.  (Section  7.) 

(d)  One  four-and-a-half-year  school.  (Section  7.) 

(e)  Four  cities  having  special  schools  preparatory  to  high  school. 
(Section  8.) 

(f)  Six  cities  having  departmental  methods  in  the  seventh  and 
eighth  grades  (section  9),  but  not  all  of  these  regard  this  as  an  approx- 
imation to  a six-year  high  school. 

(g)  Two  have  a different  form  of  six-year  high  school.  (Section 

10.) 

(h)  One  noteworthy  private  high  school.  (Section  11.) 

Neglecting  (f),  (g),  and  (h)  the  subcommittee  can  report  upon  but 

14  six-year  public  high  schools  or  approximations  thereto. 

The  cities  on  both  lists  not  covered  in  the  above  classification  were 
either  not  heard  from  at  all  or  offered  little  of  value  to  the  subcom- 
mittee. 

Cities  employing  departmental  methods  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades  have  not,  so  far  as  information  at  hand  shows,  made  much 
effort  to  mold  the  mathematics  in  these  grades  and  in  the  high  school 
into  a homogeneous  whole,  and  hence,  contrary  to  hope,  they  furnish 
little  of  value  to  the  subcommittee. 

5.  THE  TRADITIONAL  CURRICULUM. 

For  a proper  appreciation  of  the  following  sections  it  should  be 
understood  that  the  traditional  curriculum  has  been,  roughly,  arith- 
metic in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  of  the  elementary  school, 
elementary  algebra  (i.  e.,  algebra  through  quadratic  equations,  arith- 
metical and  geometrical  progessions,  etc.),  and  plane  geometry  in  the 
high  school.  Most  high  schools  also  offer  solid  (including  spherical) 
geometry,  advanced  algebra  (i.  e.,  such  topics  as  permutations, 
logarithms,  theory  and  numerical  solution  of  equations,  etc.),  and 
plane  trigonometry. 

Solid  geometry,  advanced  algebra,  and  trigonometry  are  required 
for  admission  to  technical  schools  but  are  usually  taught  in  the  first 
year  of  college  work.  Hence  students  preparing  for  college  do  not 
usually  take  these  subjects  in  the  high  school.  In  the  West,  solid 
geometry  is  usually  required  for  admission  to  college. 

These  subjects  have  usually  been  taught  with  very  little  attention 
to  their  interrelations,  and  many  students  take  mathematics  during  but 
a portion  of  the  four  years  in  high  school;  e.  g.,  a student  may  take 
elementary  algebra  the  first  year,  plane  geometry  the  second,  no 
mathematics  the  third  year,  and  a review  of  one  or  the  other  of  these 
subjects  in  a portion  of  the  fourth  year. 


THE  SIX-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOL. 


87 


Abbreviations  used  in  sections  6-12 : 

Arith.  for  arithmetic. 

Alg.  for  elementary  algebra. 

Geom.  for  plane  geometry. 

Trig,  for  plane  trigonometry. 

Adv.  Alg.  for  advanced  algebra. 

Obs.  Geom.  for  observational  geometry. 

The  six  years  of  the  course  are  named  uniformly  in  this  report,  but 
usage  varies  in  different  schools. 

6.  SIX-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOLS. 

Boys’  Latin  School  and  Girls’  Latin  School,  constituting  The  Public 
Latin  School  in  Boston,  Mass.,  founded  1635.  This  has  been  a 
six-year  school  for  a great  many  years,  preparing  students  for  college 
but  not  for  technical  schools. 

First  year:  Arith.  3,1  Obs.  Geom.  2. 

Second  year:  Arith.  3 (J  year),  Alg.  3 (§  year),  Obs.  Geom.  1 
(the  entire  year). 

Third  year:  Alg.  and  Obs.  Geom.  (correlated)  4. 

Fourth  year:  Alg.  3 (£  year),  Geom.  3 (J  year). 

Fifth  year:  Geom.  3 (J  year),  Alg.  3 (§  year). 

Sixth  year:  Plane  and  Solid  Geom.  4. 

Recent  changes,  as  indicated  by  printed  reports,  are:  The  placing  of 
algebra  as  early  as  the  second  year  and  of  formal  geomtry  as  early  as 
the  fourth  year;  the  teaching  of  some  geometry  in  each  year.  But, 
essentially,  this  curriculum  has  been  in  operation  for  some  years. 

Roxbury  Latin  School,  Roxbury  {Boston),  Mass.,  founded  1645. 

First  year:  Arith.  (a  little  Alg.)  3. 

Second  year:  Arith.  2 (J  year),  Obs.  Geom.  2 (§  year). 

Third  year:  Alg.  4. 

Fourth  year:  Alg.  3 (§  year),  Arith.  3 (J  year). 

Fifth  year:  Alg.  (a  little  Adv.  Alg.)  3. 

Sixth  year:  Geom.  5. 

Adv.  Alg.,  Solid  Geom.,  Trig,  (electives). 

Lead,  S.  Dak. — The  course  in  mathematics  covers  but  five  years. 
Exceptionally  bright  pupils  may  do  all  the  work  of  the  six-year 
course  in  five  years.  The  six-year  course  has  been  in  effect  five 
years. 

First  or  second  year:  Arith.  5. 

Third  year:  Alg.  5. 

Fourth  year:  Geom.  5. 

Fifth  year:  Alg.  5 (£  year),  Solid  Geom.  5 (£  year). 

Sixth  year:  Adv.  Alg.  5 (J  year),  Trig.  5 G year). 

1 The  number  is  that  of  recitations  per  week,  when  it  is  known.  The  recitation  period  is  usually  40  or  45 
minutes. 


88  mathematics  in  secondary  schools. 

Algebra  was  formerly  taught  in  the  second  year,  but  has  been  put 
back  into  the  third  year. 

Hope  Street  English  and  Classical  High  School , Providence , R.  I. — 
The  report  of  their  curriculum  is  incomplete. 

First  year:  Arith.  (probably). 

Second  year:  Alg.  3. 

Last  four  years  probably  Alg.,  Geom.,  Solid  Geom.,  Adv.  Alg.,  and 
Trig. 

Principal  Charles  E.  Dennis,  jr.,  writes: 

“ Correlation  consists  in  not  emphasizing  the  advanced  portions  of 
arithmetic,  i.  e.,  geometrical  measurements,  and  omitting  cube  root 
entirely.  These  subjects  are  better  taught  in  connection  with  algebra 
and  geometry.” 

Remarks. — Four  of  the  five  schools  introduce  some  algebra  in  the 
first  two  years.  In  the  fifth,  algebra  has  recently  been  dropped  from 
the  second  year. 

The  three  Latin  schools  introduce  some  geometry  in  the  first  two 
years.  They  also  provide  for  a continuous  course  of  six  years. 

Two  of  the  five  schools  do  not  offer  trigonometry. 

In  at  least  four  of  these  schools  the  traditional  “ tandem  method” 
of  arranging  courses  has  been  somewhat  broken  up.  This  breaking 
up  is  especially  noteworthy  in  the  Boston  Latin  schools. 

7.  CLOSE  APPROXIMATIONS  TO  THE  SIX-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

(j Five-year  and four-and-a-half-year  high  schools.) 

Crawfordsville,  Ind. — “The  seventh  and  eighth  grades  and  the 
high  school  occupy  the  same  building  in  our  city  and  all  are  organized 
on  the  departmental  plan.  There  is  a slight  division  between  the 
eighth-year  course  and  high  school,  but  it  is  very  slight.  We  con- 
sider the  arrangement  an  approximation  to  a six-year  high-school 
course.” 

First  year:  Arith. 

Second  year:  Arith.  and  Alg. 

Last  four  years:  Alg.  (1J  years),  Geom.  (1  year),  solid  Geom.  (£ 
year). 

Richmond , Ind. — Information  on  Richmond  is  due  to  the  kindness 
of  Mr.  Hartwell,  who  kindly  sent  the  subcommittee  a copy  of  a letter 
from  the  superintendent  of  schools. 

For  twelve  years  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  have  been  housed 
in  a separate  building  in  which  departmental  methods  are  used.  The 
heads  of  the  departments  are  the  heads  of  departments  in  the  high 
school 

“We  are  much  pleased  with  this  plan.  We  are  hoping  to  be  ‘ brave ’ 
enough  to  print  our  high-school  course  as  including  the  six  grades  in 
name  as  well  as  in  fact.” 


THE  SIX-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOL. 


89 


First  year:  Arith. 

Second  year:  Alg.  (J  year). 

Last  four  years:  Probably  Alg.,  Geom.,  Solid  Geom.,  Adv.  Alg., 
and  Trig. 

The  Muskegon  High  and  Hackley  Manual  Training  School,  Muske- 
gon, Mich. — A five-year  high  school.  “The  seventh-grade  work  in 
our  city  schools  is  given  in  the  ward  schools  in  a departmental  system. 
The  eighth-grade  work  is  given  at  the  high  school,  making  with  the 
regular  four  years’  work  a course  of  five  years.” 

First  year  (seventh  grade,  not  in  five-year  course) : Arith. 

Second  year:  Arith.  (J  year),  Alg.  (J  year). 

Third  year:  Alg. 

Fourth  year:  Geom. 

Fifth  year:  Alg.  (J  year),  Geom.  (Solid?)  (J  year). 

Sixth  year:  Trig,  and  Alg. 

“In  our  first  two  years  of  algebra  we  cover  about  the  same  ground 
usually  covered  in  1J  years  in  other  high  schools.” 

“We  are  contemplating  extending  the  one-half  year  of  arithmetic 
to  a whole  year  in  the  eighth  grade,  perhaps  retaining  a little  introduc- 
tory work  in  algebra.” 

“ Due  to  our  extended  work  in  manual  training  we  require  mathe- 
matics only  through  plane  geometry  for  most  students.” 

Woodward  Avenue  High  School,  Kalamazoo,  Mich. — Approximately 
a five-year  high  school. 

“Our  seventh  grade  is  not  departmental.  The  eighth-grade  pro- 
gram is  arranged  on  the  same  plan  as  the  high  school : Pupils  sit  in  a 
grade  room  where  they  keep  their  books  and  to  which  they  go  after 
each  class.  As  the  class  bell  calls,  pupils  go  to  their  respective  classes, 
or  if  they  have  no  class,  to  the  general  study  room  for  eighth  grade 
and  high  school.” 

First  year  (seventh  grade,  not  in  five-year  course) : Arith. 

Second  year:  Arith. 

Third  year:  Alg.,  Arith.  (J  year,  elective). 

Fourth  year:  Alg.  (J  year),  Geom.  (J  year). 

Fifth  year:  Geom.  (probably  plane  and  solid,  elective). 

Sixth  year:  Trig.  (J  year),  Alg.  (J  year)  (both  elective). 

Pittsburg,  Kans. — A four-and-a-half-year  high  school,  organized 
nine  years  ago. 

First  year  (seventh  grade,  not  in  four-and-one-half-year  course): 
Arith. 

Second  year  (last  half  in  four-and-one-half-year  course) : Arith. 

Last  four  years:  Probably  Alg.,  Geom.,  Solid  Geom.,  Adv.  Alg., 
and  Trig. 

Remarks. — In  three  of  these  five  schools  algebra  is  introduced  in 
the  first  two  years  and  no  geometry  is  given  in  these  years  in  any 
of  the  five. 


90 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


8.  APPROXIMATION  CONSISTING  OF  A PREPARATORY  HIGH  SCHOOL 
AND  A REGULAR  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

Worcester,  Mass. — Special  schools  for  a portion  of  the  pupils  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  grades  and  a four-year  high  school. 

First  year  (seventh  grade) : Arith. 

Second  year  (eighth  grade):  Arith.  (J  year),  Alg.  (J  year). 

Third  year:  Alg. 

Fourth  year:  Geom. 

Fifth  year:  Adv.  Alg.  and  Solid  Geom. 

Sixth  year:  Review  of  Alg.  and  Geom. 

Superintendent  of  Schools  H.  P.  Lewis  writes:  “I  believe  thor- 
oughly in  a six-year  high-school  course  in  which  the  curriculum 
would  be  different  in  many  points  from  that  of  the  last  two  years 
of  the  elementary  course  and  the  present  four  years  of  the  high- 
school  course.” 

Grand  Rapids,  Michigan. — Superintendent  of  Schools  William  A. 
Greeson  writes:  “In  two  buildings  we  have  the  departmental  organiza- 
tion. * * * The  curricula  in  these  grades  (the  seventh  and 

eighth)  have  not  been  closely  correlated  with  those  in  the  high 
school.” 

It  is  inferred  from  other  portions  of  his  letter  that  these  build- 
ings are  used  exclusively  for  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades. 

“As  soon  as  our  two  high-school  buildings  are  completed  and 
occupied  by  the  high  schools,  we  shall  have  two  buildings  * * * 

which  can  be  used  for  the  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  grades.  It  is 
our  purpose  then  to  organize  these  three  grades  upon  a modified 
high-school  plan.” 

First  year:  Arith. 

Second  year:  Arith. 

Third  year:  Alg. 

Fourth  year:  Alg.  (£year). 

Fifth  year:  Geom. 

Sixth  year:  Solid  Geom.  (i  year),  Adv.  Alg.  (^  year),  Trig, 
(i  year). 

Lincoln,  Nebr. — There  is  a five-year  course  consisting  of:  First,  a 
course  of  two  years,  known  as  preparatory  to  the  high  school,  for 
especially  bright  pupils,  which  covers,  with  some  omissions,  the 
work  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  and  that  of  the  first  year  of 
the  regular  four-year  high  school.  Second,  the  last  three  years  of  the 
high  school. 

First  year:  Arith.  and  Obs.  Geom. 

Second  year:  Arith. 

Third  year:  Combined  with  first  two. 

Last  three  years:  “A  completely  blended  course  of  algebra  and 
geometry.” 


THE  SIX-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOL. 


91 


There  is  no  mathematics  in  the  first  year  of  the  regular  four-year 
course  except  in  the  commercial  department.  What  is  taught  there 
is  presumably  arithmetic. 

Baltimore,  Md. — Children  with  a sufficiently  good  record  in  the 
sixth  grade  of  the  elementary  school  may  attend  any  one  of  four 
schools  doing  work  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grade  preparatory  to 
high  school.  A good  student  may  complete  these  grades  and  the  work 
of  the  regular  four-year  high  school  in  five  years.  The  curriculum 
is  probably  the  traditional  curriculum.  (Section  5.) 

Remarks. — One  of  these  four  schools  introduces  algebra  in  the 
first  two  years  and  but  one  introduces  geometry. 

9.  APPROXIMATIONS  CONSISTING  MERELY  OF  DEPARTMENTAL 
METHODS  IN  THE  SEVENTH  AND  EIGHTH  GRADES. 

Aurora,  III. — Superintendent  of  Schools  C.  M.  Bardwell  writes: 

Our  seventh  and  eighth  grades  are  distinct  from  the  high  school,  as  in  case  of  most 
other  systems.  The  accommodations  necessitate  this. 

For  a number  of  years  we  dropped  the  subject  of  arithmetic  at  the  end  of  the  sixth 
grade,  and  took  for  the  next  half  year  inductive,  or  constructive,  geometry.  We 
began  algebra  the  second  semester  of  the  seventh  grade  and  carried  it  through  the 
eighth  grade,  with  recitations  five  times  a week.  We  have  changed  this,  however, 
in  the  last  year  and  have  introduced  arithmetic  twice  a week,  carrying  over  the 
subjects  that  we  had  formerly  had  in  the  sixth  grade,  but  omitting  most  of  the  technical 
applications  of  arithmetic. 

The  work  which  we  give  the  children  in  mathematics  in  these  grades  (the  seventh 
and  eighth)  is  not  so  much  with  a view  to  fitting  them  to  some  special  course  in  the  high 
school,  or  a hasty  completion  of  regular  mathematical  work,  but  rather  because  it 
seems  to  fit  their  needs  from  a standpoint  of  their  intellectual  growth.  They  seem 
to  enjoy  their  work  in  algebra  intensely,  and  act  as  though  it  were  something  that  they 
really  feel  the  need  of  and  a desire  for. 

Saginaw,  Mick. — This  city  is  popularly  reported  as  being  a pioneer 
in  the  six-year  movement. 

First  year:  Arith.  4. 

Second  year:  Arith.  4. 

Third  year:  Alg.  5,  Commercial  Arith.  5,  Industrial  Arith.  (in 
process  of  evolution). 

Fourth  year:  Alg.  5 (^  year),  Geom.  5 (V  year). 

Fifth  year:  Geom.  2. 

Sixth  year:  Alg.  (some  Adv.  Alg.)  3 (£  year),  Solid  Geom.  3 
(i  year),  Trig.  3 (§  year),  Surveying  3 (J  year). 

In  the  fourth  year,  geometry  is  studied  without  a text. 

Herkimer,  N.  Y.,  and  Franklin,  Ind. — These  schools  have  the 
traditional  curriculum  (section  5)  except  that  the  latter  has  no 
trigonometry. 

Iron  Mountain,  Mick. — “We  formerly  had  departmental  work 
in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  for  eight  or  nine  years,  but  have 
partly  abandoned  it  and  entirely  so  in  mathematics.” 


92 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


“A  little  algebra  and  geometry’’  is  introduced  in  the  eighth 
grade. 

Algebra  and  geometry  are  11  mixed”  in  the  last  two  years. 

Indianapolis,  Ind . — Departmental  methods  are  not  regarded  as  an 
approximation  to  a six-year  school.  The  city  is  mentioned  chiefly 
on  account  of  the  fact  that  correlation  has  been  highly  developed  in 
the  high  school  and  on  account  of  the  following  excerpt  from  a letter 
from  Mr.  W.  W.  Hart,  head  of  the  department  of  mathematics, 
Shortridge  High  School : 

“I  might  say  that  it  is  our  intent  to  have  very  little  algebra  in 
the  eighth  grade  in  the  future  on  the  ground  that  such  work  does 
not  seem  to  be  of  sufficient  practical  value  to  the  boy  and  girl  who 
does  not  go  to  the  high  school.” 

10.  A SECOND  FORM  OF  SIX-YEAR  HIGH  SCHOOL. 

A movement  has  developed  in  the  Middle  West  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  two  years  of  graduate  work  in  the  high  school,  covering 
approximately  the  first  two  years  of  college  work.  In  mathematics 
this  necessitates  the  teaching  of  analytic  geometry  and  differential 
and  integral  calculus  in  addition  to  all  the  courses  of  the  traditional 
curriculum.  (Section  5.) 

Joliet , 111.,  and  Goshen,  Ind.,  have  organized  high  schools  on  this 
basis.  In  the  latter  city  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  are  organized 
departmentally.  Bright  pupils  may  begin  algebra  in  the  eighth 
grade,  but  otherwise  the  curriculum  does  not  differ  from  the  tradi- 
tional curriculum. 

11.  THE  HORACE  MANN  SCHOOL. 

This  high  school  is  connected  with  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University,  and  is  intended  to  be  a model  high  school.  It  is  not  a 
public  high  school  in  the  sense  that  there  are  no  tuition  charges. 
Some  departments  offer  six-year  courses  as  well  as  a four-year  course. 
The  department  of  mathematics  offers,  in  addition  to  a four-year 
course,  the  following  five-year  course : 

First  year:  (Not  in  the  course.) 

Second  year:  Alg. 

Third  year:  Alg. 

Fourth  year:  Geom. 

Fifth  year:  Alg.  (}  year),  Solid  Geom.  (J  year). 

Sixth  year:  Trig.  3 (i  year),  Adv.  Alg.  (a  little  analytic  Geom.) 
(i  year). 

12.  A PROPOSED  CURRICULUM. 

In  a paper  in  the  Educational  Review,  vol.  25  (1903),  pages  455-63, 
Prof.  Paul  II.  Hanus  proposes  a readjustment  of  the  entire  education 
system  of  the  country.  He  proposes  (p.  458)  a six-year  course  for 
two  high  schools  of  three  years  each,  as  follows: 


THE  SIX-TBAR  HIGH  SCHOOL. 


93 


First  year:  Alg.  2,  Obs.  Geom.  2,  Arith.  1. 

Second  year:  Alg.  2,  Obs.  Geom.  2,  Arith.  1. 

Third  year:  Arith.  3,  Obs.  Geom.  2. 

Fourth  year:  Alg.  2,  Geom.  3. 

Fifth  year:  Alg.  4,  Mechanical  Drawing  1. 

Sixth  year:  Solid  Geom.  5,  Trig.  5. 

13.  GENERAL  CONCLUSIONS. 

* 

In  conclusion,  the  subcommittee  can  do  little  in  the  way  of  general 
remarks.  Comparing  the  14  schools  considered  in  sections  6-8,  the 
following  variations  from  the  traditional  curriculum  may  be  noted : 

One  school  teaches  algebra  and  three  teach  geometry  in  the  first 
year. 

Seven  teach  algebra  and  three  teach  geometry  in  the  second  year. 

Four  schools  have  correlated  the  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry 
sufficiently  to  break  up  effectively  the  11  tandem  method  ” of  arranging 
courses.  Information  at  hand  is  not  sufficiently  detailed  to  indicate 
how  much  correlation,  if  any,  is  attempted  in  many  of  the  other 
schools,  but  the  presumption  is  that  there  is  but  little. 

Three  of  the  six  schools  in  section  9 present  variations  from  the 
traditional  curriculum  in  some  of  these  ways. 

It  is  thus  seen  that  the  tendencies  to  insert  some  algebra  and 
geometry  in  the  last  two  grades  of  the  elementary  school,  and  to 
weld  arithmetic,  algebra,  and  geometry  into  a unified  course  in 
mathematics,  tendencies  which  have  been  much  discussed  in  recent 
years,  are  being  tried  out  more  or  less  thoroughly  in  the  schools 
whose  organizations  approximate  the  six-year  high  school.  So  few 
schools,  however,  replied  with  a description  of  their  courses  by  topics, 
as  requested  by  the  subcommittee,  that  it  would  be  useless  to  attempt 
to  tabulate  what  little  detailed  information  has  been  received.  The 
Boston  Latin  School  stands  foremost  in  exemplifying  both  of  these 
pronounced  tendencies. 

Further  information  on  these  tendencies  in  schools  organized  on 
traditional  lines  will  doubtless  be  found  in  the  reports  of  other  com- 
mittees and  subcommittees  engaged  in  this  investigation. 

There  has  also  been  much  discussion  in  recent  years  concerning  the 
introduction  into  the  high  school  of  essentially  new  matter,  such  as 
the  elements  of  analytic  geometry  and  the  calculus,  but  none  of  the 
schools  investigated  have  done  this  (except  the  two  in  section  10 
which  teach  the  first  two  years  of  collegiate  work) . 

While  one  vigorous  protest  against  the  movement  was  received 
(Bloomfield,  N.  J.),  the  general  tone  of  the  letters  received  by  the 
subcommittee  indicates  an  enthusiastic  belief  in  the  six-year  high 
school. 


94 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Boynton,  F.  D.  A six-year  high  school  course. 

Educational  Review,  vol.  20  (1900),  pp.  515-519. 

Hanus,  P.  H.  A six-year  high  school  program. 

Educational  Review,  vol.  25  (1903),  pp.  455-463. 

Hartwell,  C.  S.  Liberating  the  lower  education. 

The  School  Review,  vol.  15  (1907),  pp.  436-458. 

National  Education  Association.  Reports  of  committees. 

Addresses  and  proceedings  of  the  N.  E.  A.: 

For  1907  (Los  Angeles,  Cal.)  pp.  705-710. 

For  1908  (Cleveland,  Ohio)  pp.  625-628. 

For  1909  (Denver,  Colo.)  pp.  498-503. 

A further  report  will  be  made  in  1910. 

Snedden,  D.  S.  Six-year  high  school  course. 

Educational  Review,  vol.  26  (1903),  pp.  525-529. 

Swanstrom,  J.  E.  A modification  of  the  six-year  plan. 

The  daily  papers,  Brooklyn  Eagle,  Feb.  25,  1908,  Evening  Post  (New 
York),  Feb.  28,  1908. 

The  City  Club  of  New  York.  Two  pamphlets. 

A suggested  readjustment  of  the  years  of  study  of  the  public  schools  of 
New  York  City.  October,  1908.  Opinions  of  educators  and  others  on 
the  above  plan.  January,  1909. 

The  second  form  of  six-year  high  school  (section  10). 

A series  of  articles  by  many  educators  containing  some  suggestions  with  reference  to 
the  six-year  schools  treated  in  this  report. 

The  School  Review,  vol.  11  (1903),  pp.  1-20. 

The  School  Review,  vol.  12  (1904),  pp.  15-28. 

The  School  Review,  vol.  13  (1905),  pp.  15-25. 


SUBCOMMITTEE  9.  FAILURES  IN  THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  THE 
TEACHING  OF  SECONDARY  MATHEMATICS:  THEIR 

CAUSES  AND  REMEDIES. 

INTRODUCTION. 

In  this  commercial  age,  which  makes  efficiency  the  controlling 
factor  in  all  walks  of  life,  the  teacher  must  not  expect  to  escape  a 
searching  scrutiny  of  his  results  or  criticism  of  his  methods.  The 
general  public  has  at  last  begun  to  watch  with  interest,  not  entirely 
free  from  meddlesome  curiosity,  the  work  of  its  tax-supported  schools. 
It  is  well  that  it  should  be  so.  For  may  not  many  of  the  educational 
crises  of  the  past  be  traced  to  the  aloofness  of  the  average  teacher 
from  the  active  world  ? Separated  from  the  noise  and  the  merciless 
competition  of  real  life,  the  school  frequently  fails  to  make  those 
unavoidable  readjustments  which  a business  establishment  effects 
almost  automatically  in  its  effort  to  remain  “up  to  date.” 

Thus  it  happens  that  the  educational  process  so  often  is  “behind 
the  times.”  With  majestic  inertia  the  school  system  glides  on  in  its 


FAILURES  IN  TECHNIQUE. 


95 


accustomed  and  “ appro ved”  course,  long  after  the  familiar  land- 
marks have  disappeared  and  the  compass  needle  points  to  strange 
and  untried  seas.  Finally  there  are  dangerous  collisions  and  the 
passengers  complain  of  the  wearisome,  aimless  trip.  Then  the  edu- 
cational pilots  are  roused  from  their  stupor  and  frantic  efforts  are 
made  to  ascertain  the  “new  course.”  A “reform  wave”  is  suddenly 
espied,  and  carried  by  this  “new  movement”  the  distressed  craft 
tries  to  regain  its  bearings. 

Another  reason  for  this  lack  of  adjustment  lies  in  the  difficulty  of 
the  educational  process.  A new  machine  is  easily  installed.  A 
mechanical  improvement  can  readily  be  tested.  Not  so  the  infinitely 
subtle  machinery  of  the  mind.  A well-known  psychologist  frankly 
admitted  that  in  regard  to  many  aspects  of  the  educational  problem 
psychology  is  as  silent  as  a sphinx.  Scientific  pedagogy  is  only  in 
its  infancy.  It  will  be  found  that  in  most  cases  the  successful  teacher, 
cautioned  of  course  by  scientific  study  against  obvious  blunders,  rises 
on  the  basis  of  sympathy  and  tact  to  the  experimental  acquisition  of 
a satisfactory  technique.  But  all  experimenting  takes  time.  Unless 
undertaken  with  the  utmost  care,  it  is  almost  sure  to  mean  educa- 
tional waste.  To  this  should  be  added  the  fact  that  the  average 
teacher  holds  office  for  a short  period  only  and  that  many  schools 
have  practically  new  faculties  every  year.  The  new  and  inexpe- 
rienced teacher  either  follows  the  rut  left  by  his  predecessors  or 
indulges  in  experimentation  of  a more  or  less  doubtful  character. 
Only  a small  percentage  of  secondary  teachers  have  specialized  in 
their  work  sufficiently  to  become  really  creative. 

Thus  we  have  a constant  oscillation  from  stagnation  to  frantic 
reform.  And  it  is  difficult  to  determine  which  is  more  amusing: 
The  abyssal,  cocksure  self-complacency  of  the  orthodox  old-timer,  or 
the  innocent  glee  of  the  reformer  who  announces  a new  patent  rem- 
edy for  all  educational  ills.  What  we  really  need  is  a less  jerky  and 
erratic  development,  less  dangerous  stagnation  and  more  genuine 
progress. 

PURPOSE  OF  THIS  REPORT. 

The  present  inquiry  was  undertaken  with  a view  to  answering  the 
following  questions: 

(1)  Are  the  results  obtained  in  the  teaching  of  secondary  mathe- 
matics satisfactory  ? 

(2)  If  not,  is  mathematics  taught  more  poorly  than  other  high- 
school  subjects  ? 

(3)  In  case  it  is  taught  as  well,  and  yet  the  results  are  poor,  what 
general  or  specific  causes  of  failure  can  be  pointed  out  ? 

(4)  What  remedies  can  be  suggested  ? 


96 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


METHOD  OF  INVESTIGATION. 

The  subcommittee  first  sent  out  about  120  circular  letters.  These 
brought  about  40  replies.  Then  a somewhat  modified  form  of  the 
first  circular  was  sent  out  to  a large  number  of  high  schools  by  the 
committee  on  public  high  schools,  of  which  this  subcommittee  is  a 
part.  This  second  effort  resulted  in  more  than  80  additional  replies, 
bringing  the  total  up  to  about  125.  A detailed  summary  of  these 
answers  will  be  found  at  the  end  of  this  report.  Many  important 
educational  centers  responded  splendidly,  especially  New  York  and 
Philadelphia.  It  appears  from  these  answers  that  the  teachers  of 
mathematics  do  not  believe  that  their  subject  is  taught  more  poorly 
than  other  secondary  subjects. 

A second  source  of  information  was  furnished  to  the  committee  by 
the  statistics  of  two  examining  bodies,  the  Regents  of  the  State  of 
New  York  and  the  College  Entrance  Examination  Board.  It  may 
be  argued  with  perfect  candor,  of  course,  that  examinations  are  a 
very  unreliable  criterion  of  pedagogic  conditions,  and  that  examina- 
tion results  are  often  inversely  proportional  to  good  teaching.  How- 
ever, these  results  will  furnish  some  comparative  data  of  great  value. 
Hence  we  feel  justified  in  submitting  the  subsequent  statistical  tables. 

In  the  third  place,  we  must  mention  the  many  valuable  contribu- 
tions to  a solution  of  our  problem  in  the  educational  literature  of  the 
past  10  years,  in  the  reports  of  associations  of  teachers,  etc.  So  vast 
is  this  material  that  the  committee  assimilated  only  a small  portion 
of  it.  Excellent  reports  and  discussions  may  be  found  in  recent 
volumes  of  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  the  School  Review,  the 
Mathematics  Teacher,  etc.  It  can  not  be  said  that  the  comments 
found  in  these  journals  are  altogether  reassuring.  There  is  constant 
complaint  of  educational  waste  and  inefficiency. 

STATISTICS  OF  FAILURES. 

The  records  of  the  Regents’  Examinations  and  those  of  the  College 
Entrance  Board  (for  statistics,  see  Appendix),  seem  indubitably  to 
warrant  the  following  conclusions: 

(1)  Mathematics  is  not  taught  more  poorly  than  other  secondary 
branches. 

(2)  The  results  are  not  satisfactory.  The  second  conclusion  would 
be  even  more  obvious  if  the  percentage  of  failures  included  the  pupils 
who  dropped  out  during  their  course,  i.  e.,  if  it  were  based  on  the 
initial  registration  of  the  school.  Evidently  from  40  to  50  per  cent  of 
all  students  pursuing  mathematical  work  in  secondary  schools  do  not 
complete  their  work  satisfactorily,  if  examinations  can  be  trusted  to 
determine  the  pupil’s  mental  equipment. 

Views  of  individuals. — Having  considered  the  objective  verdict  of 
statistical  records,  we  turn  now  to  the  more  or  less  subjective  views  of 


FAILURES  IN  TECHNIQUE.  97 

individual  teachers  and  schools.  Dr.  N.  J.  Lennes  writes  (The 
Mathematics  Teacher,  March,  1909): 

One  of  the  most  obvious  facts  about  mathematics  in  our  secondary  schools  is  a very 
general  dissatisfaction  which  is  expressed  on  all  sides.  There  is  an  alarming  number 
of  failures,  especially  in  the  first  year  of  the  high  school,  which  argues  that  the  pupils 
do  not  find  the  subject  suited  to  their  tastes  and  capacities.  Instructors  in  the  colleges 
and  universities  rarely  miss  an  opportunity  for  declaring  that  their  students  come 
poorly  prepared.  The  programs  of  teachers’  meetings  and  the  tables  of  contents  of 
pedagogical  journals  are  teeming  with  titles  which  assume  that  something  is  wrong. 

The  college  side  of  the  question  is  discussed  at  some  length  in  the 
Cornell  Register  (1909-10,  p.  43).  After  stating  tha  , the  prepara- 
tory work  in  mathematics  should  equip  the  student  with  (1)  a “cer- 
tain degree  of  mathematical  maturity,”  (2)  “an  accurate  and  ready 
knowledge’’  of  specific  facts,  it  continues  as  follows: 

On  the  other  hand,  most  students  who  fail  in  their  university  mathematics  fail 
because  they  are  poorly  equipped  in  the  second  requirement  above  mentioned.  For 
example,  they  can  not  perform  the  ordinary  operations  of  algebra  either  rapidly  or 
accurately,  they  do  not  know  the  theory  of  quadratic  equations,  they  are  lost  among 
trigonometric  formulas,  and  they  blunder  when  they  use  logarithms.  Instead  of 
spending  their  time  and  energy  upon  their  new  work,  they  must  spend  much  of  it  in 
studying  up  those  things  with  which  they  ought  to  be  familiar,  and  thus  handicapped 
they  can  not  keep  up  the  pace  set  by  men  who  are  properly  prepared,  and  they  can 
not  do  the  work  that  must  be  done  to  fit  them  for  the  professional  work  that  follows. 

It  is  not  sufficient  that  the  student  should  once  have  known  his  preparatory  mathe- 
matical subjects;  he  must  know  them  at  the  time  when  he  begins  his  work  here.  It 
seems  absolutely  essential,  therefore,  that  these  subjects  be  very  carefully  reviewed 
just  prior  to  entrance. 

The  general  dissatisfaction  referred  to  above  has  induced  some 
alarmists  to  put  mathematics  on  the  list  of  elective  subjects.  How 
characteristic  a blunder!  As  if  mathematics,  the  foundation  par 
excellence  of  our  scientific  era,  could  by  a mere  stroke  of  the  pen 
become  an  optional  study,  merely  because  many  teachers  do  not 
know  how  to  make  it  palatable,  or  because  our  ill-arranged  curricula 
can  not  accomplish  wonders,  or  because  so  many  of  our  boys  and 
girls  have  been  allowed  to  follow  the  line  of  least  resistance.  For  a 
discussion  of  this  elective  tendency  we  must  refer  to  the  Third  Report 
of  the  Association  of  Mathematical  Teachers  in  New  England  (Boston, 
1906). 

CAUSES  OF  FAILURE— PRELIMINARY  ANALYSIS. 

If  we  turn  now  to  a consideration  of  the  causes  of  failure,  it  becomes 
at  once  apparent  that  our  problem  is  both  general  and  specific. 
General,  in  that  mathematics  is  not  alone  in  its  inferior  results,  a fact 
proved  beyond  dispute  by  statistics.  Specific,  in  that  we  must 
determine  the  particular  aspects  which  this  general  deficiency  assumes 
in  the  mathematical  classroom,  as  well  as  the  particular  remedies  that 
mathematics  may  offer  for  overcoming  the  general  weakness.  The 
9560°— 11 7 


98 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


individual  teacher,  when  confronted  by  a large  number  of  failures, 
rarely  takes  a sufficiently  broad  view  of  the  situation.  In  some  cases 
he  frankly  blames  his  own  limited  preparation,  his  prosaic  and  unin- 
teresting methods,  his  lack  of  enthusiasm.  Usually  it  is  the  pupils 
who  are  condemned  in  toto,  or  it  is  the  school  system  or  any  number 
of  other  factors. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  nearly  every  high  school  subject  is  taught 
with  clearer  perception  of  its  aim,  methods,  and  content  than  a gener- 
ation ago.  It  is  even  claimed  by  some  that  results  are  better  than 
formerly.  (Cf.  Report  on  the  Norwich  tests,  School  Review,  May, 
1910.)  If  in  spite  of  this  improvement  and  this  increased  effort  our 
expectations  are  so  poorly  realized,  must  we  not  first  of  all  look  for 
underlying  causes  and  conditions  beyond  the  control  of  the  average 
teacher  or  even  the  average  school  ? 

It  has  been  said  over  and  over  again  that  we  are  living  in  a transi- 
tion period.  Old  standards  are  being  replaced  by  uncertainty  and 
scepticism.  Education  is  powerfully  affected  by  this  general  unrest. 
Hence,  any  consideration  of  the  causes  of  failure  would  be  incomplete 
and  meaningless  without  a study — however  brief  and  imperfect — of 
the  influences  that  are  transforming  our  educational  sytem. 

TRANSFORMING  INFLUENCES  IN  EDUCATION. 

For  a brief  summary  of  the  present  tendencies  in  education  we 
may  refer  to  a paper  read  by  the  chairman  of  this  committee  at  the 
Cleveland  meeting  of  the  N.  E.  A.  (published  in  School  Science  and 
Mathematics,  November,  1908).  The  following  quotations  are  taken 
from  it: 

1.  In  the  first  place,  modern  industrialism,  with  its  demand  for  tangible  success, 
has  led  to  a great  outcry  for  more  practical  school  work.  There  is  an  increasing  con- 
tempt of  “mere  theory.”  This  feeling  finds  its  expression  in  the  establishment  of 
trade  and  technical  schools.  Mathematics,  as  usually  taught,  furnishes  a welcome 
target  to  the  utilitarian  educator.  As  a result  there  is  a growing  fear  that  we  may 
drift  too  far  from  the  ideal  of  liberal  culture  and  that  the  direct  bread-winning  power 
of  a subject  may  be  made  the  sole  criterion  of  its  usefulness. 

2.  Our  large  cities,  the  natural  centers  of  industry,  are  also  becoming  great  centers 
of  population.  Naturally  the  struggle  for  existence  is  becoming  keener.  Many 
parents  are  now  sending  their  children  to  the  high  school  to  fit  them,  in  the  briefest 
possible  time,  for  a more  comfortable  life  than  they  themselves  enjoy.  This  has  made 
the  high  school  population  more  diversified  than  ever  before,  and  the  demands  im- 
posed upon  the  schools  have  become  more  numerous  from  year  to  year.  For  the  first 
time  in  history , secondary  education  is  truly  democratic.  But  it  can  not  be  denied  that 
the  assimilation  of  so  much  raw  material  from  homes  giving  no  cultural  impulses,  and 
of  so  many  students  having  no  intention  of  entering  higher  institutions  of  learning, 
is  one  of  the  most  serious  problems  of  the  high  school. 

3.  More  far-reaching  than  these  changes  of  ideal  and  environment  have  been  cer- 
tain revolutions  in  school  curricula  and  methods  of  instruction.  The  natural  sciences 
have  risen  from  comparative  obscurity  to  great  prominence.  Their  inductive  method 
of  investigation  is  considered  by  many  as  the  great  panacea  for  all  our  troubles.  The 


FAILURES  IN  TECHNIQUE. 


99 


influence  of  the  laboratory  method  is  undeniable.  It  is  reacting,  for  example,  on  the 
teaching  of  history  and  the  languages.  In  so  far  as  it  insists  on  self-reliance  and  defi- 
niteness of  results  and  is  productive  of  greater  interest,  it  is  excellent.  But  it  lengthens 
school  hours,  calls  for  costly  equipment,  and  demands  much  outside  work  on  the  part 
of  pupil  and  teacher. 

4.  It  would  be  difficult,  moreover,  to  overestimate  the  effect  of  the  “new  education.” 
Its  fundamental  precept  that  all  work  must  be  arranged  psychologically  and  adapted 
strictly  to  the  child’s  power  of  comprehension  is  eminently  sound.  But  it  has  also 
given  us  the  enriched  curriculum,  and  the  doctrine  of  interest  which  replaces  all 
objective  standards  by  the  subjective  attitude  of  the  child.  Unquestionably  this 
means  at  once  a distinct  advance  and  a very  real  source  of  danger.  The  complaint  is 
not  infrequent  that  in  many  cases  the  young  are  learning  to  depend  too  much  upon 
the  inspirational  powers  of  the  teacher,  that  all  real  difficulties  are  carefully  avoided, 
and  that  the  very  aim  of  all  true  education,  to  develop  a strong  character  and  to  create 
self-activity  and  initiative,  is  thereby  defeated. 

During  the  past  five  years  we  have  heard  much  of  the  social  function  of  the  school. 
Playgrounds,  evening  schools,  social  centers,  school  clubs,  a multitutde  of  new  school 
activities,  claim  the  attention  of  teachers  and  pupils.  A prominent  professor  kindly 
informed  us  that  until  exercises  in  spelling,  mental  arithmetic,  and  formal  grammar 
should  have  become  merely  incidental  and  subsidiary,  the  high-water  mark  in  teach- 
ing would  not  have  been  reached.  It  is  exaggerations  of  this  sort  that  rob  many  other- 
wise excellent  ideas  of  their  legitimate  influence  and  place  upon  them  the  stigma 
of  the  faddist. 

A corollary  of  this  new  gospel  of  social  efficiency  is  the  new 
doctrine  of  mental  discipline.  Although  not  yet  clearly  formulated, 
its  main  contentions  are : (1)  That  mental  discipline  as  ordinarily  con- 
ceived is  a myth,  in  the  sense  that  no  “general  training”  is  to  be 
derived  from  the  intensive  study  of  one  or  more  subjects,  such  as 
Latin,  algebra,  etc.;  (2}  that  the  disciplinary  value  of  a subject  is  a 
function  of  the  interest  which  it  inspires  and  of  the  motive  guiding  the 
student;  (3)  that  the  cultural  value  of  a subject  depends  on  the  extent 
to  which  that  subject  can  be,  and  actually  is,  linked  with  the  activities 
and  the  thought  content  of  real  life.  In  this  way  the  old  static,  historic, 
idealistic  conception  of  mental  discipline  is  being  replaced  by  a 
dynamic,  realistic,  practical  view.  (Cf.  Formal  Discipline,  by  C.  J.  C. 
Bennett,  in  Teachers  College  Series,  Columbia  University.) 

It  is  not  so  much  this  new  theory  itself,  as  the  hasty  inferences 
drawn  from  it  by  superficial  minds  that  we  must  regard  as  danger- 
ous. In  the  first  place,  it  requires  no  proof  that  the  mere  completion, 
however  mechanical  and  stereotyped,  of  so  much  “prescribed”  Latin 
or  mathematics  does  not  make  an  educated  person.  It  is  equally 
true  that  not  all  boys  and  girls  find  the  old  school  subjects  profitable, 
and  for  a certain  number  of  them  industrial  or  commercial  studies 
are  preferable.  This  proves  nothing  concerning  the  presence  or 
absence  of  inherent  disciplinary  value  in  the  present  curriculum. 
The  early  and  onesided  introduction  of  professionalism,  no  matter 
how  successfully  managed,  is  always  deplorable.  Wherever  it 
becomes  imperative,  it  should  be  looked  upon  as  a necessary  evil. 


100  MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

For  “it  is  difference  in  culture,  far  more  than  difference  in  wealth  or 
position,  which  separates  man  from  man,  and  class  from  class.’ ’ 
The  blending  of  liberal  education  and  technical  training  is  the  su- 
preme educational  problem  of  our  day.  In  Europe  it  has  been  solved 
by  a differentiation  of  schools.  America  may  have  to  follow  that 
plan.  Secondly,  the  new  theory  of  discipline  does  not  imply  the 
cultural  equivalence  of  all  subjects.  On  the  contrary,  it  demolishes 
that  view  completely.  If  it  can  be  shown  that  mathematics  can  be 
linked  with  a larger  range  of  actual  thought  processes  and  activities 
than  typewriting  or  bookkeeping,  for  example,  then  the  greater  dis- 
ciplinary value  of  mathematics  will  have  been  established.  Hence, 
instead  of  crowding  out  the  “old  studies,”  the  new  conception  of 
mental  discipline  simply  gives  a better  criterion  for  testing  their 
value  and  should  have  the  effect  of  securing  better  training. 

Last,  not  least,  the  mathematical  curriculum  has  been  affected 
powerfully  by  two  other,  mutually  opposing,  forces.  The  Perry 
movement,  a direct  outgrowth  of  the  trend  toward  more  practical 
mathematics,  aims  to  abolish  from  the  course  all  unnecessary  details 
and  to  substitute  experimental  verification  for  logical  deduction. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  tremendous  progress  of  scientific  research, 
effected  by  men  like  Pasch,  Peano,  Klein,  Hilbert,  Veronese,  Poin- 
care, has  called  attention  to  the  many  flaws  in  the  logic  of  our  text- 
books and  has  given  new  impetus  to  the  demand  for  genuine  mathe- 
matical rigor. 

GENERAL  CAUSES  OF  FAILURE. 

All  these  transforming  influences  if  overlooked  or  ignored  by  the 
teacher  may  become  prolific  sources  of  failure.  The  constant 
shifting  of  the  educational  background  demands  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  sound  judgment,  quick  insight,  wide  traming,  and  the 
capacity  for  sane,  conservative,  readjustment.  The  new  situation 
makes  each  educational  factor  both  an  active  and  a passive  partici- 
pant in  the  educational  process.  The  latter  distinction  is  important, 
as  it  should  save  many  teachers  from  unnecessary  discouragement. 
We  shall  proceed  to  examine  briefly  the  principal  educational  factors 
as  causes  of  failure,  either  in  an  active  or  in  a passive  role. 

1.  The  Teacher. 

Granted  that  the  teacher  meets  all  the  obvious  preliminary  require- 
ments, such  as  a strong  and  yet  sympathetic  personality,  tact, 
enthusiasm,  he  nevertheless  frequently  becomes  a serious  cause  of 
failure  through  any  one  of  the  following  factors : 

(1)  Lack  of  'professional  preparation. — This  is  perhaps  the  most 
vital  and  distressing  point  of  weakness  in  American  secondary 
education.  The  only  hopeful  thing  about  it  is  that  we  are  beginning 


FAILURES  IN  TECHNIQUE. 


101 


to  feel  this  weakness.  Much  pounding  was  required  to  rouse  us. 
At  first  it  was  the  foreign  critic,  or  the  acclimated  American,  who  put 
his  finger  on  the  sore.  Who  has  not  read  Prof.  Miinsterberg’s 
scathing  criticisms?  And  now  every  number  of  the  educational 
magazines  sings  the  same  melody.  “Wanted — a teacher,”  exclaimed 
James  H.  Canfield,  of  Columbia  University,  10  years  ago  (Educa- 
tional Review,  December,  1900).  Some  reported  cases  of  profes- 
sional ignorance  seem  almost  incredible.  Time  was  when  everybody 
thought  he  could  teach  everything.  This  miserable  Jacotot  fallacy 
gradually  dominated  American  education,  because  it  harmonized  so 
splendidly  with  the  American  spirit  of  self-activity  and  independence. 
Mr.  E.  George  Payne,  in  a report  published  by  the  Kentucky  Depart- 
ment of  Education,  1909,  tells  of  a young  woman  who  planned  to 
make  her  entire  preparation  to  teach  German  in  “one  of  the  leading 
high  schools”  in  Kentucky  by  spending  six  weeks  on  the  subject  at  a 
summer  school.  Then  he  says,  “I  insist  that  90  per  cent  of  those 
attempting  to  teach  the  modern  languages  in  the  American  schools, 
especially  in  the  Kentucky  schools,  do  not  perform  better  work  than 
this  lady  did  in  first-year  German.”  (See  School  Review,  June, 
1910,  p.  433.)  Shocking,  if  true.  New  York  State  three  years  ago 
had  only  32.2  per  cent  of  college  graduates  among  its  4,668  secondary 
teachers.  This  means  that  the  remaining  number  had  only  the 
equivalent  of  a high-school  education  in  mathematics.  Their  horizon 
was  only  a little  above  that  of  their  pupils.  How  many  high-school 
teachers  of  mathematics  at  the  present  day  have  ever  studied  analyt- 
ics, not  to  speak  of  the  calculus  ? How  many  have  ever  seen  Crystal’s 
Algebra,  or  Hilbert’s  Foundations  of  Geometry,  or  have  read  the 
pedagogical  works  of  Smith  or  Young  ? All  honor  to  the  noble  men 
and  women  who,  in  spite  of  serious  handicaps,  have  done  good  work. 
But  every  effort  should  be  made  from  now  on  by  individuals  and  by 
schools  to  secure  better  professional  equipment. 

(2)  Lack  of  'professional  contact. — Owing  to  the  vast  extent  of  the 
country  it  has  been  hard  to  develop  esprit  de  corps  outside  of  the  big 
centers.  Departmental  organization  in  the  large  schools  was  the 
first  step  in  the  right  direction.  Associations  of  teachers  soon  fol- 
lowed, and  any  ambitious  teacher  can  now  make  it  possible  to  meet 
his  colleagues  at  the  educational  gatherings.  For  those  who  can  not 
go  to  these  meetings  the  printed  reports  published  in  the  new  mathe- 
matical journals  furnish  a substitute.  Lack  of  contact  has  been  and 
still  is  a great  source  of  stagnation.  Let  us  hope  it  may  speedily  be 
removed. 

(3)  Overwork. — It  need  hardly  be  said  that  any  teacher  who  has 
more  than  25  periods  a week  of  required  work  can  not  do  that  work 
effectively.  Entirely  indefensible  is  the  practice  of  loading  on  a 
teacher  three  or  four  different  subjects,  especially  if  they  are  entirely 


102 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


“out  of  her  line.”  Careless,  half-hearted,  indifferent  teaching  or 
incessant  worry  is  the  inevitable  result  in  most  cases.  Many  classes 
are  altogether  too  large.  We  hear  so  much  about  individual  instruc- 
tion and  personal  attention  and  yet  expect  a teacher  to  inspire  40 
young  people  at  a time.  So  long  as  these  conditions  prevail  to  any 
considerable  extent  no  improvement  can  follow. 

(4)  Short  and  unstable  tenure  of  office. — Another  very  real  source  of 
failure:  There  is  altogether  too  much  shifting  of  positions.  It  takes 
several  years  to  grow  into  a new  position.  A teacher  who  finds  herself 
at  a different  school  every  two  or  three  years  can  not  expect  to  be  of 
great  service  to  that  school.  A very  large  number  of  teachers  drop 
out  every  year,  either  to  be  married  or  to  begin  a different  occupation. 
At  the  1909  meeting  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science  Prof.  William  C.  Ruediger,  of  George  Washington 
University,  presented  the  results  of  some  investigations  of  the  qual- 
ities of  merit  in  teachers.  He  claimed  that  the  best  teachers  had 
taught  an  average  of  H years  and  the  poorest  8 years.  No  teacher 
who  ranked  first  or  second  had  taught  less  than  5 years.  (See 
Science,  for  Apr.  15,  1910.)  The  shortness  of  the  average  teacher’s 
service  is  due  largely  to  the  appallingly  low  salaries  and  to  the  uncer- 
tainty of  tenure  of  office.  Salaries  often  are  not  up  to  the  standard 
of  even  the  street  laborer.  No  great  improvement  in  teaching  need 
be  expected  until  we  shall  have  (1)  better  salaries,  (2)  permanent 
appointment  after  a limited  trial  period,  (3)  a pension  guarantee  after 
a fixed  term  of  service. 

2.  The  Pupil. 

So  long  as  human  nature  is  imperfect  the  problem  of  the  pupil 
will  remain  with  us,  especially  during  the  critical  period  of  adoles- 
cence. However,  many  of  the  difficulties  besetting  the  teacher 
would  all  but  disappear  if  it  were  not  for  the  following  great  causes 
of  failure: 

(1)  Immaturity. — This  is  an  entirely  indefensible  factor,  in  view 
of  the  work  done  in  European  schools  by  pupils  of  the  same  age. 
The  enrollment  of  the  Chicago  public  schools  in  January,  1909, 
showed  the  following  arrangement  of  ages: 


High  school. 

Ages. 

Total. 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20+ 

First-year  pupils 

2 

0 

45 

2 

708 

47 

2,291 

467 

2,104 

1,236 

1,045 

1,062 

257 

532 

60 

159 

14 

27 

19 

14 

6,555 

3,546 

Second-year  pupils 

(2)  Lack  of  preparation. — A large  majority  of  the  teachers  report- 
ing to  us  emphasized  this  point.  It  seems  that  our  elementary 
schools  either  find  the  problem  of  democratic  education  too  big  a 


FAILURES  IN  TECHNIQUE. 


103 


task  or  use  methods  that  do  not  produce  lasting  results.  A very 
large  percentage  of  children  do  not  complete  the  school  course 
(Chicago,  1909:  First  grade,  38,239;  eighth  grade,  14,795). 

(3)  Aimlessness. — The  “ life-career  motive,”  discussed  by  President 
Eliot  at  the  1910  meeting  of  the  National  Education  Association,  is 
becoming  more  essential  in  proportion  as  increased  competition 
demands  greater  technical  or  professional  equipment.  Altogether 
too  many  pupils  have  no  dominant  purpose  that  might  keep  them 
at  work.  A moderate  vocational  tendency  may  prove  a partial 
remedy,  although  it  would  be  a grievous  mistake  to  make  vocational 
studies  the  sole  basis  of  our  secondary  education. 

(4)  Social  diversions. — Pupils  must,  of  course,  have  a certain 
amount  of  relaxation.  But  many  pupils  have  too  much  fun,  too 
much  athletics  of  the  grand-stand  type,  too  many  social  functions. 
They  often  develop  the  habits  of  grown-ups,  become  priggish,  domi- 
neering, sluggish,  and  incapable  of  persistent  effort.  Lack  of  home 
training  is  responsible  for  much  of  this.  A real  educational  crusade 
must  be  begun  to  convince  parents  of  the  necessity  of  careful  moral 
and  social  training  of  their  children.  The  increasing  agitation 
against  fraternities  and  athletics  is  a welcome  indication  of  a sound 
reaction  against  the  social  evils  of  the  high  school. 

3.  High-School  Organization. 

The  fact  is  that  the  high  school  has  outgrown  its  present  form  of 
organization.  It  is  sinning  every  moment  against  the  law  that  two 
material  bodies  can  not  occupy  the  same  space  at  the  same  time. 
It  loses  a tremendous  number  of  its  pupils  (Chicago,  1909:  First 
year,  6,555;  fourth  year,  1,467).  Those  who  graduate  have  an 
education  that  must  be  pronounced  both  unsymmetric  and  super- 
ficial. 

(1)  Lack  of  symmetry. — This  defect  is  apparent  not  only  in  the 
curriculum  as  a whole,  but  is  felt  in  nearly  every  subject,  especially 
in  mathematics,  history,  and  science.  The  average  liigh-school 
graduate  can  at  best  solve  an  ordinary  quadratic  equation  or  ana- 
lyze a simple  geometric  problem.  The  geometry  of  solids  remains 
foreign  to  him,  the  most  helpful  trigonometric  relations  do  not  form 
part  of  his  equipment,  and,  above  all,  he  has  not  learned  to  apply 
his  mathematics  to  the  realities  of  life.  This  meager  outfit,  so  labo- 
riously acquired,  is  speedily  lost  because  It  is  not  broad  enough  to 
be  of  real  use. 

(2)  Lack  of  thoroughness. — President  Rush  Rhees,  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Rochester,  after  a year  abroad  devoted  to  a careful  inspection 
of  European  technical  schools,  stated  at  a recent  educational  meet- 
ing that  lack  of  thoroughness  is  the  most  widespread  defect  of  the 
educational  work  of  our  American  schools.  He  said  that  the  Amer- 


104 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


ican  educational  system  gives  intellectual  power,  but  fails  to  impart 
intellectual  life,  and  that  in  practical  work  it  fails  with  reference  to 
methods  of  study.  In  mathematics  all  these  defects  become  accen- 
tuated through  the  tandem  system — first  algebra,  then  geometry, 
then  a year  of  complete  interruption,  then  a review  of  entirely  for- 
gotten principles.  A fairly  good  algebraic  foundation  may  be  laid 
in  a year,  but  geometry  most  certainly  requires  more  time.  A 
comparison  of  the  percentage  of  failures  in  elementary  algebra  and 
plane  geometry  in  the  tables  of  the  appendix  shows  that  geometry 
is  less  successfully  taught  than  algebra,  although  the  poorest  pi  pils 
drop  out  at  the  end  of  the  first  year,  thus  leaving  a smaller  and  more 
mature  body  of  students. 

The  effort  to  make  the  elective  system  remedy  these  defects  may 
be  likened  to  an  attempt  to  cure  dyspepsia  with  liberal  doses  of 
olive  oil.  The  digestive  apparatus  would  probably  function  nor- 
mally if  proper  mastication  were  not  rendered  impossible  by  too 
rapid  and  ill-arranged  feeding.  The  group  system,  which  is  now 
being  substituted  for  an  excessive  elective  system,  will  secure  greater 
thoroughness,  but  not  necessarily  greater  symmetry.  Hence, 
unless  the  principle  of  a cosmopolitan  high  school  is  to  be  given  up 
and  vocational  schools  are  to  take  its  place  a different  remedy  must 
be  found. 

SPECIFIC  CAUSES  OF  FAILURE. 

Under  this  head  we  must  limit  ourselves  to  a brief  consideration 
of  the  aim,  the  content,  and  the  methods  of  secondary  mathematics 
teaching. 

Aim. — The  one-sided  doctrine  of  mental  discipline  must  go. 
There  need  not  be  any  antagonism  between  theory  and  practice. 
Neither  Euclid  alone  nor  Perry  alone  should  be  our  guide.  We 
ought  to  have  a fusion  of  the  abstract  and  the  concrete,  a fusion 
dictated  by  common  sense  and  free  from  radicalism  in  either  direc- 
tion. A teacher  who  dwells  exclusively  on  half-comprehended, 
nonproductive  subtleties  is  as  much  to  blame  as  one  who  empha- 
sizes merely  the  How  and  not  the  Why.  Heal  applications  should 
be  introduced  systematically,  but  the  acquisition  of  a satisfactory 
technique  must  not  be  allowed  to  suffer.  Much  of  the  indifference 
so  often  prevailing  in  mathematical  classrooms  would  disappear  if 
the  teachers  would  take  pains  to  make  x and  y talk  realities  and  if 
they  poured  some  life  blood  into  the  chimerical  formulas  of  geometry. 

Subject  matter. — In  very  many  classrooms  the  textbook  or  the 
syllabus  of  an  examining  body  seems  to  be  the  only  authority  for 
the  content  and  the  relative  prominence  of  the  topics  considered. 
Very  many  pupils  fail  to  get  the  right  point  of  view.  In  algebra 
the  whole  course  must  be  built  around  two  leading  ideas,  (1)  the 


FAILURES  IN  TECHNIQUE. 


105 


equation  as  a means  of  stating  and  solving  numerical  relations,  (2) 
the  development  of  the  number  system.  In  geometry  propositions 
should  be  arranged  topically,  and  theorems  having  small  inherent 
value  or  not  serving  as  building  stones  for  the  whole  system  should 
be  omitted.  The  teaching  of  incommensurables  and  limits  will  soon 
become  optional.  In  all  cases  the  “ thought  nodes  ” should  stand 
out  prominently  in  the  pupil’s  mind.  The  course  in  secondary 
mathematics  should  not  be  a monotonous  array  of  facts  stretching 
away  on  an  endless  wire,  but  a landscape  showing  a few  towering 
mountains  and  many  connecting  valleys. 

Method. — A discussion  of  method  is  always  dangerous,  for  here 
the  experienced  teacher  considers  himself  on  terra  firma.  It  would 
be  the  height  of  conceit,  however,  not  to  acknowledge  a connection 
between  our  poor  results  and  our  methods  of  instruction. 

1 . In  the  first  place,  our  school  hours  should  be  periods  of  instruc- 
tion, of  actual  thinking  and  doing,  and  not  merely  “ recitations.” 
There  is  no  doubt  that  the  “little  red  schoolhouse,”  with  its  insuffi- 
cient equipment,  is  responsible  for  the  plan  of  assigning  lessons  from 
a book  without  previous  classroom  discussion.  In  that  little  school 
such  a practice  was  a deplorable  necessity,  since  the  one  teacher  in 
charge  was  not  equal  to  the  task  of  instructing  many  classes  at  once, 
or  of  mastering  all  the  prescribed  subjects.  When  the  pupils  had 
done  their  “studying,”  they  were  kept  busy  at  the  board  or  were 
given  much  written  work  to  do.  In  this  way  the  textbook  and  the 
blackboard  gradually  usurped  the  place  of  the  teacher,  who  soon 
became  a lesson-hearing  automaton  registering  the  “marks.”  That 
which  at  first  had  been  a mere  makeshift,  finally  crystallized,  under 
the  misunderstood  maxims  of  Rousseau,  Frobel,  Jacotot,  into  a 
national  policy.  For  this  system  of  teaching  was  supposed  to  give 
full  play  to  the  development  of  individual  initiative,  of  self-activity, 
etc.  Thus  it  seemed  to  meet  all  the  requirements  of  an  ideal  educa- 
tion. Apparently  it  turned  out  self-made  men — and  it  was  cheap. 
How  many  slow  pupils  remained  submerged  forever  was  not  deter- 
mined. That  this  outgrowth  of  the  pioneer  days  of  the  country 
should  retain  so  much  of  its  power  in  the  modern  high  school  is  a 
new  proof  of  the  overwhelming  influence  of  Anglo-Saxon  conserva- 
tism. The  grotesqueness  of  the  idea  becomes  apparent  when  we 
imagine  Socrates  assigning  a lesson  from  Homer  to  Plato  or  Aristotle. 

2.  The  “recitations”  should  be  less  monotonous  and  less  mechan- 
ical. The  usual  procedure  consists  in  giving  a brief  explanation  of 
the  advanced  lesson,  then  sending  a large  number  of  pupils  to  the 
board,  where  they  consume  from  five  minutes  to  a whole  period.  In 
geometry  there  is  a little  more  variation.  It  has  been  said,  to  be 
sure,  that  mathematics  must  be  written  into  the  mind.  But  mechan- 
ical writing  is  useless.  First  the  thought,  then  the  symbol.  How 


106 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


little  real  thinking  excessive  written  work  often  represents  is  proved 
by  those  pupils  who  gat  splendid  marks  in  algebra  but  are  put  down 
as  hopeless  cases  in  geometry.  The  blackboard  is  a very  valuable 
piece  of  furniture,  but  it  should  be  reserved  for  reviews  or  snappy 
drill  work.  Some  teachers  have  very  good  success  with  a system  of 
cards,  kept  in  a filing  cabinet.  These  cards  are  given  out  to  pupils 
for  miscellaneous  blackboard  drill. 

3.  The  class,  and  not  the  individual,  should  be  the  working  unit. 
This  is  true  because  individual  instruction  is  usually  impossible. 
Training  a class  from  the  beginning  to  respond  in  a body  makes  for 
greater  economy  of  effort,  secures  more  uniform  results,  and  leaves 
time  for  applied  work  and  laboratory  methods.  This  is  the  real 
secret  of  the  excellent  results  obtained  in  many  European  schools. 
Every  teacher  of  mathematics  should  read  Prof.  J.  W.  A.  Young’s 
“The  Teaching  of  Mathematics  in  the  Schools  of  Prussia.”  Two 
members  of  this  committee  in  recent  years  made  a personal  compara- 
tive study  of  American  and  European  schools,  Mr.  Betz  in  Germany 
and  Miss  Wardwell  in  England.  A detailed  account  of  the  French 
system,  from  the  American  standpoint,  was  furnished  to  the  Roch- 
ester  section  of  the  Association  of  Teachers  in  the  Middle  States  and 
Maryland  by  Prof.  Etzel,  of  Rochester,  the  latter  having  taught 
more  than  two  decades  in  French  secondary  schools.  The  reports 
all  agree  in  finding  in  European  schools  greater  concentration  of 
effort,  as  well  as  greater  certainty  and  uniformity  of  good  training, 
although  these  results  are  perhaps  obtained  at  the  expense  of 
originality  and  spontaneity.  The  first  thing  that  astonishes  the 
American  visitor  is  the  small  blackboard  and  the  immense  amount 
of  oral  work.  A limited  use  of  the  Prussian  method  can  be  recom- 
mended unconditionally.  A number  of  American  teachers  have 
tried  it  and  speak  highly  of  it. 

And  yet,  no  method  can  possibly  take  the  place  of  a real  enthusi- 
astic teacher.  The  true  teacher  is  an  artist.  He  is  ever  watching 
for  improvementSc  He  is  not  dogmatic,  but  eclectic.  The  best 
thoughts  of  all  ages  and  climes  help  him  to  wield  an  influence  which, 
through  his  skillful  leadership,  produces  a satisfactory  harmony. 

REMEDIES. 

Throughout  this  report  remedies  have  been  considered  in  connec- 
tion with  the  causes  of  failure.  The  remedies  suggested  in  our 
questionnaire  were  all  received  favorably  by  the  teachers  except  the 
first,  which  called  for  “more  thorough  teaching  by  taking  more  time, 
e.  g.,  six-year  curriculum.”  Only  a small  number  expressed  an 
opinion  in  regard  to  it,  thus  indicating  that  the  plan  is  not  sufficiently 


FAILURES  IN  TECHNIQUE. 


107 


At  the  risk  of  some  repetition  we  propose  the  following  additional 
remedies : 

I.  A six-year  curriculum , to  begin  at  the  end  of  the  present  sixth 
grade. — Not  a single  valid  objection  can  be  urged  against  the  plan. 
The  present  cramped  curriculum  seriously  interferes  with — 

(1)  The  right  sort  of  approach  to  each  subject. 

(2)  Thoroughness  of  assimilation. 

(3)  Permanence  of  impressions. 

(4)  Applications  of  vital  interest  to  pupils. 

(5)  The  coordination  and  proper  sequence  of  studies. 

Many  other  reasons  may  be  presented  why  we  need  more  time 
than  formerly.  The  following  list  might  easily  be  extended : 

(1)  We  must  get  away  from  mechanical  textbook  teaching. 

(2)  The  prevalence  of  laboratory  methods  consumes  more  time. 
The  spirit  of  discovery  is  inconsistent  with  machine  routine. 

(3)  The  old  curriculum  paid  almost  no  attention  to  the  demands 
of  actual  life.  It  ignored  applications. 

(4)  The  requirements  of  the  higher  institutions  and  of  the  pro- 
fessions are  becoming  more  intensive  and  extensive. 

(5)  The  complexity  of  modern  life  furnishes  so  many  distractions 
to  the  young  student  that  more  thorough  teaching  and  more  reviews 
are  necessary  than  formerly. 

The  plan  has  been  tried  in  some  American  cities.  For  a detailed 
account  we  must  refer  to  the  report  of  subcommittee  8.  The  six-year 
curriculum  seems  to  solve  many  of  our  difficulties.  All  possible 
objections  should  be  removed  by  considerations  such  as  the  following: 

1.  It  has  been  tried  in  Europe.  In  England,  France,  and  Ger- 
many secondary  education  begins  much  earlier,  usually  at  the  age  of  9. 
This  long-continued,  unified  period  of  instruction,  administered  by 
carefully  prepared  teachers,  is  primarily  responsible  for  the  supremacy 
of  Europe  in  science  and — perhaps — in  foreign  commerce.  Excel- 
lent accounts  of  the  Prussian  system  may  be  found  in  the  above- 
named  book  of  Prof.  Young,  and  in  Prof.  Klein’s  Vortrage  fiber  den 
Mathematisclien  Unterricht  an  den  hoheren  Schulen  (Leipzig,  1907). 
A brief  resume  of  present-day  teaching  of  geometry  in  Europe  and 
America  is  given  in  A.  W.  Stamper’s  “A  History  of  the  Teaching 
of  Elementary  Geometry”  (Teachers  College,  Columbia  University, 
1909).  The  German  high-school  boy,  in  the  three  types  of  secondary 
schools,  is  given  a total  of  1,360,  1,680,  1,880  hours,  respectively,  of 
unified  mathematical  instruction.  This  work  is  compulsory,  and 
all  but  the  first  two  or  three  years  of  it  corresponds  to  secondary 
mathemathics  in  our  country;  so  that  960,  1,280,  1,480  hours,  respec- 
tively, are  given  to  secondary  mathematics.  Plane  geometry  extends 
over  a period  of  from  five  to  six  years;  solid  geometry  over  a period 


108  MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

of  four  years;  trigonometry,  four  years;  algebra,  six  years.1  Com- 
pare with  this  our  less  than  200  algebra  periods  and  200  geometry 
periods.  A pupil  who  takes  four  years  of  mathematics  in  our  high 
schools  gets  a maximum  of  less  than  800  periods  of  instruction, 
while  the  German  minimum  is  960. 

2.  A six-year  curriculum  will  secure  closer  contact  with  the  ele- 
mentary schools. 

3.  There  is  no  reason  why  our  educational  system  should  not  con- 
sist of  three  periods  of  equal  length — primary  (6-12),  secondary 
(13-18),  higher  (19-24). 

4.  In  a more  extended  secondary  course  it  will  be  easier  to  discover 
a pupil’s  special  aptitudes. 

5.  The  proper  psychological  moment  for  teaching  certain  subjects, 
e.  g.,  modern  languages,  can  be  utilized. 

6.  An  increasing  number  of  pupils  find  it  impossible  to  complete 
the  present  course  in  four  years.  Instead  of  compelling  them  to  fail 
and  drop  out,  we  could  adapt  the  work  better  to  their  capacity. 

7.  The  six-year  curriculum  offers  the  only  hope  of  overcoming  the 
tandem  system.  All  efforts  to  secure  unified  mathematical  instruc- 
tion have  been  useless  under  existing  conditions. 

II.  The  mathematics  teachers  of  the  future  must  lay  a much 
broader  foundation  in  their  own  preparation.  No  candidate  lacking 
a knowledge  of  the  rudiments  of  trigonometry,  analytics,  the  calcu- 
lus, and  elementary  mechanics,  ought  to  be  appointed  to  a high-school 
position  in  mathematics.  A familiarity  with  surveying  and  shop 
work  is  also  very  desirable.  Salaries  must  be  made  sufficiently  high 
to  justify  tins  increased  requirement. 

III.  There  must  be  more  expert  supervision.  This  should  not 
be  of  the  nature  of  petty  fault-finding,  but  should  be  administered 
with  a spirit  of  cooperation  and  inspiration.  The  experience  of  other 
countries  justifies  the  belief  that  this  is  a much  more  effective  method 
of  stimulating  teachers  to  better  efforts  than  our  periodic  examina- 
tions, which  frequently  seem  to  be  narrow  and  pedantic,  and  to  select 
incidentals  rather  than  essentials. 

CONCLUSION. 

It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  many  of  our  educational  troubles 
are  fundamentally  due  to  weaknesses  in  human  nature.  Hence  our 
aim  in  tins  report  has  been  to  avoid  mere  bickering  and  to  retain  a 
broad  outlook  upon  the  educational  situation  in  its  entirety.  Whether 
we  have  succeeded  in  this  or  not  we  must  leave  to  the  judgment  of 
the  reader. 


i It  is  of  course  necessary  to  remember  that  ordinarily  four  weekly  periods  are  devoted  to  unified 
mathematics,  not  to  algebra  or  geometry  alone. 


APPENDIX 


Reports  of  Regents  Examinations. 


Table  I. — Examination  of  papers. 


English,  first  year. . 

Latin,  first  year 

Elementary  algebra. 
German,  first  year. . 

Caesar 

Geometry 


English,  first  year. . 

Latin,  first  year 

Elementary  algebra. 
German,  first  year. . 

Caesar 

Geometry 


English,  first  year. . 

Latin,  first  year 

Elementary  algebra. 
German,  first  year. . 

Caesar 

Geometry 


English,  first  year. . 
Latin,  first  year. . . . 
Elementary  algebra. 
German,  first  year. . 

Caesar 

Geometry 


English,  first  year. . 

Latin,  first  year 

Elementary  algebra. 
German,  first  year. . 

Caesar 

Geometry 


English,  first  year.. 

Latin,  first  year 

Elementary  algebra. 
German,  first  year . . 

Caesar 

Geometry 


English,  first  year. . 

Latin,  first  year 

Elementary  algebra. 
German,  first  year. . 

Caesar 

Geometry 


English,  first  year. . 

Latin,  first  year 

Elementary  algebra. 
German,  first  year. . 

Caesar 

Geometry 


Subject. 


1898. 


1899. 


1901. 


1902. 


1903. 


1904. 


1905. 


Papers 

examined. 

Papers 

passed. 

Percentage 

passed. 

2,561 

1,116 

43.6 

10,451 

5,901 

56.5 

15, 166 

10,543 

69.5 

5,382 

3,936 

73.1 

4,351 

3,264 

75.0 

9,028 

4,908 

54.4 

3,424 

1,554 

45.3 

10,293 

5,853 

56.9 

14,234 

8,784 

61.7 

5,895 

4,641 

87.7 

4,578 

3,343 

74.8 

10, 112 

6,007 

59.4 

4,974 

2,435 

49.0 

11,312 

6,351 

56.1 

16,320 

10,226 

62.7 

6,582 

4,542 

69.0 

5, 198 

2,854 

54.9 

9,958 

5,048 

50.7 

6, 484 

3, 156 

48.  i 

11,887 

6,885 

57.9 

17,085 

10,895 

63.8 

6,977 

4,536 

65.0 

6,361 

4,610 

72.4 

11,067 

6,656 

60.1 

8,878 

4,549 

51.2 

12, 185 

7,565 

62.1 

18,416 

13,380 

72.7 

7,368 

5,228 

71.0 

6,160 

4,293 

69.7 

11,030 

6,671 

60.5 

10,823 

5,568 

51.5 

11,848 

7,899 

66.7 

17,148 

10, 944 

63.8 

7,146 

4, 303 

60.2 

6,807 

4,702 

69.1 

11,970 

6,941 

58.0 

12,957 

8,250 

63.7 

11,997 

7,091 

59.1 

17,773 

11,672 

65.7 

7,882 

5,506 

69.9 

7,044 

4,880 

69.3 

11,697 

7,296 

62.4 

15,370 

8,737 

56.8 

12,  490 

6, 409 

51.3 

18, 717 

12,005 

64.1 

8,286 

5,431 

65.5 

7,247 

4,269 

58.9 

12,575 

6,998 

55.7 

109 


110 


MATHEMATICS  1 1ST  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Table  I. — Examination  of  papers — Continued. 


Subject. 


1906. 

English,  first  year 

Latin,  first  year 

Elementary  algebra 

German,  first  year 

Caesar 

Geometry. 


1907. 1 

English,  first  year 

Latin,  first  year 

Elementary  algebra 

German,  first  year 

Caesar 

Geometry : 


1908. 

English,  first  year 

Latin,  first  year 

Elementary  algebra 

German,  first  year 

Caesar 

Geometry 


1909. 

English,  first  year 

Latin,  first  year 

Elementary  algebra 

German,  first  year 

Caesar 

Geometry 


Papers 

examined. 

Papers 

passed. 

Percentage 

passed. 

17,758 

10,920 

65.1 

11,642 

6, 776 

58.2 

19, 772 

14, 187 

.71.7 

7, 473 

5, 384 

72.1 

7,277 

5,430 

74.6 

11,262 

5,825 

51.7 

13, 186 

68.6 

8,509 

60.9 

16,380 

84.5 

4,819 

86.1 

5,613 

79.0 

7,994 

78.8 

21,202 

62.3 

13,977 

56.0 

26, 426 

64.2 

8,521 

84.0 

11,629 

60.3 

16,805 

62.4 

26, 335 

80.0 

17,641 

62.0 

31,639 

74.4 

9,716 

74.4 

12,776 

73.1 

18,562 

64.3 

1 In  this  year  transition  was  made  from  pass  mark  75  per  cent  to  60  per  cent. 


Table  II. — Summary  of  pre-academic  and  academic  examinations,  1894-1904. 


1894 

1895 

1896 

1897 

1898 

1899 

Schools 

417 

467 

517 

557 

608 

639 

Papers 

371,876 

405, 557 
60 

419,802 

57 

445,235 

57 

470, 471 
61 

508,841 

61 

Per  cent  passed « 

59 

1900 

1901 

1902 

1903 

1904 

Schools 

672 

699 

726 

730 

751 

Papers 

543,765 

67 

538,833 

66 

558, 301 
69 

539,241 

66 

564,889 

70 

Per  cent  passed 

Table  III. — General  averages , in  percentages. 


Subjects. 

1907 

1908 

1909 

English 

70.4 

74.4 

81.1 

German 

84.7 

75.7 

67.5 

French 

67.5 

77.5 

68.8 

Latin 

67.8 

55.7 

67.4 

Greek 

83.5 

(52,215  papers.) 

68.9 

(65,726  papers.) 

80.4 

Mat, hem  at, ins 

81.4 

66.8 

69.8 

Science 

87.0 

(54,882  papers.) 

81. 1 

(64,400  papers.) 

77.9 

History 

66.8 

(52,907  papers.) 

72.1 

(56,803  papers.) 

75.7 

Commercial 

62.9 

69.0 

(35,780  papers.) 

67.8 

Business  arithmetic 

25.3 

37.8 

28.1 

(408  papers.) 

(1,378  papers.) 

(1,853  papers.) 

REGENTS  EXAMINATIONS. 


Ill 


Table  V. — Reports  of  college  entrance  examination  board. 


Subjects. 

1903 

1905 

1906 

1907 

1,857 

72.5 

2,336 

42.7 

2,521 

59.3 

2,996 

58.6 

Passed,  60-100  per  cent 

History,  papers  examined ; 

1,068 

53.2 

1,324 

54.0 

1,370 

47.3 

1,671 

43.2 

Passed,  60-100  per  cent 

Latin,  papers  examined 

3,860 

49.4 

5,066 

49.9 

6.101 

47.9 

Passed,  60-100  per  cent  

62.8 

Caesar,  papers  examined 

414 

598 

670 

698 

Passed,  60-100  per  cent  

61.4 

' 74.1 

61.3 

53.6 

German,  papers  examined 

964 

1,235 

67.6 

1,260 

60.8 

1,629 

Passed,  60-100  per  cent 

68. 1 

75.3 

Elementary  German 

632 

778 

853 

1,082 

64.3 

Passed,  60-100  per  cent  . 

68.4 

72.6 

64.6 

Mathematics,  papers  examined 

3,860 

3,000 

48.1 

3,327 

63.9 

3,851 

58.9 

Passed,  60-100  per  cent 

57.6 

Table  VI. — Percentage  of  accepted  papers , 1901-1907. 


Ratings. 

1901 

1902 

1903 

1904 

1905 

1906 

1907 

60-100  per  cent 

59.3 

55.9 

58.2 

60.1 

56.2 

55.7 

53.3 

Conclusions  and  criticisms. — Concerning  the  figures  of  Table  YI, 
Dr.  Thomas  S.  Fiske,  the  secretary  of  the  board,  says: 

From  an  examination  of  this  table  it  would  appear  that  we  must  make  one  or  more 
of  the  following  three  inferences — 

(1)  The  question  papers  set  by  the  board  are  steadily  becoming  more  difficult. 

(2)  The  board’s  readers  are  rating  the  answer  books  submitted  by  candidates  with 
steadily  increasing  severity. 

(3)  As  the  number  of  candidates  examined  by  the  board  increases,  the  quality  of 
the  average  candidate’s  preparation  is  steadily  deteriorating. 


COMMITTEE  NO.  IV.  MATHEMATICS  IN  THE  PRIVATE  SEC- 
ONDARY SCHOOLS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


PLAN  OF  THE  INVESTIGATION. 

Membership  of  the  committee. — The  following  study  of  the  teaching 
of  mathematics  in  the  private  secondary  schools  of  the  United  States 
has  been  made  by  a committee  consisting  of  the  chairman  and  three 
other  members,  each  of  whom  has  had  the  assistance  of  a sub- 
committee in  dealing  respectively  with  boys'  schools,  girls’  schools, 
and  coeducational  schools.  The  field  assigned  to  the  committee 
includes  schools  connected  with  religious  organizations  and  pre- 
paratory departments  of  colleges,  but  not  special  schools  such  as 
trade  schools  and  schools  for  defectives. 

The  members  of  the  subcommittee  were  selected  with  view  to 
including  representatives  of  various  types  of  schools  and,  to  some 
extent,  of  different  sections  of  the  country. 

Method  of  collecting  the  data. — The  only  publications  to  which  the 
committee  has  found  it  desirable  to  refer  are  the  annual  reports  of 
the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  from  which  statistics 
in  regard  to  organization  of  schools  have  been  taken.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  investigation  catalogues  of  several  hundred  schools 
were  examined  without  finding  anything  of  value  for  the  purpose 
in  hand.  As  the  private  schools  in  the  United  States  are  subject  to 
no  centralized  control,  no  comprehensive  view  of  their  organization 
or  of  the  character  of  their  work  could  be  obtained  except  by  apply- 
ing to  the  schools  themselves  for  the  information.  The  method 
of  the  questionnaire  seemed  to  be  the  only  one  available. 

A questionnaire,  referred  to  in  the  report  as  the  principal  question- 
naire, was  sent,  by  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education, 
in  behalf  of  the  committee,  to  all  the  schools  of  the  country 1 within 
the  committee’s  field.  A supplementary  questionnaire  covering 
additional  topics  was  sent  by  the  committee  to  a limited  number  of 
schools  selected  so  as  to  include  different  types,  sizes,  and  locations. 

1 The  expression  “all  the  schools,”  used  frequently  in  the  report,  means  all  the  schools  in  the  records 
of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education. 

9560°— 11 8 


113 


114 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Preparation  and  character  qf  the  report . — The  returns  from  the 
questionnaires  were  studied  by  the  subcommittees,  and  reports 
were  prepared  by  the  chairmen.  Separate  reports  upon  the  fields 
represented  by  the  subcommittees  would  involve  so  much  repetition 
that  it  has  seemed  best  to  combine  all  the  data  in  a single  report, 
indicating,  whenever  an  important  distinction  appears,  the  variation 
in  the  practice  of  the  different  types  of  schools. 

The  greater  part  of  the  report  is  devoted  to  a statement  of  the 
general  conditions  of  mathematics  teaching  in  the  private  secondary 
schools  of  the  country.  The  general  plan  outlined  by  the  commis- 
sioners included,  besides  a description  of  present  conditions,  a state- 
ment of  progressive  movements.  This  second  phase  of  the  investiga- 
tion was  not  neglected  in  planning  the  questionnaires,  but  very 
meager  replies  were  received  in  answer  to  requests  for  criticisms  of 
prevailing  methods  and  recommendations  for  improvement.  The 
committee  has  therefore  concentrated  its  attention  upon  that  part 
of  the  plan  which  it  understood  to  be  of  first  importance,  and  for 
which  reliable  data  could  be  secured  within  the  controlling  limits 
of  time  and  expense.  The  report,  then,  is  for  the  most  part  a 
statement  of  common-place  facts,  whose  purpose  is  to  give  a correct 
view  of  the  general  situation.  Obviously  it  is  impossible  within 
reasonable  limits  of  space  to  give  a complete  statement  even  of  the 
facts  in  hand,  but  in  condensing  the  data  special  effort  has  been 
made  to  avoid  misleading  statements.  With  this  in  view  the  record 
of  the  general  practice  with  regard  to  any  feature  of  mathematics 
teaching  is  commonly  amplified  by  a description  of  the  variation 
from  this  central  tendency. 

Of  course  such  a statistical  summary  of  the  situation  as  that 
described  in  the  preceding  paragraph  can  not  reflect  the  spirit  of 
the  work  which  is  being  done  in  the  schools.  Indeed,  the  reader 
may  gain  the  impression  that  the  teaching  in  the  private  schools 
is  mechanical  and  unprogressive.  As  a partial  offset  to  such  an 
impression  a few  brief  statements  of  distinctive  features  of  the 
work  in  their  own  schools  have  been  contributed  by  members  of  the 
committee  and  other  directors  of  mathematics.  These  statements 
are  quoted  in  full  at  the  end  of  the  report. 

EXTENT  AND  CHARACTER  OF  THE  DATA. 

The  principal  questionnaire. — The  principal  questionnaire  brought, 
in  time  for  use  in  the  report,  replies  from  418  schools,  or  23  per  cent 
of  all  the  schools  in  the  country  belonging  to  the  field  to  be  studied. 
The  numbers  of  replies  representing  different  types  of  schools  and 
the  percentage  of  the  total  numbers  of  the  schools  of  the  various 
types  are  as  follows: 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


115 


* 

Type  of  school. 

Number  of 
replies. 

Percentage  of 
all  schools  of 
the  type. 

Preparatory  departments  of  colleges — 

For  boys 

25 

For  girls 

20 

For  both  sexes 

47 

Total 

92 

19 

Independent  secondary  schools — 

For  boys 

98 

35 

For  girls 

94 

26 

For  both  sexes 

134 

20 

Total 

326 

25 

Roman  Catholic  schools 

59 

16 

Other  religious  schools 

94 

24 

N onsectarian  schools 

173 

32 

In  New  England  1 

68 

33 

Middle  Atlantic  States 

93 

30 

South  Atlantic  States 

42 

20 

South  Central  States 

28 

14 

North  Central  States 

78 

27 

Western  States 

17 

18 

1 The  States  constituting  these  various  groups  are: 

New  England  States:  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Vermont.  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut. 

Middle  Atlantic  States:  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania. 

South  Atlantic  States:  Delaware,  Maryland,  District  of  Columbia,  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  North  Caro- 
lina, South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida. 

South  Central  States:  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Arkansas,  Okla- 
homa. 

North  Central  States:  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Missouri,  North 
Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Kansas. 

Western  States:  Montana,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Utah,  Nevada,  Idaho,  Washing- 
ton, Oregon,  California. 


The  number  and  percentage  of  replies  with  regard  to  nearly  every 
group  of  schools  referred  to  would  be  large  enough  to  give  a satis- 
factory indication  of  the  general  character  of  all  the  schools  of  the 
group,  if  the  schools  replying  were  selected  at  random.  It  is  natural 
to  suppose  that  a larger  percentage  of  schools  of  high  grade,  than  of 
less  efficient  schools,  would  respond  to  the  questionnaire,  but  it  is 
impossible  to  say  to  what  extent  this  supposition  is  justified.  A 
slight  clue  to  the  representative  character  of  the  returns  may  be 
gained  by  comparing  the  size  (number  of  pupils)  of  the  schools  report- 
ing with  the  average  size  of  all  the  schools.  The  average  enrollment 
for  all  the  independent  private  secondary  schools  for  the  year  1908-9 
is  given  in  the  latest  published  report  of  the  United  States  Com- 
missioner of  Education.  As  the  statistics  reported  in  returns  to  the 
questionnaire  are  for  the  year  1909-10,  the  figures  are  not  strictly 
comparable,  but  any  marked  tendency  toward  the  exclusion  of  the 
smaller  schools  would  be  evident  by  such  a comparison.  The 
respective  average  enrollments  of  the  reporting  schools  and  of  all 
the  schools  included  in  the  commissioner’s  report  for  1909  are — for 


116 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


boys’  schools  93  and  82,  for  girls’  schools  62  and  60,  and  for  coedu- 
cational schools  91  and  75. 

The  correspondence  between  the  two  sets  of  figures,  taken  with 
the  fact  that  the  reported  enrollments  exhibit  a very  wide  variation, 
indicates  that,  while  the  smaller  schools  are  somewhat  less  generally 
represented  than  the  larger  ones,  a fairly  true  picture  of  the  general 
tendency  and  variability  in  this  one  respect  may  be  gained  from 
the  reports.  The  figures  in  regard  to  many  other  details  of  organ- 
ization indicate  such  definite  tendencies,  with  such  regular  variation 
toward  the  extreme  values,  that  they,  too,  would  seem  to  be  fairly 
representative. 

The  supplementary  questionnaire. — The  supplementary  question- 
naire brought  about  one-third  as  many  replies  as  the  principal  ques- 
tionnaire. The  coeducational  schools  were  poorly  represented,  and 
the  proportion,  as  well  as  number  of  schools  from  the  North  Atlantic 
States,  was  much  higher  than  for  other  sections  of  the  country.  The 
replies  include  only  four  Roman  Catholic  schools  and  very  few 
preparatory  departments  of  colleges.  The  proportion  of  very  small 
schools  is  much  lower  than  in  the  returns  to  the  principal  question- 
naire. 

The  data  obtained  from  the  supplementary  questionnaire  should 
not,  therefore,  be  regarded  as  representative  to  the  same  degree  as 
that  of  the  principal  questionnaire.  The  replies  to  questions  of 
opinion  are  valuable  only  as  indications  of  the  consensus  and  varia- 
tion of  opinion  among  teachers  representing  chiefly  the  larger  schools 
in  the  more  populous  and  wealthy  sections  of  the  country. 

Following  are  the  numbers  of  replies  from  the  various  groups  of 
schools : 


Boys  ’ schools 43 

Girls’ schools 59 

Coeducational  schools 37 

Total1 139 

Religious  schools 58 

Nonsectarian  schools 79 


Schools  situated  in — 

New  England  States 31 

Middle  Atlantic  States 51 

South  Atlantic  States 13 

South  Central  States 11 

North  Central  States 27 

Western  States 4 


Other  sources  of  inaccuracy. — Many  replies  to  both  questionnaires 
were  incomplete  and  some  were  obviously  incorrect.  In  general, 
ambiguous  answers  and  those  indicating  a piisunderstanding  of  the 
question  have  been  excluded.  In  the  presentation  of  each  topic  is 
given  the  number  or  proportion  of  the  replies  upon  which  the  state- 
ment is  based. 

In  order  to  reduce  the  labor  of  filling  out  the  questionnaire  blanks, 
many  questions  were  so  presented  that'  answers  could  be  given  by 
crossing  out  items  from  a list  of  possible  replies.  Where  the  items 


i Two  anonymous  reports  could  not  be  included  in  the  classifications  according  to  location  and  religious 
connection. 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


117 


given  are  not  alternatives,  this  method  is  likely  to  cause  error  through 
the  failure  of  the  reporting  officer  to  cross  out  every  inappropriate 
item.  Note  of  this  source  of  inaccuracy  is  made  in  the  presentation 
of  topics  in  which  it  is  pertinent. 

ORGANIZATION  OF  PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

Types  of  schools.1 — During  the  Colonial  period  the  American  second- 
ary schools  were  “Latin  Grammar  Schools/’  whose  function  it  was 
to  prepare  boys  for  college.  During  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century  the  typical  secondary  school  was  the  academy.  It  was  only 
incidentally  a preparatory  school  and  furnished  a broad  general 
course  of  study.  Many  of  these  schools  were  endowed,  and  a low 
tuition  fee,  or  in  some  cases  free  tuition,  made  it  possible  for  children 
from  families  in  moderate  circumstances  to  attend.  Some  of  the 
academies  were  for  boys,  others — usually  called  1 ‘female  seminaries” — 
for  girls,  but  many  were  coeducational.  They  usually  provided  for 
boarding  students.  Many  of  them  were  under  the  control  of  relig- 
ious bodies.  With  the  rapid  development  of  the  public  high  schools 
during  the  latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  many  of  the  acade- 
mies ceased  to  exist  or  were  transformed  into  public  schools.  Others 
became  more  distinctively  preparatory  schools. 

The  private  secondary  schools  of  the  present  day  include  the  fol- 
lowing fairly  well-marked  types:  (1)  The  surviving  academies  and 
other  more  recently  organized  schools  of  the  same  type,  including 
many  of  the  schools  connected  with  religious  organizations.  (2) 
Private  schools  having  relatively  high  tuition  fees,  usually  for  one  sex. 
The  cities,  especially  those  in  the  North  Atlantic  States,  usually  have 
day  schools  of  this  grade.  The  boarding  schools  are  ordinarily  in  the 
country  or  in  small  towns.  (3)  Preparatory  departments  of  colleges. 
(4)  Secondary  departments  of  elementary  schools,  including  many 
Roman  Catholic  schools  for  girls.  There  are  also  a few  large,  finely 
equipped  coeducational  schools  maintained  in  connection  with  the 
departments  of  education  of  some  of  the  larger  universities,  or  sup- 
ported by  other  organizations  for  the  purpose  of  contributing  to 
progress  in  education. 

Classification  of  schools  according  to  sex  of  pupils. — Of  the  1,301  in- 
dependent private  secondary  schools  reporting  for  the  year  1908-9 
to  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  21  per  cent  were 
for  boys  only,  28  per  cent  for  girls  only,  and  51  per  cent  were  for  both 
sexes.  Of  422  preparatory  departments  of  colleges  (not  including 
those  under  State  control),  21  per  cent  were  for  boys,  the  same  per- 
centage for  girls,  and  58  per  cent  were  coeducational. 

1 The  first  paragraph  is  based  upon  a monograph  on  Secondary  Education  by  Elmer  Ellsworth  Brown 
in  a series  of  monographs  on  Education  in  the  United  States,  edited  by  Nicholas  Murray  Butler,  Albany, 
1900.  The  second  paragraph  is  based  upon  the  author’s  observation,  combined  with  returns  from  the 
questionnaires. 


118 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Geographical  distribution. — The  Middle  Atlantic  and  the  North  Cen- 
tral sections  have  each  about  300  of  the  independent  schools.  New 
England,  the  South  Atlantic,  and  the  South  Central  sections  have  each 
about  200,  and  nearly  100  schools  are  in  the  Western  States.  The 
proportion  of  boys'  schools  is  relatively  high  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
country,  and  that  of  the  girls'  schools  in  the  North  Central  and  West- 
ern States.  About  half  of  the  schools  in  each  section  of  the  country 
are  coeducational,  except  in  the  South  Central  and  Western  States, 
where  the  coeducational  schools  form,  respectively,  65  per  cent  and  34 
per  cent  of  the  total.  Practically  none  of  the  New  England  colleges 
have  preparatory  departments,  and  there  are  comparatively  few  in 
the  middle  Atlantic  States.  In  the  other  sections  of  the  country, 
however,  the  colleges  commonly  have  such  departments,  and  in  the 
North  Central  States  alone  there  are  180  of  them.  A majority  of  these 
preparatory  departments  are  coeducational,  but  in  the  Southern 
States  there  are  many  connected  with  colleges  for  women. 

Religious  connection } — Twenty-nine  per  cent  of  the  independent 
private  secondary  schools  are  controlled  by  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  and  30  per  cent  are  connected  with  other  religious  denomi- 
nations. Thirteen  per  cent  of  the  preparatory  departments  of  col- 
leges are  Roman  Catholic  and  69  per  cent  are  connected  with  other 
churches.  Two-thirds  of  the  schools  in  New  England  are  nonsec- 
tarian, while  in  other  sections  of  the  country  the  majority  are  religious 
schools.  The  Roman  Catholic  schools  for  girls  are  very  numerous 
in  the  Central  and  Western  sections,  forming  70  per  cent  of  all  the 
girls'  schools  in  that  region.  A majority  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
schools  for  boys  are  connected  with  colleges ; 50  of  the  88  preparatory 
departments  for  boys  are  Roman  Catholic.  Sixty  per  cent  of  the 
independent  schools  and  70  per  cent  of  the  preparatory  departments 
connected  with  other  religious  denominations  are  coeducational. 

Day  schools  and  boarding  schools. — Of  404  schools  reporting  on  this 
point  in  answer  to  the  principal  questionnaire,  31  per  cent  are  day 
schools,  10  per  cent  boarding  schools,  and  59  per  cent  take  both  day 
and  boarding  pupils.  The  same  order  holds  in  all  three  classes  of 
schools  (boys',  girls',  and  coeducational)  and  in  all  sections  of  the 
country;  that  is,  the  greatest  number  take  both  day  and  boarding 
students,  and  the  schools  for  boarders  only  are  least  numerous. 
There  are  very  few  schools  for  day  pupils  only  in  the  South  and  West. 

Age  of  schools. — Three  hundred  and  eighty-eight  schools  replying 
to  the  principal  questionnaire  gave  the  date  of  establishment  (or  that 
of  the  secondary  department).  (See  fig.  1.)  The  ages  range  from  1 
year  to  265  years,  a few  of  the  oldest  preserving  the  name  “Grammar 
School."  Twenty-one  of  the  schools  are  over  100  years  old,  includ- 

1 It  is  safe  to  say  that  many  schools  reported  as  religious  schools  are  subject  to  no  control  by  religious 
organizations.  We  have  no  means  of  separating  these  schools  from  those  properly  classified  as  religious 
Institutions. 


Ages  of  schools.  388  schools  combined.  167  coed,  schools.  106  girls’  schools.  115  boys’  schools. 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS.  119 


6 

1 1 

z \ 

31 

A i 

51 

OVER 

TO 

TO 

TO 

TO 

TO 

TO 

too 

10 

zo 

30 

Ao 

50 

too 

Fig.  1. — Ages  of  schools;  percentage  distribution. 


120 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


ing  some  of  the  oldest  academies.  Only  16  have  been  established 
within  5 years.  The  median  age  of  the  boys’  schools  lies  between  40 
years  and  50  years,  that  of  the  coeducational  schools  between  30  and 
40,  and  that  of  the  girls’  schools  between  20  and  30.  Thirty-seven 
per  cent  of  the  boys’  schools  and  34  per  cent  of  the  coeducational 
schools  are  over  50  years  old,  while  only  19  per  cent  of  the  girls’ 
schools  are  as  old  as  this. 

Number  of  pupils. — In  1908-9 1 the  average  enrollment  in  the  inde- 
pendent private  secondary  schools  was,  in  boys’  schools  82,  in  girls’ 
schools  60,  and  in  coeducational  schools  36  boys  and  39  girls.  The 
variability  in  the  size  of  schools  may  be  judged  from  the  following 
table  based  on  345  replies,  although  the  average  enrollment  in  these 
schools  is  about  1 8 per  cent  higher  than  that  of  all  the  schools  referred 
to  above.  (See  fig.  2.) 


Distribution  of  345  schools , including  preparatory  departments  of  colleges,  according  to 

number  of  pupils. 


Enrollment. 

Total  num- 

Schools. 

More  than 
500 

401  to 
500 

301  to 
400 

201  to 
300 

101  to 
200 

51  to 
100 

50  or 
less. 

ber  of 
replies. 

Boys’  schools 

1 

3 

7 

24 

30 

36 

101 

Girls'  Si  .bools. 

1 

11 

23 

45 

80 

Coeducational  schools 

2 

1 

6 

12 

44 

33 

66 

164 

Ail  schools 

2 

2 

9 

20 

79 

86 

147 

345 

The  two  largest  schools,  which  have  respectively  1,048  and  580 
pupils,  are  both  coeducational  day  schools  and  are  connected  with 
higher  institutions,  situated  in  one  of  the  largest  cities  in  the  country. 
The  largest  boys’  school,  with  an  enrollment  of  500,  is  an  independent 
secondary  school — one  of  the  old  academies — located  in  a small  town 
in  New  England  and  taking  both  day  and  boarding  students.  The 
largest  girls’  school  reporting  its  enrollment  has  216  pupils.  It  is  an 
independent  day  school  in  a New  England  city  of  moderate  size. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  more  than  half  of  the  girls’  schools  and  42 
per  cent  of  all  schools  had  not  more  than  50  pupils  each.  Eighty- 
five  per  cent  of  the  girls’  schools  had  not  more  than  100  pupils  each, 
and  in  90  per  cent  of  all  the  schools  the  enrollment  was  not  over  200. 

Number  of  pupils  per  teacher. — In  1905-6  2 the  average  number 
of  pupils  per  teacher  in  all  the  independent  private  secondary  schools 
was  as  follows:  For  girls’  schools  6.9,  for  boys’  schools  10.4,  and  for 
coeducational  schools  14.  The  variability  of  the  number  of  pupils 
to  one  teacher  for  342  schools3  is  shown  below. 


1 Report  of  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  1909. 

2 Report  of  the  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  1906.  This  is  the  most  recent  report  giving 
detailed  statistics  of  secondary  schools. 

8 Data  of  principal  questionnaire. 


No.  of  pupils.  345  schools  combined.  164  coed,  schools.  80  girls'  schools. 101  boys’  schools. 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


121 


VSSSSjA 


TO 

30 


TO 

100 


TO 

eoo 


TO 

300 


TO 

4oo 


TO 

500 


THAN 

500 


Fig.  2.— Sizes  of  schools;  percentage  distribution. 


122 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Number  of  pupils  per  teacher. 


Schools. 

46  to 
50 

41  to 
45 

36  to 
40 

31  to 
35 

26  to 
30 

21  to 
25 

16  to 
20 

11  to 
15 

6 to 
10 

5 or 
less. 

Total 
number 
of  reports. 

Number  of  boys’  schools 

3 

6 

10 

32 

42 

12 

105 

86 

Number  of  girls’  schools 

2 

7 

15 

37 

25 

Number  of  coeducational 
schools 

2 

3 

2 

2 

_ 

15 

27 

57 

31 

1 

7 

151 

1 

Eighty-two  per  cent  of  the  boys’  schools  and  90  per  cent  of  the 
girls’  schools  have  not  more  than  15  pupils  per  teacher,  while  only  63 
per  cent  of  the  coeducational  schools  come  within  this  limit.  The 
nine  coeducational  schools  in  which  the  ratio  is  higher  than  30  pupils 
to  one  teacher  are  nearly  all  in  the  Southern  States. 

Length  of  school  year. — The  length  of  the  school  year  as  reported 
by  407  schools  is  as  follows: 

With  the  exception  of  one  school  which  has  only  a single  year  of 
secondary  work,  the  minimum  school  year  was  25  weeks  in  a small 
coeducational  day  school  in  New  York  City.  The  maximum  reported 
by  three  schools  was  42  weeks.  Sixty-four  per  cent  of  the  boys’ 
schools,  50  per  cent  of  the  girls’  schools,  and  87  per  cent  of  the 
coeducational  schools  have  a year  of  from  36  to  40  weeks.  All  but 
13  out  of  407  schools  have  more  than  30  weeks.  Most  of  the  schools 
with  a very  short  year  are  girls’  schools  in  the  East.  The  Roman 
Catholic  schools  commonly  have  40  weeks.  The  school  year  is  shorter 
in  the  East  than  in  the  Central  and  Western  sections;  41  per  cent 
of  the  eastern  schools  have  a year  of  35  weeks  or  less,  while  in  the  rest 
of  the  country  only  15  per  cent  of  the  schools  reporting  have  so  short 
a year. 

Connection  with  other  departments. — Among  the  418  schools  replying 
to  the  questionnaire,  elementary  departments  are  maintained  by  60 
per  cent  of  the  boys’  schools,  79  per  cent  of  the  girls’  schools,  and  44 
per  cent  of  the  coeducational  schools.  In  boys’  schools  the  ele- 
mentary department  is  as  a rule  relatively  small,  and  in  girls’  schools 
and  coeducational  schools  the  same  is  true  in  a majority  of  cases, 
but  many  of  the  Roman  Catholic  schools  for  girls  and  for  both  sexes 
have  large  elementary  departments,  with  comparatively  few  sec- 
ondary students.  As  already  stated,  22  per  cent  of  the  schools  reply- 
ing are  connected  with  colleges.  Besides  these,  about  one-sixth  of  the 
schools  give  some  work  of  collegiate  grade. 

Courses  of  study. — Practically  all  the  schools  offer  college  prepara- 
tory courses.  About  20  per  cent  of  all  the  schools  offer  only  a single 
course — usually  planned  to  meet  college  requirements — although 
some  choice  of  studies  within  this  course  is  often  allowed.  This 
practice  (single  course)  is  commonest  in  boys’  schools  and  least  com- 
mon in  girls’  schools.  A more  general  plan  is  to  offer  two  courses,  a 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


123 


college  preparatory  course  and  either  a scientific  course,  a general 
course,  or  a commercial  course.  Many  schools  differentiate  more 
widely,  offering  three,  four,  or  even  five  courses.  In  1 908-9, 1 29 
per  cent  of  the  boys  and  10  per  cent  of  the  girls  enrolled  in  independent 
private  secondary  schools  were  preparing  for  college.  A majority 
(53  per  cent)  of  these  boys  were  in  scientific  courses,  while  71  per  cent 
of  the  girls  were  in  classical  courses.  Sixty-one  per  cent  of  the  boys 
and  23  per  cent  of  the  girls  in  the  graduating  classes  intended  to  enter 
college.  Commercial  courses  are  given  in  comparatively  few  (about 
one-fifth)  of  the  girls’  schools.  Most  of  the  Roman  Catholic  schools 
for  boys  give  commercial  courses,  and  a relatively  large  proportion 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  schools  for  girls  give  such  courses. 

Except  for  commercial  students,  four  years  is  ordinarily  the  length 
of  the  secondary  course,  pupils  entering  at  about  14  years  of  age. 
About  an  equal  number  of  schools — 7 or  8 per  cent  of  all — have 
courses  of  three  years  and  five  years,  respectively,  and  a few 
schools  make  six  years  the  normal  period.  The  schools  whose  courses 
are  longer  than  four  years  usually  admit  pupils  at  an  earlier  age  than 
the  others,  or  give  work  in  advance  of  the  requirements  for  admission 
to  college.  Among  the  schools  which  maintain  elementary  depart- 
ments there  may  be  little  real  distinction  between  those  which 
report  a secondary  course  of  six  years  and  those  which  label  only 
four  of  those  years  “ secondary.”  Commercial  courses  vary  in  length 
from  one  to  four  years.  In  the  boys’  schools  four  years  is  the  common 
length,  and  in  girls’  schools  two  years,  while  in  the  coeducational 
schools  courses  of  four  years  and  two  years  are  about  equally  common. 

Number  and  sex  of  teachers. — In  1905-6  2 the  average  number  of 
teachers  per  school  was,  for  boys’  schools  7.2,  for  girls’  schools  7.8, 
and  for  coeducational  schools  5.1 . In  each  case  the  average  is  smallest 
for  the  South  Central  States.  It  is  largest  for  the  Middle  Atlantic 
States,  except  in  coeducational  schools,  in  which  the  Western  States 
give  the  highest  average.  The  variability  in  the  number  of  teachers 
per  school,  among  327  schools,3  is  as  follows: 


Percentage  distribution  of  327  schools  according  to  number  of  teachers. 


Number  of  teachers. 

Total 
number 
of  schools 
included. 

More 
than  20. 

16  to 
20. 

11  to 
15. 

6 to 
10. 

5 or 
less. 

Percentage  of  boys’  schools 

6 

5 

8 

53 

28 

89 

Percentage  of  girls'  schools 

1 

5 

19 

39 

36 

85 

Percentage  of  coeducational  schools 

3 

5 

9 

36 

47 

153 

1 Report  of  United  States  Commissioner  ot  Education.  1909.  » Data  of  principal  questionnaire 

2 Ibid.,  1906. 


124 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


The  maximum  number  of  teachers  reported  for  the  secondary 
department  of  any  one  school  was  21  for  girls’  schools,  38  for  boys’ 
schools,  and  54  for  coeducational  schools.  Several  of  the  coeducational 
schools  report  only  one  teacher.  Eight  per  cent  of  all  the  schools 
reporting  have  more  than  15;  80  per  cent  have  not  more  than  10. 

In  1 905-6, 1 93  per  cent  of  the  teachers  in  boys’  schools  were  men; 
93  per  cent  in  girls’  schools  were  women;  while  in  the  coeducational 
schools  54  per  cent  were  women. 

THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  MATHEMATICS. 

Number  and  sex  oj  mathematics  teachers. — In  the  replies  to  the 
principal  questionnaire,  about  90  per  cent  of  the  boys’  schools  and 
coeducational  schools  and  75  per  cent  of  the  girls’  schools  gave  lists 
of  their  teachers  of  mathematics  with  the  courses  taught  by  each 
teacher.  The  records  of  about  800  teachers  are  included  in  these 
reports. 

In  the  boys’  schools  practically  all  the  classes  in  mathematics  are 
taught  by  men,  in  the  girls’  schools  93  per  cent  of  the  teachers  are 
women,  while  in  the  coeducational  schools  63  per  cent  are  men. 

In  about  one-third  of  the  schools  reporting,  the  work  in  secondary 
mathematics  is  done  by  a single  teacher,  who,  as  often  as  not,  teaches 
other  subjects  also.  Several  of  the  large  boys’  schools  have  as  many 
as  eight  teachers  giving  all  their  time  to  mathematics. 

Teachers ’ assignments. — About  30  per  cent  of  the  teachers  teach 
only  mathematics  and  give  at  least  two  hours  a day  to  teaching. 
About  60  per  cent  are  reported  as  teaching  other  subjects  also.  In 
the  remaining  cases,  only  mathematical  courses  are  listed,  but,  as 
only  one  or  two  courses  are  assigned  to  each  teacher,  it  is  probable 
that  many  of  these  teachers  have  other  teaching  assignments  which 
were  not  recorded.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  schools  it  is  the  common 
practice  to  divide  the  work  in  mathematics  among  several  teachers, 
each  of  whom  teaches  several  other  subjects. 

In  the  list  of  subjects  other  than  mathematics  assigned  to  mathe- 
matics teachers,  every  subject  in  the  curriculum  appears.  Those 
most  frequently  mentioned  are,  in  order:  Natural  science  (especially 
physics),  Latin,  modern  languages,  and  commercial  subjects. 

About  one-eighth  of  the  teachers  have  classes  in  mathematics  in 
elementary  or  collegiate  departments  as  well  as  work  of  secondary 
grade. 

The  returns  giving  the  amounts  of  time  required  of  teachers  in 
teaching  and  in  other  school  duties  are  not  sufficiently  reliable  to 
warrant  a quantitative  statement.  They  indicate  a very  wide  varia- 
tion, some  teachers  giving  only  a single  course  while  others  are  re- 
ported as  teaching  an  incredible  number  of  hours.  As  illustrations 


1 Report  ol  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  1906. 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


125 


of  practice,  in  some  of  the  well-known  schools,  whose  reports  were 
evidently  made  with  care,  the  following  figures  are  given,  but  it  is 
not  intended  to  imply  that  they  are  typical: 


Schools. 

Number  of  min- 
utes of  teaching. 

Number  of  min- 
utes  of  other 
duties. 

1.  A boys’  boarding  school  in  Pennsylvania 

675  to  950 
(average,  876). 

1,200  to  1,400 
(average,  1,270). 

765 

640  to  960 
(average,  800). 

1,200  to  1,380 
(average,  1,280). 

1.000  to  1,250 
(average,  1,050). 

400  to  1,150 
(average,  690). 

250  to  460 
(average,  390). 

460. 

465  to  785 
(average,  625). 
None  required. 

None. 

2.  A boys’  day  school  in  New  York  City 

3.  A girls’  boarding  school  in  California 

4.  A girls’  day  school  in  Massachusetts 

5.  A coeducational  boarding  school  in  Ohio 

6.  A coeducational  day  school  in  Chicago,  111 

Teachers’  salaries. — About  60  per  cent  of  the  replies  from  boys’ 
schools  and  coeducational  schools  reported  facts  in  regard  to  the 
salaries  of  mathematics  teachers  doing  secondary  work.  Only  44 
per  cent  of  the  girls’  schools  reported  salaries.  The  reports  from 
Roman  Catholic  schools,  with  very  few  exceptions,  stated  that  their 
teachers  receive  no  salaries,  but  are  supported  by  the  religious 
orders  to  which  they  belong. 

The  questionnaire  called  for  maximum,  minimum,  and  average 
salaries  in  order  to  secure  data  on  the  variation  within  the  schools 
which  have  several  teachers.  In  some  cases  the  maximum  only  was 
given,  in  some  the  minimum,  and  in  others  the  average.  Some  of  the 
replies  showed  that  the  question  was  understood  to  call  for  variation 
in  a single  teacher’s  salary  according  to  the  schedule  of  salaries  in 
force  in  the  school. 

The  figures,  therefore,  are  probably  not  as  reliable  as  most  of  the 
data  presented.  They  will  serve,  however,  to  indicate  in  a general 
way  the  distribution  of  salaries  in  different  types  of  schools  and  in 
different  sections  of  the  country.  In  the  following  figures  the 
salaries  of  principals  who  are  also  teachers  of  mathematics,  and  those 
of  teachers  receiving  board  as  a part  of  their  remuneration,  have  been 
excluded.  (See  fig.  3.) 

In  the  boys’  schools,  the  salaries  reported  vary  from  $50  per  month 
to  $2,700  per  year.  Ten  schools  reported  a maximum  salary  of 
$2,000  or  over.  Of  the  39  schools  reporting  an  average  salary  or  the 
salary  of  a single  teacher,  25  reported  sums  lying  between  $600  and 
$1,200,  and  the  rest,  with  one  exception,  between  $1,300  and  $2,000. 

In  the  girls’  schools,  the  lowest  salary  reported  was  $40  per  month. 
Only  one  school — a day  school  in  New  York  City — gave  a sum  higher 
than  $1,200.  In  this  the  maximum  is  $2,000.  Sixteen  of  the  30 
schools  which  report  an  average  salary  place  this  between  $700  and 
$1,000. 


126 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Fig.  3. — Percentage  distribution  of  salaries  of  mathematics  teachers. 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


127 


In  the  coeducational  schools  the  figures  range  from  $35  per  month 
to  $2,500  per  year.  Besides  the  one  reporting  this  maximum,  only 
one  school  has  a maximum  as  high  as  $2,000.  Ten  have  maximum 
salaries  ranging  from  $1,200  to  $1,800.  Eighty  coeducational  schools 
gave  an  average  salary.  In  more  than  half  of  these  the  sum  varies 
from  $500  to  $800.  In  20  of  the  80  schools  it  lies  between  $800  and 
$1,200. 

The  average  of  the  salaries  reported  as  the  salary  of  a single  teacher 
or  the  average  of  the  salaries  of  all  mathematics  teachers  in  a school 
is,  for  boys’  schools  between  $1,100  and  $1,200,  for  girls’  schools 
between  $700  and  $800,  and  for  coeducational  schools  practically  the 
same  as  for  girls’  schools. 

On  the  whole,  the  salaries  reported  from  schools  of  the  North 
Atlantic  States  are  considerably  higher  than  in  other  parts  of  the 
country,  although  the  few  schools  representing  the  far  West  give 
figures  closely  corresponding  to  those  in  the  North  Atlantic  States. 

Academic  and  professional  training  oj  teachers. — The  supplementary 
questionnaire  called  for  data  in  regard  to  the  training  and  professional 
experience  of  teachers  of  mathematics.  The  replies  represent  146 
schools  with  282  teachers.  As  one  would  expect,  the  teachers 
referred  to  in  the  reports  from  boys’  schools  are  practically  all  men 
and  from  the  girls’  schools  women.  There  is  a much  larger  pro- 
portion of  male  teachers  in  the  coeducational  schools  reporting  than 
in  coeducational  schools  generally. 

The  following  table  gives  a distribution  of  the  teachers  for  whom 
data  were  reported  according  to  total  length  of  experience  in  teaching 
and  also  according  to  length  of  service  as  teachers  of  mathematics. 
(See  fig.  4.) 


Years  of  experience  in  teaching. 

Distribution  of  teachers  by 
years  of  experience  in 
teaching. 

Distribution  of  teachers  by 
years  of  experience  in 
• teaching  mathematics. 

Boys’ 

schools. 

Girls’ 

schools. 

Coeduca- 

tional 

schools. 

. 

Boys’ 

schools. 

Girls’ 

schools. 

Coeduca- 

tional 

schools. 

1 to  5 years 

15 

24 

32 

25 

34 

35 

6 to  10  years 

26 

20 

18 

26 

20 

18 

11  to  15  years 

24 

17 

11 

18 

10 

10 

16  to  20  years 

8 

15 

5 

8 

17 

8 

21  to  25  years 

8 

10 

4 

8 

6 

2 

Over  25  years 

13 

7 

6 

13 

3 

4 

Total 

94 

93 

76 

98 

90 

77 

Average 

14.0 

12.6 

9.7 

12.8 

10.5 

9.1 

It  appears  that  35  per  cent  of  these  teachers  have  taught  mathe- 
matics not  more  than  5 years  and  nearly  60  per  cent  not  more  than 
10  years.  The  average  length  of  service  is  greatest  in  the  boys’ 
schools  and  least  in  the  coeducational  schools. 


128 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

EXPERIENCE  IN  TEACHING. 


Years  of  expe- 
rience* 


94  teachers  in 
boys’  schools. 


93  teachers  In 
girls’  schools. 


76  teachers  in 
coed,  schools. 


e 

1 1 

1 €> 

2 \ 

MORE 

TO 

TO 

TO 

TO 

th«m 

lO 

1 5 

20 

25 

25 

EXPERIENCE  AS  TEACHERS  OE  MATHEMATICS. 


98  teachers  in.( 
boys’  schools. 


90  teachers  In 
girls’  schools. 


77  teachers  in 
coed,  schools. 


Fig.  4. — Length  of  teaching  experience  of  mathematics  teachers;  percentage  distribution. 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS.  129 


The  facts  relating  to  the  academic  and  professional  education  of 
the  teachers  reported  are,  in  brief,  as  follows: 


Academic  education. 

Boys’ 

schools. 

Girls’ 

schools. 

Coeduca- 

tional 

schools. 

Number  of  teachers  reporting 

101 

92 

79 

Number  having  doctor’s  degree 

3 

0 

2 

Number  having  master’s  degree  (no  higher) 

22 

12 

21 

Number  having  bachelor’s  degree  (no  higher) 

58 

53 

46 

Total  number  holding  degrees 

83 

65 

69 

Number  having  partial  college  education  (not  including  summer  school 

work) 

9 

6 

3 

Number  having  full  normal  course 

2 

3 

0 

Number  having  partial  normal  course 

5 

2 

Number  having  full  high-school  course 

3 

4 

3 

Number  having  partial  high-school  course 

1 

4 

1 

Number  mentioning  no  academic  training 

3 

5 

1 

Total  number  not  holding  degrees 

18 

27 

10 

Percentage  not  holding  degrees 

18 

29 

13 

Eighty  per  cent  of  all  the  teachers  for  whom  the  data  were  given 
were  holders  of  degrees.  The  proportion  is  not  as  high  (about  70 
per  cent)  for  teachers  in  girls’  schools  as  for  those  in  schools  for  boys 
and  for  both  sexes,  and  a smaller  portion  of  degree  holders  teaching  in 
the  girls’  schools  have  taken  a second  degree  than  is  the  case  among 
teachers  in  the  other  institutions. 

About  half  of  the  holders  of  degrees  report  academic  or  profes- 
sional training  in  addition  to  that  required  for  a degree,  the  proportion 
being  highest  in  schools  for  girls.  Of  the  teachers  in  girls’  schools 
who  have  received  no  degree,  nearly  all  have  had  some  definite  pro- 
fessional education  or  academic  work  of  collegiate  grade. 

Seventeen  of  the  male  teachers  have  had  training  for  other  pro- 
fessions: Four  for  law,  two  theology,  one  medicine,  one  agriculture, 
and  nine  engineering. 

Direction  of  the  department  of  mathematics. — In  a small  majority  of 
the  schools  replying  to  the  principal  questionnaire,  the  work  in 
mathematics  is  directed  by  the  principal,  who,  more  often  than  not, 
teaches  some  of  the  classes  in  mathematics.  In  Roman  Catholic 
schools  the  principal  usually  directs  the  work  and  does  not  often 
teach  mathematics. 

In  the  other  schools  one  of  the  teachers  of  mathematics  usually 
acts  as  director,  but  in  the  preparatory  departments  of  colleges  one 
of  the  college  teachers  frequently  supervises  the  preparatory  work. 
Usually,  but  not  always,  he  teaches  some  of  the  classes  in  secondary 
mathematics. 

In  the  boys’  schools  the  directors  are  men  in  all  the  schools  report- 
ing; in  the  girls’  schools  one-sixth  of  the  directors  are  men,  while  in 
the  coeducational  schools  seven-eighths  are  men. 

9560°— 11 9 


130 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Size  of  classes. — About  two-thirds  of  the  schools  replying  to  the 
principal  questionnaire  gave  the  numbers  of  pupils  in  recitation 
sections  in  mathematics.  These  represent  a very  wide  variation,  a 
few  classes  having  60  to  70  pupils  each,  while  many  have  less  than 
five.  In  general  the  size  of  the  school  determines  the  size  of  the 
classes,  comparatively  few  schools  (about  one-fifth  of  the  boys’ 
schools  and  coeducational  schools  and  a smaller  proportion  of  the 
girls’  schools)  having  more  than  one  section  of  a given  class. 

In  schools  having  parallel  sections  the  variation  corresponds 
closely  to  that  for  all  the  schools,  excepting  at  the  extremes  of  the 
scale.  Few  of  these  parallel  sections  have  less  than  10  or  more  than 
30  pupils.  A comparatively  large  proportion  of  the  girls’  schools 
have  very  small  divisions,  even  when  classes  are  divided.  The 
largest  schools  (for  boys  and  for  both  sexes),  which  have  in  some 
cases  as  many  as  eight  parallel  sections,  organize  recitation  sections 
of  about  25  pupils  each. 

The  replies  in  which  enrollments  were  clearly  recorded  included 
over  1,500  recitation  sections,  about  500  in  boys’  schools,  300  in 
girls’  schools,  and  700  in  coeducational  schools.  (See  fig.  5.)  On 
the  whole  the  size  of  classes  is  about  the  same  in  the  boys’  schools 
and  coeducational  schools  (average  between  16  and  17)  and  con- 
siderably smaller  in  the  girls’  schools  (average  11).  Nearly  30  per 
cent  of  the  sections  from  girls’  schools  have  from  1 to  5 pupils  each, 
while  only  12  per  cent  of  the  sections  from  other  schools  have  as  small 
an  enrollment  as  this.  About  80  per  cent  of  the  sections  from  girls’ 
schools  have  not  more  than  15  pupils  each.  About  half  of  the  other 
sections  fall  within  this  limit.  From  85  to  90  per  cent  of  all  the 
divisions  have  not  more  than  25  pupils  each. 

Time  allotment.1 — Intelligible  answers  to  the  question  in  regard  to 
the  time  allotment  were  given  in  about  80  per  cent  of  the  replies. 
The  normal  plan  for  mathematical  courses  is  to  have  five  recitations 
per  week  but  four  are  not  infrequently  assigned,  and  some  of  the 
boys’  boarding  schools  have  six.  In  the  North  Atlantic  States  some 
schools  have  only  three  recitations  per  week. 

The  tendency  is  to  reduce  the  number  of  periods  in  the  later  years 
of  the  course.  In  the  last  year,  where  elective  courses  are  common, 
there  is  much  variation  and  in  many  cases  it  is  possible  for  a student’s 
program . to  include  seven  or  more  periods  in  mathematical  subjects. 
In  scientific  courses  seven  periods  per  week  are  sometimes  required 
in  the  last  year. 

The  length  of  the  recitation  period  varies  from  20  minutes  to  75 
minutes,  but  40  or  45  minutes  is  the  usual  length. 


Data  of  principal  questionnaire. 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


131 


Grading  and  'promotion  of  pupils.1 — In  regard  to  the  admission  of 
pupils  to  the  school,  41  schools  use  no  examinations  but  admit  pupils 
on  trial,  on  credentials  from  other  schools,  or — as  in  nearly  all  cases — 
on  both  conditions.  Thirty-one  schools  use  an  oral  examination  in 
connection  with  credentials  or  trial  or  both,  4 use  a written  examina- 
tion as  the  sole  basis  for  admission,  and  59  use  written  examinations 


Number  of  pupils. 


534  sections  in  boys 
schools. 


8 6 II  16  21  26  31  36  more 

TO  TO  TO  TO  TO  TO  TO  TO  THAN 


327  sections  in  girls’, 
schools. 


689  sections  in  coed, 
schools. 


Fig.  5.— Sizes  of  mathematics  classes;  percentage  distribution. 

in  connection  with  one  or  more  of  the  other  methods  referred  to. 
In  90  per  cent  of  the  schools  some  member  of  the  mathematics  depart- 
ment is  consulted  in  regard  to  the  grading  of  new  pupils. 

Promotion  in  mathematics  is  independent  of  the  standing  in  other 
subjects  in  80  per  cent  of  the  schools  reporting  (about  100).  In  a 


1 Data  of  the  supplementary  questionnaire. 


132 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


few  schools  a pupil  is  not  promoted  in  any  subject  unless  he  passes 
in  all;  in  some  cases  promotion  is  based  upon  the  pupil’s  average 
standing  in  all  subjects;  in  others  a pupil  is  obliged  to  repeat  mathe- 
matics even  though  he  has  done  well  in  it,  if  he  fails  in  a certain 
proportion  of  his  other  work.  Several  say  that  standing  in  mathe- 
matics and  English  or  mathematics  and  Latin  determines  promotion 
in  all  subjects. 

No  definite  statements  are  made  in  regard  to  the  bearing  of  these 
plans  of  promotion  upon  the  effectiveness  of  the  teaching  in  mathe- 
matical classes,  but  so  far  as  this  testimony  goes,  there  would  appear 
to  be  few  instances  in  which  teachers  of  mathematics  are  hampered 
by  unsatisfactory  grading  of  pupils.  Some  data  in  regard  to  exam- 
inations for  promotion  are  given  later  in  the  report. 

THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY. 

Determination  of  the  content  of  the  course  of  study. — In  answer  to  the 
supplementary  questionnaire  about  100  schools  gave  information  in 
regard  to  the  control  of  the  course  of  study.  In  10  cases  the  content 
of  the  course  is  said  to  be  determined  by  college  entrance  require- 
ments, and  in  5 cases  by  trustees,  governing  board,  or  some  outside 
authority.  In  two-thirds  of  the  other  schools  the  principal  takes 
some  part  in  the  determination  of  the  course,  usually  consulting  with 
teachers,  head  of  department,  faculty,  or  trustees.  A head  of  depart- 
ment acts  alone  in  14  schools  in  dealing  with  the  content  of  the  course. 
In  9 schools  teachers  of  mathematics  are  free  to  lay  out  their  courses 
of  study,  and  in  28  others  they  are  consulted.  The  plan  mentioned 
by  the  greatest  number  of  schools  (20)  calls  for  joint  action  by  the 
principal  and  the  teachers  of  mathematics. 

A large  majority  of  the  schools  report  that  the  director  of  mathe- 
matics is  free  to  modify  the  course  of  study  to  suit  the  needs  of 
particular  classes,  but  the  approval  of  the  principal  is  frequently 
mentioned  as  a condition.  College  requirements  are  often  referred 
to  as  a definite  limitation  upon  modification  of  the  course,  and  the 
details  reported  in  answer  to  the  principal  questionnaire  would  seem 
to  indicate  that  these  requirements  have  a controlling  influence  in 
most  schools.  So  far  as  one  can  judge  from  the  meager  comments 
on  u flexibility  of  the  course”  the  freedom  of  the  teachers  is  usually 
limited  to  order  of  topics,  proportion  of  time  devoted  to  different 
topics,  and  methods  of  teaching.  There  is  nothing  in  the  replies  to 
show  that  courses  are  shortened  or  changed  in  content  to  suit  the 
characteristics  of  particular  classes. 

Teachers  are  commonly  free  to  select  their  own  textbooks,  although 
the  approval  of  the  principal  or  head  of  department  is  often  required. 
In  14  schools  books  are  selected  by  the  principal  and  in  17  by  the 
head  of  department. 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


133 


The  course  in  general. — Eighty  per  cent  of  the  returns  from  the 
principal  questionnaire  report  the  mathematical  subjects  in  each 
year  of  the  course.  Most  of  the  schools  report  no  differentiation  for 
students  anticipating  different  vocations,  but  schools  giving  com- 
mercial courses  commonly  require  commercial  arithmetic — sometimes 
in  place  of  geometry — for  pupils  of  this  department.  In  many 
schools  separate  sections  are  organized  for  college  preparatory  stu- 
dents, and  in  some  cases,  particularly  in  the  girls’  schools,  such 
students  are  required  to  take  more  work  in  mathematics  than  others. 

With  very  few  exceptions  all  students  are  required  to  study  elemen- 
tary algebra  and  plane  geometry.  Solid  geometry  is  given  in  about  80 
per  cent  of  the  boys’  schools,  40  per  cent  of  the  girls’  schools,  and  65 
per  cent  of  the  coeducational  schools.  Plane  trigonometry  is  given 
in  about  75  per  cent  of  the  boys’  schools,  35  per  cent  of  the  coeduca- 
tional schools,  and  18  per  cent  of  the  girls’  schools.  “ Advanced” 
algebra  is  given  in  nearly  half  of  the  boys’  schools,  rarely  in  the  others. 
Solid  geometry,  plane  trigonometry,  and  advanced  algebra  are  fre- 
quently elective  subjects,  except  for  students  of  the  scientific  course. 
They  are  seldom  given  in  the  girls’  schools  of  the  North  Atlantic 
States.  A very  few  schools  give  courses  in  spherical  trigonometry, 
analytical  geometry,  and  calculus. 

Order  of  subjects. — The  most  general  arrangement  of  subjects  in 
the  four  years’  course  is  that  which  places  algebra  in  the  first  two 
years,  plane  geometry  in  the  third,  and  solid  geometry  and  plane 
trigonometry  in  the  fourth.  There  are,  however,  many  variations 
from  this  plan. 

Arithmetic,  either  alone  or  combined  with  algebra,  is  given  in  the 
first  year  in  about  one-fourth  of  the  boys’  schools  and  coeducational 
schools.  It  is  given  less  frequently  in  the  girls’  schools. 

Plane  geometry  is  frequently  placed  in  the  second  year  instead  of 
algebra.  In  many  of  the  boys’  schools  the  time  assigned  to  mathe- 
matics in  the  second  and  third  years  is  divided  between  algebra  and 
geometry,  but  this  practice  is  much  less  common  in  the  other  schools. 

Solid  geometry  is  sometimes  given  in  the  third  year,  usually  as  a 
continuation  of  the  course  in  plane  geometry,  which  occupies  the 
first  part  of  the  year.  This  plan  is  common  among  the  coeducational 
schools,  about  one-fourth  of  which  give  no  mathematics  in  the  fourth 
year. 

The  final  year  of  the  course  is  characterized  by  much  variation. 
Several  schools  for  girls  and  for  both  sexes  give  courses  in  practical 
arithmetic.  Some  schools  defer  plane  geometry  until  this  year  and 
others  give  a second  course  in  elementary  algebra  or  a combined 
course  in  algebra  and  plane  geometry.  About  one-tliird  of  the  girls’ 
schools  report  courses  for  review  of  algebra  and  plane  geometry, 
which  are  usually  required  for  college  preparatory  students. 


134 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Schools  which  give  solid  geometry,  trigonometry,  and  advanced 
algebra  usually  assign  these  subjects  to  the  final  year. 

Content  of  courses  in  the  various  subjects. — The  principal  question- 
naire called  for  a detailed  description  of  the  course  of  study  by  refer- 
ences to  textbooks,  with  comments  indicating  departures  from  the 
order  or  scope  of  the  books  referred  to.  This  part  of  the  question- 
naire brought  the  least  satisfactory  returns.  In  many  cases  no 
information  was  given,  and  in  others  it  was  obviously  incomplete. 
About  40  per  cent  of  the  returns,  representing  about  160  schools,  indi- 
cated the  scope  of  the  courses.  As  these  conform  closely  to  college- 
entrance  requirements,  perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  method  of  de- 
scribing the  content  of  the  course  will  be  to  quote  the  definitions  of 
the  College  Entrance  Examination  Board,  and  to  indicate  roughly 
any  tendencies  to  depart  from  these  definitions.  They  are  as  follows: 

a.  Elementary  Algebra — Algebra  to  Quadratics  and  Quadratics  and  beyond. 

(a.  i.  Algebra  to  Quadratics.) 

The  four  fundamental  operations  for  rational  algebraic  expressions. 

Factoring,  determination  of  highest  common  factor  and  lowest  common  multiple  by 
factoring. 

Fractions,  including  complex  fractions,  and  ratio  and  proportion. 

Linear  equations,  both  numerical  and  literal,  containing  one  or  more  unknown  quan- 
tities. 

Problems  depending  on  linear  equations. 

Radicals,  including  the  extraction  of  the  square  root  of  polynomials  and  of  numbers. 
Exponents,  including  the  fractional  and  negative. 

(a.  ii.  Quadratics  and  beyond.) 

Quadratic  equations,  both  numerical  and  literal. 

Simple  cases  of  equations  with  one  or  more  unknown  quantities  that  can  be  solved 
by  the  methods  of  linear  or  quadratic  equations. 

Problems  depending  on  quadratic  equations. 

The  binomial  theorem  for  positive  integral  exponents. 

The  formulas  for  the  nth  term  and  the  sum  of  the  terms  of  arithmetical  and  geometric 
progressions,  with  applications. 

It  is  assumed  that  pupils  will  be  required  throughout  the  course  to  solve  numer- 
ous problems  which  involve  putting  questions  into  equations.  Some  of  these  problems 
should  be  chosen  from  mensuration,  from  physics,  and  from  commercial  life.  The  use 
of  graphical  methods  and  illustrations,  particularly  in  connection  with  the  solution 
of  equations,  is  also  expected. 


b.  Advanced  algebra. 

Permutations  and  combinations,  limited  to  simple  cases. 

Complex  numbers,  with  graphical  representation  of  sums  and  differences. 

Determinants,  chiefly  of  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  orders,  including  the  use  of 
minors  and  the  solution  of  linear  equations. 

Numerical  equations  of  higher  degree,  and  so  much  of  the  theory  of  equations,  with 
graphical  methods,  as  is  necessary  for  their  treatment,  including  Descartes’  rule 
of  signs  and  Horner’s  method,  but  not  Sturm’s  functions  or  multiple  roots. 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


135 


c.  Plane  geometry . 

The  usual  theorems  and  constructions  of  good  textbooks,  including  the  general  proper- 
ties of  plane  rectilinear  figures;  the  circle  and  the  measurement  of  angles;  similar 
polygons;  areas;  regular  polygons,  and  the  measurement  of  the  circle. 

The  solution  of  numerous  original  exercises,  including  loci  problems. 

Applications  to  the  mensuration  of  lines  and  plane  surfaces. 

d.  Solid  geometry. 

The  usual  theorems  and  constructions  of  good  textbooks,  including  the  relations  of 
planes  and  lines  in  space;  the  properties  and  measurement  of  prisms,  pyramids, 
cylinders,  and  cones;  the  sphere  and  the  spherical  triangle. 

The  solution  of  numerous  original  exercises,  including  loci  problems. 

Applications  to  the  mensuration  of  surfaces  and  solids. 

e.  Trigonometry. 

Definitions  and  relations  of  the  six  trigonometric  functions  as  ratios;  circular  measure- 
ment of  angles. 

Proofs  of  principal  formulas,  in  particular  for  the  sine,  cosine,  and  tangent  of  the  sum 
and  the  difference  of  two  angles,  of  the  double  angle  and  the  half  angle,  the  prod- 
uct expressions  for  the  sum  or  the  difference  of  two  sines  or  of  two  cosines,  etc.; 
the  transformation  of  trigonometric  expressions  by  means  of  these  formulas. 
Solution  of  trigonometric  equations  of  a simple  character. 

Theory  and  use  of  logarithms  (without  the  introduction  of  work  involving  infinite 
series). 

The  solution  of  right  and  oblique  triangles  and  practical  applications,  including  the 
solution  of  right  spherical  triangles. 

/.  Plane  trigonometry. 

The  subject  is  the  same  as  the  preceding  except  that  no  topics  from  spherical  trigonom- 
etry are  included. 

In  algebra  many  of  the  schools  reporting  limit  the  work  of  the 
first  year  to  the  fundamental  operations  with  integral  and  fractional 
expressions,  factoring,  and  the  solution  of  linear  equations  with  one 
or  more  unknowns.  Others  cover  all  the  topics  included  in  the  fore- 
going definition  of  “Algebra  to  Quadratics, ” and  a few  give  still  more 
advanced  work.  The  complete  course  in  algebra  as  reported  by 
some  schools  is  more  comprehensive  than  the  definitions,  including 
some  or  all  of  the  following  topics:  Inequalities,  imaginaries,  varia- 
tion, harmonical  progressions,  infinite  series,  undetermined  coeffi- 
cients, logarithms,  probability,  continued  fractions,  summation  of 
series,  exponential  and  logarithmic  series,  theory  of  numbers. 

In  geometry  and  plane  trigonometry  the  scope  of  the  courses  is 
more  nearly  uniform  than  in  algebra.  Nearly  all  the  schools  report- 
ing follow  the  textbooks  closely,  almost  the  only  change  mentioned 
being  the  omission  by  many  schools  of  theorems  on  maxima  and 
minima  of  plane  figures.  In  solid  geometry  one  widely  used  text- 
book adds  a chapter  on  conic  sections  to  the  topics  included  in  the 
definition  of  the  College  Entrance  Examination  Board,  but  many 
schools  omit  this. 


136 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


METHODS. 

General  classroom  methods. — In  the  schools  represented  by  the 
returns  from  the  supplementary  questionnaire  a part  of  nearly  every 
lesson  is  devoted  to  oral  recitation  of  the  assigned  lesson,  but  this 
plan  is  used  less  frequently  in  algebra  than  in  geometry.  In  many 
of  the  schools  oral  drill  occupies  a small  part  of  each  period,  and  in 
most  of  them  blackboard  work  by  pupils  is  called  for  regularly.  A 
common  practice  is  to  have  half  the  class  at  the  board  while  the  other 
half  works  at  seats  or  recites  the  lesson  of  the  day.  In  most  schools 
classes  are  required  occasionally  to  answer  in  writing  questions  on  the 
assigned  lesson.  A new  topic  is  usually  developed  in  class  before 
home  work  upon  it  is  assigned. 

Preparation  of  lessons.1 — The  3^ounger  pupils  and  those  whose  work 
is  deficient  are  in  many  schools  required  to  prepare  their  lessons  under 
the  supervision  of  teachers.  The  older  pupils  in  good  standing  gen- 
erally study  in  their  rooms,  if  in  a boarding  school,  or  at  home,  if  day 
pupils.  A few  schools  report  a regular  weekly  period  in  which  the 
teacher  trains  the  pupils  in  methods  of  preparing  a new  lesson. 

The  lesson  to  be  prepared  out  of  class,  in  algebra,  consists  usually 
of  problems  taken  from  the  textbook.  In  geometry  the  lesson  com- 
monly calls  for  a studying  of  theorems  to  be  recited  in  class.  Other 
types  of  lessons  reported  are : Study  of  definitions,  rules,  methods  of 
solution,  and  general  principles;  writing  of  notes,  outlines  and  sum- 
maries, demonstration  of  original  theorems,  solution  of  numerical 
problems  based  on  geometrical  relationships,  problems  in  geometrical 
construction,  practical  problems,  invention  of  problems  to  illustrate 
a principle,  plotting  of  graphs,  construction  of  models,  and  out-door 
measurements. 

Special  methods  and  devices. — The  following  specific  methods  and 
devices  were  listed  in  the  principal  questionnaire,  and  reporting  offi- 
cers were  asked  to  cross  out  those  not  in  use,  to  indicate  the  time 
during  which  each  method  had  been  used,  and  to  state  whether  it 
were  still  5n  use.  The  number  after  each  item  indicates  the  percent- 


age of  replies  in  which  the  method  was  reported  to  be  in  use. 

Use  of  squared  paper 49 

Preliminary  course  in  observational  geometry  preceding  formal  demon- 
stration  32 

Laboratory  method 27 

Use  of  historical  material 26 

Heuristic  method 24 

Development  of  course  in  geometry  without  a textbook 20 

Paper  folding 19 

Study  of  logic  in  connection  with  geometry 16 

Mathematical  recreations 10 

Organization  of  a mathematics  club  among  the  pupils 4 


1 Based  on  returns  from  the  supplementary  questionnaire. 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


137 


In  nearly  all  cases  methods  once  used  were  reported  to  be  still  in 
use,  but  a few  schools  after  a trial  have  abandoned  the  teaching  of 
geometry  without  a textbook,  and  a few  others  the  use  of  a pre- 
liminary course  in  observational  geometry. 

Perhaps  the  most  noteworthy  feature  of  this  record  is  the  general 
use  of  squared  paper,  which  has  been  introduced  within  five  or  six 
years  by  most  of  the  schools  which  stated  the  period  of  use. 

Source  and  variety  of  problems. — The  most  common  practice  is  to 
use  the  problems  in  the  pupil’s  textbook  or  to  supplement  these  by 
dictated  problems,  but  in  many  schools  the  pupils  have  at  hand 
more  than  one  collection  of  exercises.  Historical  problems,  and  those 
drawn  from  other  school  subjects  and  from  current  events,  are  said 
to  be  used  in  about  half  of  the  schools  replying.  Problems  based  on 
industrial  appliances  and  processes  and  those  involving  out-of-door 
measurements  are  used  in  many  of  the  boys’  schools  and  coeduca- 
tional schools. 

Equipment. — Three-fourths  of  the  returns  to  the  principal  ques- 
tionnaire indicate,  on  lists  of  apparatus  and  tools,  which  of  the 
articles  are  possessed  by  the  school. 

About  40  per  cent  of  the  schools  replying  reported  mathematical 
reference  libraries  varying  in  size  from  two  or  three  volumes  to  several 
hundred  volumes.  The  median  size  is  50  volumes 

Three-fourths  of  the  schools  have  geometrical  models  and  drawing 
tools  for  use  with  the  blackboard.  A measuring  tape  is  part  of  the 
general  equipment  of  half  of  the  girls’  schools  and  two-tliirds  of  the 
others.  About  one-third  of  the  girls’  schools  and  more  than  half  of 
the  other  schools  include  a plumb  line  in  their  lists  of  mathematical 
apparatus.  One-third  of  the  schools  for  boys  and  for  both  sexes  and 
a small  proportion  of  the  girls’  schools  have  engineers’  transits  and 
nearly  as  many  have  sextants.  A few  schools  report  other  surveying 
instruments  which  were  not  included  in  the  printed  list.  About  one- 
fourth  of  the  schools  have  slide  rules,  coordinate  blackboards,  and 
spherical  blackboards ; a smaller  proportion  have  portraits  of  mathe- 
maticians and  a very  few  have  lantern  slides  illustrating  mathematical 
subjects.  On  the  whole  the  boys’  schools  have  more  extensive  general 
equipment  than  the  others. 

In  practically  all  of  the  schools  each  pupil  is  supplied  with  a ruler 
and  compasses.  In  a majority  of  the  schools  he  has  also  triangles, 
protractor,  dividers,  and  squared  paper;  and  in  many  schools  a ruling 
pen  is  added  to  the  pupil’s  individual  equipment. 

With  the  exception  of  the  possession  of  a mathematical  library, 
which  was  indicated  by  recording  the  number  of  volumes,  an  item  of 
equipment  not  crossed  out  stands  as  a possession  of  the  school.  This 
fact  doubtless  makes  the  foregoing  proportions  too  high. 


138 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Time  of  emphasis  upon  logical  relations. — In  accordance  with  the 
suggestion  of  the  central  committee  in  its  report  outlining  the  plan  of 
the  investigation,  a question  was  included  in  the  principal  question- 
naire asking  at  what  stage  (grade)  emphasis  is  shifted  from  manipu- 
lative skill  to  the  understanding  of  logical  relations.  Only  about  40 
per  cent  of  the  returns  gave  answers  to  this  question,  the  replies  from 
the  girls’  schools  being  especially  meager.  The  question  seems  to  be 
too  vague  to  make  the  reports  of  much  value. 

Every  grade  from  the  first  year  in  the  primary  school  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  college  course  is  mentioned  as  the  time  for  emphasizing 
logical  relations.  Many  lay  stress  on  reasoning  from  the  beginning  of 
the  course,  and  others  say  that  the  change  of  emphasis  comes  about 
“gradually,”  “at  no  definite  time,”  or  “varies  with  the  class.” 

The  grade  mentioned  most  often  as  the  point  of  transition  in  the 
reports  of  each  class  of  schools  (boys’,  girls’,  and  coeducational)  is  the 
second  year  of  the  four-year  high-school  course,  when  pupils  are  about 
15  years  of  age.  The  general  tendency  seems  to  be  to  make  the 
change  of  emphasis  earliest  in  the  girls’  schools  and  latest  in  the 
boys’  schools. 

EXAMINATIONS  AND  TESTS.1 

Examinations  given  by  the  school. — Formal  written  examinations  are 
given  by  nearly  all  the  schools,  varying  in  frequency  from  twice  a 
month  to  once  a year.  There  are  two  well-marked  tendencies,  one 
toward  short  monthly  examinations  and  the  other  and  more  general 
one  toward  longer  examinations  two  or  three  times  a year.  Two 
examinations  are  commonly  given  in  the  girls’  schools  and  three  in 
the  boys’  schools  and  coeducational  schools. 

The  examinations  vary  in  length  from  30  minutes  to  240  minutes. 
In  the  girls’  schools  and  coeducational  schools  monthly  examinations 
commonly  last  about  45  minutes,  and  term  or  semiannual  examina- 
tions 2 hours.  In  boys’  schools  there  is  greater  variation  in  practice, 
but  the  tendency  is  toward  longer  examinations,  3 hours  being  nearly 
as  common  as  2 hours  for  term  examinations. 

In  a few  schools  promotion  is  dependent  solely  upon  the  passing  of 
these  examinations,  but  the  common  practice  in  calculating  the  pupils’ 
standing  is  to  give  examinations  one-half  or  one-tliird  of  the  total 
weight.  The  papers  are  in  almost  all  cases  set  and  marked  by  the 
teacher. 

In  addition  to  the  formal  examinations  written  tests  are  given  in 
most  schools,  sometimes  weekly,  but  more  commonly  once  or  twice  a 
month.  These  tests  occupy  in  most  cases  about  45  minutes. 

Purpose  of  examinations  given  by  the  school. — The  purposes  most 
generally  recognized  for  examinations  given  as  a part  of  the  school 


i Data  of  supplementary  questionnaire. 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


139 


work  are  to  serve  as  a spur  to  pupils  and  as  an  incentive  to  review 
and  organization  of  subject  matter.  The  latter  purpose  is  considered 
by  many  to  be  the  most  important.  Most  of  the  teachers  consider 
examinations  of  some  value  as  tests  of  a pupil's  ability  and  progress, 
but  in  both  these  respects  many  point  out  that  such  tests  are  often 
misleading.  There  is  nothing  in  the  replies  to  indicate  that  exami- 
nations are  used  to  measure  a pupil’s  progress  with  any  degree  of 
exactness.  A majority  of  the  teachers  consider  that  examinations 
act  as  a spur  to  teachers  and  serve  as  a test,  for  their  own  benefit,  of 
the  efficiency  of  their  work.  Many,  however,  do  not  think  highly  of 
this  purpose  of  examinations.  About  half  the  replies  approve  of  ex- 
aminations for  the  purpose  of  comparing  the  relative  standing  of 
different  classes.  The  purpose  securing  the  least  support  is  that  of 
testing  the  efficiency  of  the  teacher  for  the  enlightenment  of  school 
officers. 

Ill  effects  of  examinations  given  by  the  school. — In  answer  to  the 
question,  “What  ill  effects  have  you  noticed  of  the  examinations 
given  in  the  school  by  teachers  or  school  officers  ? ” Forty-one  schools 
replied  “none”  and  30  gave  no  answer,  which  in  most  instances  is 
probably  equivalent  to  the  answer  “none.”  The  ill  effects  most  fre- 
quently mentioned  are  nervous  excitement  (28  cases),  “cramming” 
(15  cases),  tendency  to  place  a wrong  interpretation  upon  the  value 
of  examinations,  including  working  for  marks  (14  cases),  discourage- 
ment of  weak  students  (10  cases),  and  temptation  to  dishonesty  (9 
cases).  Most  of  the  reports  referring  to  nervous  strain  came  from 
girls’  schools;  only  two  were  from  boys’  schools.  In  many  instances 
the  teachers  reporting  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  ill  effects  are  con- 
fined to  a few  individuals. 

Modifications  of  school  examinations  are  suggested  in  only  a few 
of  the  replies.  These  include  exemption  from  examinations  for  pupils 
of  high  standing,  increase  in  number  and  decrease  in  length  of 
examinations. 

Admission  of  students  to  higher  institutions. — Two  methods  are  in 
common  use  for  determining  a student’s  fitness  to  enter  college, 
namely,  (1)  examinations  by  the  college  or  by  the  College  Entrance 
Examination  Board  and  (2)  a certificate  furnished  by  the  school  of 
the  completion  by  the  student  of  the  requirements  prescribed  by  the 
college.  Among  the  113  schools  reporting  on  this  matter,  practice 
seems  to  be  about  equally  divided  between  the  two  methods.  In  22 
schools  all  candidates  take  examinations,  in  17  all  enter  on  certificate, 
wldle  in  the  others  the  two  methods  are  combined  in  all  proportions. 
In  New  England  the  examination  method  is  the  common  one,  and  in 
the  North  Central  States  the  certificate.  In  the  Middle  Atlantic 
States  a majority  of  the  schools  send  more  than  half  their  students 
to  college  “by  examination,”  but  many  use  the  certificate  freely. 


140 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Among  the  girls'  schools  there  appear  to  be  two  distinct  groups.  In 
the  larger  group  the  certificate  is  used  freely,  in  the  smaller  one  it  is 
never  used. 

The  variation  in  use  of  the  different  methods  is  due  in  part  to  the 
demands  of  the  colleges,  since  a few  of  the  largest  institutions  admit 
students  only  by  examination.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  many 
schools  are  not  in  favor  of  the  certificate  plan,  and  prefer  to  have 
their  students  take  examinations. 

Effect  of  college  entrance  examinations. — A large  majority  of  the 
schools  report  that  the  course  of  study  has  been  affected  by  college 
entrance  examinations.  The  most  general  criticism  is  that  the 
courses  are  overcrowded. 

Only  a few  mention  any  effect  on  methods  of  teaching,  but  nearly 
all  of  these  agree  that  much  time  is  devoted  to  drill  in  preparation 
for  the  examinations  which  would  otherwise  be  omitted.  The  papers 
of  previous  years  are  used  for  practice.  One  school  required  its 
students  to  spend  alternate  Saturday  mornings  after  New  Year  in 
taking  these  practice  examinations.  A few  say  that  the  restrictions 
imposed  upon  the  freedom  of  the  teacher  by  the  necessity  of  pre- 
paring for  the  examinations  tends  to  make  his  work  mechanical. 

Most  of  those  who  refer  to  standards  of  work  think  that  they  are 
raised  by  the  examinations.  A few  think  that  they  are  lowered. 
Others  say  that  they  furnish  a definite  standard. 

Effect  of  the  certificate  plan. — A majority  of  the  schools  which  send 
pupils  to  college  “on  certificate"  report  that  no  changes  have  been 
made  in  course  of  study,  methods  of  teaching,  or  standards  of  work 
as  a result  of  inspection  of  the  school  or  scrutiny  of  the  records  of  its 
graduates  by  college  officers.  Several,  however,  say  that  the  work 
has  been  made  more  thorough  in  response  to  these  checks.  Some 
schools  keep  a record  of  the  college  work  of  their  graduates  who  have 
been  entered  “on  certificate,"  and  several  make  a practice  of  certi- 
fying only  pupils  who  attain  a high  standard. 

One  teacher  says  that  the  success  in  college  work  of  the  certified 
graduates  of  his  school  encouraged  him  to  depart  further  from  con- 
ventional methods  and  courses.  Another  says  that  the  responsibility 
of  a school  for  the  college  work  of  a graduate  whom  it  has  certified 
stimulates  teachers  to  strive  to  give  their  pupils  a real  grasp  of  the 
subject  rather  than  a temporary  knowledge  such  as  serves  for  passing 
an  examination. 

MATHEMATICS  AND  COEDUCATION. 

As  the  practice  in  the  private  secondary  schools  of  the  United 
States  is  about  equally  divided  between  coeducation  and  separate 
education  of  the  sexes,  this  field  seems  to  offer  a peculiarly  favorable 
opportunity  for  studying  the  relation  of  coeducation  to  mathematical 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


141 


education.  The  practice  in  the  different  types  of  schools  has,  there- 
fore, been  presented  in  the  foregoing  discussion  in  relation  to  most 
of  the  points  considered. 

To  supplement  the  statistics  bearing  upon  actual  practice,  it  was 
felt  that  the  opinions  of  the  teachers  as  to  the  bearing  of  coeducation 
upon  the  effectiveness  of  mathematics  teaching  would  be  of  value. 
Accordingly,  the  supplementary  questionnaire  for  coeducational 
schools  contained  questions  calling  for  such  opinions.  Thirty-six 
replies  were  received. 

Nine  of  the  teachers  answering  the  questions  had  taught  in  coedu- 
cational schools  for  not  more  than  5 years;  13  from  6 to  10  years; 
and  13  over  10  years.  Only  6 had  taught  separate  classes  of  boys, 
and  only  3 separate  classes  of  girls,  all  of  whom  were  included  among 
the  6 who  had  taught  boys  alone.  The  fact  that  so  few  of  the 
replies  came  from  teachers  who  have  had  experience  in  teaching  the 
sexes  separately  evidently  diminishes  the  value  of  the  testimony. 

In  all  the  schools  represented  by  the  replies  coeducation  had  been 
in  use  from  the  establishment  of  the  school;  but  one  reported  having 
separated  the  sexes  for  class  instruction  during  recent  years.  Two 
schools  besides  the  one  just  mentioned  reported  that  there  is  some 
prospect  of  separation  of  the  sexes  in  class  work,  in  the  interests  of 
a better  adaptation  of  rate  of  work,  character  of  subject  matter,  and 
methods,  to  peculiar  characteristics  of  the  sexes.  None  of  the  other 
teachers  see  any  prospect  of  the  modification  of  the  present  plan. 

Teachers  were  asked  to  compare  the  sexes  with  regard  to  their 
success  in  passing  the  requirements  in  the  various  mathematical  sub- 
jects. In  arithmetic  20  report  no  difference,  7 state  that  boys  are 
more  successful,  4 that  girls  are  more  successful;  in  algebra  21  find 
no  difference,  6 consider  boys  more  successful,  5 consider  girls  more 
successful;  in  geometry  13  report  that  the  sexes  have  equal  success, 
and  19  consider  that  boys  excel;  in  trigonometry,  9 report  no  differ- 
ence, and  14  consider  that  boys  are  more  successful.  Several  said 
that,  while  boys  are  as  a rule  superior  as  mathematical  students  to 
girls,  there  are  frequently  brilliant  students  in  mathematics  among 
the  girls. 

In  regard  to  the  relative  tendency  of  boys  and  girls  to  choose 
elective  courses  in  mathematics,  the  answers  indicate  that  boys  are 
much  more  inclined  to  elect  such  courses  than  girls  are. 

In  accuracy  of  intuition  in  regard  to  mathematical  relations,  6 of 
the  teachers  report  no  difference  in  the  sexes,  1 considers  girls  slightly 
superior,  and  19  boys  superior. 

In  skill  in  formal  processes,  11  find  no  difference,  8 find  boys 
superior,  10,  girls  superior. 

In  grasp  of  logical  sequence,  6 report  no  difference,  and  25  boys 
superior. 


142 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


In  ability  to  solve  “original  theorems/'  28  say  that  boys  are 
superior,  and  3 report  no  difference. 

In  answer  to  the  question,  “Do  you  think  that  the  subject  matter 
of  high-school  courses  in  mathematics  should  be  the  same  for  both 
sexes?"  14  replied  “Yes,"  9 replied  “No,"  and  7 replied  “Yes" 
with  qualifications.  The  differences  in  subject  matter  for  boys  and 
girls  regarded  as  desirable  by  some  teachers  are:  (1)  Requirements 
in  algebra  and  geometry  should  be  less  for  girls  than  for  boys. 
(2)  Solid  geometry  and  trigonometry  should  be  omitted  or  made 
optional  for  girls.  (3)  The  applications  should  be  such  as  appeal 
to  the  interest  of  both  sexes. 

Only  one  difference  in  methods  of  teaching  the  sexes  was  sug- 
gested and  that  was  mentioned  by  only  one  teacher;  namely,  that 
mathematics  be  developed  empirically  rather  than  logically  in  the 
instruction  of  girls.  It  is  interesting  to  note  in  this  connection  that 
one  teacher,  arguing  from  the  same  characteristics  as  shown  by  the 
sexes,  would  give  the  girls  special  training  in  logical  reasoning. 

To  sum  up,  most  of  the  teachers  who  gave  testimony  agree  that 
there  is  a difference  in  the  mental  traits  of  boys  and  girls  and  in  their 
ability  to  do  different  kinds  of  mathematical  work;  but  a decided 
majority  do  not  consider  that  these  differences  are  sufficiently  great 
to  warrant  separate  class  instruction.  About  a fourth  of  these 
teachers  would  provide  for  sex  differences  by  a slightly  different 
treatment  of  pupils  in  the  same  class  and  by  making  part  of  the  work 
elective;  another  fourth  feel  that  the  differences  are  too  great  to 
permit  the  most  effective  work  unless  separate  classes  are  provided. 

AIM  OF  INSTRUCTION  IN  MATHEMATICS. 

With  a view  to  gaining  some  insight  into  the  attitude  of  teachers 
of  mathematics  toward  their  work  and  to  learning  the  extent  to 
which  they  attempt  to  analyze  their  problem,  the  supplementary 
questionnaire  included  a list  of  questions  on  the  aims  of  instruction  in 
mathematics  and  the  means  employed  to  attain  these  aims.  The 
list  included  questions  on  the  general  aim  of  mathematics  teaching, 
the  aims  especially  served  by  the  different  mathematical  subjects,  the 
inclusion  of  individual  topics  in  the  curriculum  for  specific  purposes, 
the  relation  of  course  of  study  in  mathematics  to  vocational  training, 
and  the  value  of  mathematics  for  mental  discipline. 

Aim  of  instruction  in  mathematics  in  general. — In  presenting  the 
question  on  the  general  aim,  nine  statements  were  given  of  which 
teachers  were  asked  to  cross  out  those  not  recognized,  a method 
which  gives  no  means  of  discriminating  between  controlling  aims  and 
those  having  only  a slight  influence.  This  defect  is  remedied  to  some 
extent  by  the  questions  on  the  relation  of  particular  subjects  and 
topics  to  the  various  aims. 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


143 


Of  the  136  replies,  all  recognize  mental  discipline  as  one  of  the  aims 
of  mathematics  teaching,  and  all  but  three  work  for  the  development 
of  an  accurate  conception  of  space  and  form.  Nearly  all  approve  of 
preparation  for  more  advanced  work  in  mathematics , preparation  for 
studying  other  subjects , the  teaching  of  mathematical  truths  for  their  own 
sake , and  the  cultivation  of  an  appreciation  of  the  importance  of  mathe- 
matical knowledge  in  modern  life.  Only  eleven  schools  are  able  to 
ignore  preparation  either  for  examination  or  for  requirements  imposed 
by  outside  authorities. 

The  preparation  for  vocations  is  the  aim  least  generally  recognized. 
Ninety  per  cent  of  the  boys’  schools  recognize  this  aim,  but  only  a 
little  more  than  half  of  the  girls’  schools  regard  it. 

Predominant  aims  in  teaching  special  subjects. — About  one-fifth  of 
those  reporting  apparently  find  it  difficult  to  select  the  aims  chiefly 
served  by  the  different  mathematical  subjects,  for  they  pass  the  ques- 
tion by.  The  replies  represent  a very  wide  variation  of  opinion, 
every  one  of  the  aims  being  mentioned  by  several  as  important  in 
connection  with  each  of  the  subjects.  Very  few  consider  any  one 
aim  as  sufficiently  influential  in  teaching  any  subject  to  warrant  its 
standing  alone  as  the  predominant  aim. 

A rather  marked  difference  exists  in  point  of  view  of  the  teachers 
in  girls’  schools  on  the  one  hand  and  those  in  boys’  schools  and 
coeducational  schools  on  the  other.  Among  the  girls’  schools,  mental 
discipline  is  most  generally  regarded  as  a predominant  aim.  In  the 
other  schools,  vocational  training  and  preparation  for  advanced  work 
in  mathematics  are  mentioned  most  frequently  in  connection  with 
arithmetic  and  trigonometry,  and  preparation  for  study  of  advanced 
mathematics  and  other  subjects  in  connection  with  algebra.  In 
geometry,  mental  discipline  takes  first  place,  and  the  development 
of  accurate  conceptions  of  space  and  form  stands  second  in  the 
reports  from  all  three  types  of  schools. 

Topics  included  in  the  course  to  serve  specific  aims. — About  30  per 
cent  of  the  reports  make  no  attempt  to  answer  the  question  on  the 
relation  of  aims  to  particular  topics  of  the  course.  The  others  repre- 
sent the  greatest  variety  of  opinion.  Many  teachers  apparently  have 
no  specific  purpose  in  mind  in  teaching  any  topic  and  there  is  little 
agreement  as  to  the  topics  which  best  serve  a given  purpose.  Every 
one  of  the  nine  aims  listed  in  the  paragraph  on  aims  in  general  is  given 
by  several  teachers  as  the  chief  purpose  for  including  graphs  in  the 
course.  One  can  hardly  avoid  the  conviction  that  custom  as  expressed 
in  college-entrance  requirements  and  in  textbooks  is  the  chief  factor 
in  determining  what  topics  shall  be  taught. 

Proposed  requirements  in  mathematics  for  various  classes  of  students. — 
In  the  opinion  of  the  majority  of  teachers  there  is  need  of  very  little 
differentiation  of  mathematical  courses  in  accordance  with  vocational 


144 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


intentions  or  plans  for  higher  education.  Arithmetic,  algebra,  and 
plane  geometry  would  be  required  for  all  classes  of  students,  except 
the  boys  preparing  for  technical  schools,  who,  in  the  opinion  of  the  ma- 
jority, have  had  enough  arithmetic  in  the  elementary  schools.  They 
should,  however,  have  solid  geometry  and  trigonometry  in  addition 
to  the  other  subjects.  While  this  represents  the  consensus  of  opinion 
several  modifications  are  strongly  supported.  For  college  prepara- 
tory students  of  both  sexes  and  for  boys  preparing  for  law  and  medical 
schools  nearly  half  the  teachers  would  omit  arithmetic  as  a require- 
ment in  the  secondary  school.  More  than  a fourth  of  the  replies  call 
for  solid  geometry  as  a requirement  for  boys  preparing  for  college, 
and  advanced  algebra  for  boys  intending  to  enter  technical  schools. 
For  boys  anticipating  a business  career  and  for  girls  whether  preparing 
for  technical  schools,  for  commercial  positions,  or  for  domestic 
responsibilities  a strong  minority  would  require  neither  algebra  nor 
geometry.  In  the  case  of  the  girls  this  view  is  supported  by  from  20 
per  cent  to  40  per  cent  of  the  replies.  A few  would  make  the  geometry 
concrete  for  girls  not  preparing  for  college  and  many  would  treat  the 
subjects  differently  for  commercial  students  (especially  girls).  The 
modifications  suggested  relate  chiefly  to  shortening  the  courses, 
omission  of  theoretical  discussions,  and  emphasis  upon  practical 
applications. 

Analytic  geometry  and  elementary  treatment  of  the  calculus  are 
proposed  by  only  four  or  five  teachers  as  part  of  a course  for  boys 
preparing  for  technical  schools. 

Following  is  a summary  of  the  replies  in  tabular  form: 

Proposed  requirements  in  mathematics  for  various  classes  of  pupils. 


Number  of  teachers  recommending  certain  studies  for — 


Proposed  require- 
ments. 

Boys  for— 

Girls  for— 

College. 

Tech- 

nical 

schools. 

Business. 

Profes- 

sional 

schools. 

College. 

Tech- 

nical 

schools. 

Commer- 

cial 

schools. 

Home 

duties. 

Arithmetic 

40 

30 

63 

42 

52 

69 

82 

77 

Elementary  algebra. . 

80 

80 

69 

73 

98 

64 

65 

74 

Advanced  algebra 

6 

24 

2 

3 

5 

3 

1 

1 

Concrete  geometry 

9 

5 

7 

Plane  geometry 

80 

80 

61 

71 

98 

59 

53 

65 

Solid  geometry 

21 

67 

9 

15 

10 

3 

2 

2 

Plane  trigonometry.. 

11 

60 

6 

12 

8 

2 

1 

Analytical  geometry 

4 

Elements  of  calculus 

5 

Total  number  of  re- 

plies  

80 

80 

77 

75 

98 

85 

88 

92 

Mental  discipline. — It  has  already  been  said  that  all  the  teachers 
reporting  recognize  mental  discipline  as  one  of  the  aims  of  mathe- 
matics teaching.  As  psychologists  are  claiming  that  too  much 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


145 


reliance  has  been  placed  upon  the  supposed  value  of  study  of  a single 
subject  for  general  improvement  of  mental  processes,  the  opinions  of 
teachers  of  mathematics  upon  this  point  seem  pertinent  to  a discus- 
sion of  aims. 

To  the  request  “If  you  regard  mental  discipline  as  an  important 
aim,  explain  as  fully  as  possible  what  you  mean  by  mental  discipline,” 
nearly  nine-tenths  of  the  teachers  give  some  reply,  but  very  few 
attempt  to  analyze  their  conceptions.  Mental  discipline  is,  in  most 
cases,  described  in  vague,  general  terms,  loosely  applied,  representing 
all  sorts  of  mental  and  even  moral  qualities  which  are  believed  to 
result  from  a discipline  of  the  mind.  Nearly  all  have  a firm  convic- 
tion that  general  abilities  are  gained  through  exercise  of  the  mind 
upon  a particular  subject,  especially  mathematics. 

A composite  of  the  replies  shows  that  mental  discipline  is  consid- 
ered to  be  that  which  produces  an  improvement  in  intuition,  judg- 
ment, memory,  imagination,  intelligence,  reason,  mental  powers, 
reasoning  powers;  or  an  improvement  in  ability  or  power  of  mental 
concentration,  initiative,  sustained  effort,  analysis,  generalization; 
or  an  improvement  in  ability  to  think  rapidty,  clearly,  independently, 
logically;  to  recognize  the  essential  elements  in  a problem,  to  note 
resemblances  and  relationships,  to  grasp  and  apply  principles,  to 
understand  cause  and  effect.  One  of  the  most  generally  approved 
results  of  mental  discipline  is  the  ability  to  express  thoughts  clearly, 
concisely,  and  accurately.  In  a few  cases  mental  discipline  is  de- 
scribed as  the  formation  of  habits ; habits  of  mental  concentration,  of 
industry,  of  accuracy  in  thought  and  expression. 

Following  are  a few  examples  of  more  definite  analyses  of  the 
authors’  conceptions  of  mental  discipline: 

Mental  discipline  is  that  process  of  mind  which  (1)  recognizes  there  is  a problem. 
(2)  Wills  that  the  problem  be  solved.  (3)  Perseveres  until  the  desired  goal  is  obtained. 

Results  of  mental  discipline  are — 

ability  to  observe  well,  to  make  correct  records,  written  or  in  memory,  of  tilings 
observed,  to  sift  daia  or  evidence,  to  draw  correct  inferences,  to  state  these  infer- 
ences in  clear  language. 

In  only  a few  cases,  such  as  the  two  following,  is  the  influence  of 
modern  views  of  formal  discipline  apparent: 

The  modern  psychologists  have  made  this  a difficult  thing  to  do  (explain  meaning 
of  mental  discipline),  but  the  habits  of  making  exact  statements,  of  finishing  a piece 
of  work  in  hand,  of  seeking  the  proof  for  each  statement,  not  only  ought  to  be  valuable 
but  I am  convinced  are  valuable. 

Mental  discipline  through  mathematics  for  mathematical  work  consists  in  the 
acquirement  of  mathematical  facts  and  ideas,  processes,  methods  of  solution,  and 
standards  of  accomplishment.  Mental  discipline  through  mathematics  for  other  kinds 
of  work  consists,  I think,  in  development  or  strengthening  of  certain  ideals  or  standards, 
9560°— 11 10 


146 


MATHEMATICS  IN'  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


such  as  logical  perfection,  mastery  of  difficulties,  etc.  General  power  is  not  necessarily 
gained  by  the  study  of  mathematics,  but  the  student  may  be  so  impressed  by  the 
logical  perfection  of  mathematical  reasoning  as  to  consciously  test  his  thinking  on 
other  subjects  by  similar  standards,  and  the  sense  of  mastery  experienced  in  mathe- 
matical victories  may  give  confidence  in  attacking  other  difficulties. 

About  half  of  the  teachers  consider  mathematics  superior  for 
mental  discipline  to  all  other  subjects.  A considerable  number  con- 
sider it  superior  for  certain  kinds  of  discipline,  usually  for  improve- 
ment in  logical  reasoning  or  in  accuracy.  A few  qualify  their 
approval,  saying  that  mathematics  is  superior  to  some  subjects  or  for 
some  minds.  About  10  per  cent  of  the  teachers  do  not  regard  it  as 
superior  to  other  subjects  and  one  says  in  answer  to  the  question, 
“ Decidedly  no.” 

The  nature  of  the  superiority  is  usually  stated  in  terms  of  the 
desirable  qualities  of  mind  which  are  said  to  be  produced  more 
readily  through  mathematics  than  through  other  subjects.  One  says 
it  “requires  thought.”  The  superior  quality  of  mathematics  most 
frequently  referred  to  are  its  definiteness  and  the  absolute  trust- 
worthiness of  its  principles.  The  simplicity  of  its  data  and  the  ease 
of  checking  results  make  this  the  best  medium  for  training  the  stu- 
dent in  logical  reasoning.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  said  to  call  for 
greater  mental  effort,  and  therefore  to  result  in  greater  mental  power. 

DISTINCTIVE  FEATURES  IN  A FEW  INDIVIDUAL  SCHOOLS. 

The  following  statements  are  added  to  the  report,  as  originally 
prepared,  in  response  to  the  feeling  that  the  omission  of  all  reference 
to  experiments  and  attempts  to  improve  prevailing  practice  would 
be  misleading  as  a statement  of  the  situation  in  the  private  secondary 
schools  and  also  neglectful  of  the  opportunity  of  acquainting  teachers 
with  such  movements.  The  omission  of  this  phase  of  the  subject  in 
the  original  draft  was  due  to  the  impossibility  of  making  a compre- 
hensive statement  in  regard  to  it,  and  in  employing  this  makeshift 
the  committee  is  anxious  that  its  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  report  be 
clearly  understood.  We  have  no  means  of  knowing  how  generally 
the  ideas  expressed  in  these  six  statements  are  affecting  courses  in 
the  schools  of  the  country,  but  it  is  certain  that  the  two  ideas  which 
are  here  so  prominent — unification  of  the  various  elements  of  the 
course  and  application  of  mathematical  principles  in  daily  life — are 
receiving  much  attention.  We  do  not  mean  to  imply  that  these  are 
the  most  important  movements  now  going  on,  and  we  are  particu- 
larly desirous  that  it  be  understood  that  these  schools  have  not  been 
singled  out  as  the  best  representatives  of  progressive  teaching.  In 
the  absence  of  material  for  an  adequate  statement  of  movements  for 
improvement,  these  statements  are  offered  merely  in  proof  of  the 
fact  that  such  movements  are  in  existence  and  in  the  hope  that  the 
plans  described  may  be  of  service  to  other  teachers. 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


147 


PRINCIPLES  UNDERLYING  THE  COURSE  IN  MATHEMATICS  AS  STUDIED 
IN  THE  DETROIT  HOME  AND  DAY  SCHOOL,  DETROIT,  MICH. 

[This  part  of  the  report  was  prepared  by  S.  A.  Courtis,  of  the  Detroit  Home  and  Day  School.] 

The  Detroit  Home  and  Day  School  is  a private  school  for  girls. 
The  activities  of  the  school  extend  from  the  kindergarten  through 
college  preparatory  work,  and  as  the  period  of  secondary  education 
has  been  lengthened  to  5 years,  the  courses  provide  for  15  years 
of  continuous  school  life.  About  half  of  the  362  pupils  enrolled 
during  the  present  year  (1911)  are  in  the  five  grades  of  the  academic 
department.  The  number  of  teachers  and  officers  is  42.  While 
nominally  a commercial  enterprise,  practically  the  school  is  the  life 
work  of  a single  group  of  persons,  the  expression  of  a consistent  set 
of  educational  ideals. 

The  school  is  educationally  independent.  While  in  all  its  college 
preparatory  work  its  courses  and  standards  are  determined  almost 
wholly  by  college-entrance  requirements,  it  has,  nevertheless,  a suffi- 
cient body  of  pupils  not  going  to  college  to  warrant  the  close  study 
of  its  own  problems  and  the  modification  of  its  courses  and  methods 
to  meet  the  needs  and  demands  of  the  community.  The  school  must 
be  regarded,  therefore,  as  an  educational  unity,  complete  in  itself. 

The  organization  of  the  school  is  along  departmental  lines,  the 
departments  being  English,  history,  language,  science  and  mathe- 
matics, and  physical  training.  Heads  of  departments  are  free  to 
work  out  the  general  aims  of  the  school  in  ways  best  suited  to  the 
subject  and  conditions  of  the  department.  Unity  is  secured  through 
unity  of  aim  rather  than  through  rigid  adherence  to  a fixed  system. 

The  vital  characteristics  of  the  school  are  three:  Continuity,  coor- 
dination, and  correlation;  continuity,  because  the  courses  in  each 
department,  from  lowest  to  highest,  form  an  unbroken  series  under 
one  control;  coordination,  because  in  the  same  way  all  departmental 
work  and  all  the  life  of  the  school  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest  is 
under  one  control;  and  correlation,  because  from  the  viewpoint  of 
those  in  control  education  is  regarded  as  a whole,  not  as  many  sepa- 
rate wholes. 

Taking  up  now  the  consideration  of  the  mathematics  course,  the 
first  point  to  be  noted  is  the  departmental  unity  made  possible  by 
the  general  organization  of  the  school.  So  completely  are  the 
courses  in  mathematics  the  expression  of  a single  aim  that  it  will  be 
impossible  to  consider  the  high-school  work  apart  from  the  general 
plan.  There  is  no  break  or  change  in  passing  from  the  earlier  to  later 
grades,  from  arithmetic  to  algebra  and  geometry.  So  completely 
are  the  subjects  merged  that  the  work  of  the  high-school  years  is 
better  described  as  a three-year  course  in  mathematics  than  as  spe- 
cifically either  algebra  or  geometry  for  any  one  year.  Further,  the 
direct  preparation  for  the  high-school  subjects,  geometry,  for  instance, 


148 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


runs  back  to  the  earliest  work.  An  increasing  amount  of  geometric 
material  is  used  in  every  grade,  and  the  study  of  formal,  demonstra- 
tive geometry  is  but  the  logical  outgrowth  of  the  preceding  work.  In 
the  same  way  graphic  work  in  algebra,  or  the  use  of  the  literal  nota- 
tion, is  but  the  final  culmination  of  an  extended  series  of  exercises 
through  many  previous  grades.  On  the  other  hand,  direct  provision 
is  made  for  review  and  drill  upon  certain  topics  of  arithmetic  in  the 
high-school  work.  Further,  in  selection  of  subject  matter,  choice  of 
methods,  shift  of  emphasis,  and  remedying  of  defects,  the  point  of 
view  is  that  of  the  course  as  a whole  rather  than  that  of  any  single 
grade  or  division  of  subject  matter. 

A second  point  to  be  noted,  also  a direct  result  of  the  general  prin- 
ciples of  the  school,  is  the  correlation  of  the  work  in  mathematics 
with  the  work  in  other  departments.  The  merging  of  the  departments 
of  science  and  mathematics  into  one  has  resulted  in  the  introduction 
of  much  laboratory  work  and  science  material  into  the  work  at  all 
points,  particularly  into  the  intermediate  grades  in  arithmetic.  The 
laboratories  of  the  school  are  in  use  nearly  as  much  by  the  classes  in 
arithmetic  and  algebra  as  by  those  in  science.  Material  for  problems 
is  also  drawn  from  other  school  subjects,  geography,  history,  etc., 
from  the  activities  of  the  school,  and  from  daily  life.  A graded  course 
in  actual  business  and  banking  is  a feature  of  the  intermediate  arith- 
metic work.  In  every  way  the  effort  is  made  to  have  the  child 
realize  the  meaning  of  the  work  and  its  bearing  on  his  daily  life. 

Pedagogically,  the  work  of  the  department  is  based  upon  the  con- 
dition that  there  are  three  steps  in  the  natural  growth  of  intellectual 
powers:  The  acquisition  of  basic,  sensory  experience;  the  develop- 
ment of  control  through  use;  and,  finally,  the  formulation  of  the 
abstract  principles  involved.  The  attempt  is  made  to  have  the 
children  meet  each  new  topic  first  in  a concrete  setting,  as  a problem 
for  which  no  method  of  solution  is  known.  The  class  work  and 
laboratory  then  develop  the  method  of  attack  and  solution,  and 
finally  the  knowledge  and  skill  attained  are  tested  in  concrete  prob- 
lems out  of  which  new  topics  arise. 

In  addition  to  conforming  to  the  natural  steps  of  intellectual 
growth,  there  is  also  the  problem  of  adjustment  of  the  character  of 
the  work  to  the  development  of  the  growing  child.  The  courses  of 
the  school  provide  adequate  training  at  every  stage  of  growth.  Not 
only  is  each  topic  met  in  at  least  three  successive  grades  (the  first 
year,  incidentally;  the  second  year,  as  the  important  topic  of  the 
year;  the  third  year,  for  analysis  and  formulation,  for  learning  of 
rules  and  for  drill  in  the  abstract  principles  involved),  but  the  course 
covers  the  same  ground  three  times,  from  different  viewpoints,  and 
passes  by  easy,  connecting  steps  from  the  observational,  concrete 
work  of  the  kindergarten  to  the  formal  and  abstract  demonstrations 
of  algebra  and  geometry. 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


149 


From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  the  emphasis  is  placed  upon 
the  reasoning  rather  than  upon  the  mechanical  side  of  mathematics. 
Mention  has  already  been  made  of  the  use  of  laboratory  exercises, 
but  this  phase  of  the  work  needs  special  emphasis,  for  out  of  it  all 
mathematical  work  proceeds  and  to  it  all  knowledge  and  skill  returns. 
Every  effort  is  made  to  insure  the  intelligent  use  of  mathematics  as 
a tool.  Opportunities  are  thus  provided  for  the  child  to  weigh  values 
and  learn  through  his  own  mistakes.  For  it  is  believed  that  under- 
standing knowledge  comes  by  use  and  not  by  instruction;  that  the 
child  must  have  a chance  to  learn  through  his  own  struggles  toward 
success. 

On  the  other  hand  it  is  recognized  that  the  growth  of  the  child  in 
accuracy  and  knowledge  is  of  equal  importance  with  his  growth  in 
understanding.  Constant  review  of  the  old  in  the  new  is  provided 
and  there  is  systematic  effort  to  let  no  part  of  the  old  be  lost  through 
disuse.  Adequate  and  rigid  drill,  but  drill  in  its  proper  place,  after 
mastery  through  use.  insure  a high  final  efficiency.  The  extensive 
laboratory  work  and  the  provision  for  drill  are  both  distinctive  fea- 
tures of  the  course. 

One  further  topic  will  be  discussed,  the  aim  of  the  mathematics 
courses,  particularly  in  high-school  years.  The  work  of  the  depart- 
ment is  organized  around  the  belief  that  courses  in  algebra  and  geom- 
etry have  a place  and  a function  that  can  be  filled  by  no  other  sub- 
ject, i.  e.,  to  make  plain  the  essential  nature  of  the  thinking  processes 
itself.  The  value  of  mathematics  for  this  purpose  is  unique  because 
it  alone  can  provide  mental  environment  completely  under  control 
and  completely  devoid  of  emotional  content.  In  such  an  environment 
only  can  an  individual  clearly  see  the  relations  between  the  various 
mental  steps  or  acts  which  make  up  thinking.  There  is  no  question 
of  transfer  here.  The  child  that  learns  to  think  in  mathematics  does 
not  necessarily  learn  to  think  in  other  subjects,  but  the  child  that 
learns  how  he  thinks  in  mathematics  and  that  is  taught  to  think  in 
other  subjects  soon  learns  that  all  thinking  is  conducted  on  the  same 
general  plan.  The  courses  in  mathematics  are  planned  to  bring  to 
consciousness  the  general  features  of  all  inductive  and  deductive 
thinking  that  out  of  any  and  all  the  mental  activities  of  the  individual 
there  may  issue  the  sooner  that  general  method  of  behavior  in  the 
presence  of  a real  problem  that  is  characterized  as  “general  ability.,, 
To  this  end  the  exercises  of  the  school  lay  more  emphasis  than  usual 
upon  initiative  and  executive  ability,  upon  original  discovery  and 
analytical  thinking,  upon  recognition  and  formulation  of  relations 
as  well  as  upon  the  deductive  application  of  proved  or  accepted 
principles.  As  a result  the  mathematics  courses  have  a vitality  and 
a functional  relationship  to  the  rest  of  school  work  which  was  not 
possible  under  the  older  system. 


150 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Other  features  of  the  school  are  worthy  of  discussion,  particularly 
the  attempt  of  the  school  to  study  itself  and  to  standardize  its  work 
through  comparative  tests  given  year  after  year  under  uniform 
conditions.  The  features  mentioned,  however — unity,  correlation,  and 
the  principles  back  of  the  courses  and  methods — are  those  which  dis- 
tinguish the  school  from  others  of  its  kind  and  which  have  produced 
whatever  of  merit  there  may  be  in  the  activities  of  the  mathematics 
department. 

UNIFICATION  OF  ELEMENTARY  MATHEMATICS. 

[This  part  of  the  report  was  prepared  by  John  S.  French,  principal  of  the  Morris  Heights  School,  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  and  relates  to  certain  experimental  work  in  that  school.] 

The  Morris  Heights  School,  a boarding  school  for  boys,  is,  pri- 
marily, a preparatory  school  for  institutions  of  higher  learning,  its 
course  extending  over  a period  of  12  years,  beginning  with  the  first 
year  of  formal  school  work  and  concluding  with  the  preparation  for 
collegiate  or  technical  training;  pupils  may  thus  retain  membership 
in  the  school  for  a long  period  of  time  and  benefit  from  the  advantages 
of  a continuous  and  progressive  course  of  study.  Hence,  with  par- 
ticular attention  paid  to  the  mental  condition  of  the  pupil  as  a result 
of  growth  and  with  the  opportunity  of  eliminating  irrelevant  material 
the  work  is  so  designed  as  to  lead  ultimately  to  preparation  for  higher 
instruction. 

The  general  idea  underlying  the  teaching  of  mathematics  is  the 
development  of  the  scientific  aspect.  This  does  not  lose  sight  of  the 
fact  that  the  mathematics  of  the  elementary  and  secondary  schools 
is  limited  to  the  technique  of  the  subject,  nor  does  it  pretend  to 
include  the  notion  of  a purely  scientific  development  which  involves 
a mastery  of  hypotheses  far  from  the  reach  of  younger  minds.  It 
does  include  in  its  scope  the  development  of  a working  knowledge  of 
the  fundamental  concepts  where  an  appreciation  of  the  relation 
between  the  different  branches  is  emphasized  for  the  purpose  of  unify- 
ing the  work. 

The  time  for  the  introduction  of  any  topic  into  the  curriculum  is 
based  on  the  principle  that  any  topic  entering  into  the  sphere  of  a 
pupil’s  intellect  should  be  taught  him  at  once,  in  order  to  fix  in  his 
mind  correct  ideas  about  it. 

To  this  end  science  is  begun  in  this  school  in  the  fifth  year  (cor- 
responding to  the  fifth  grade),  in  which  the  pupils  are  taken  into  the 
laboratory  and  are  shown  by  experiment  and  observation  a large 
and,  to  be  sure,  unrelated  group  of  facts  in  the  realm  of  natural 
phenomena.  In  connection  with  this  study  there  is  gradually 
worked  in,  as  a tool  for  getting  results,  the  elementary  concepts  of 
form  and  their  relation  to  number.  Thus  is  laid  gradually  and  un- 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


151 


knowingly  to  the  pupil  the  foundations  of  science,  tending  to  a 
unification  of  subject  matter  later  on. 

To  illustrate  this  work  it  is  necessary  to  cite  a single  example  only 
— the  different  methods  of  heating  and  ventilating  buildings  are 
studied,  the  pupils  inspecting  them  under  supervision.  As  an  in- 
stance, they  are  required  to  draw  a diagram  of  a heating  system,  to 
show  the  indirect  method  of  heating  by  steam,  and  particularly  to 
show  its  efficiency  in  ventilation;  in  addition  to  this  certain  dimen- 
sions are  given,  and  from  these  and  from  statistics  on  coal  consump- 
tion they  are  required  to  figure  roughly  the  amount  of  coal  necessary 
for  heating  the  building.  This  work  is  continued  in  the  sixth, 
seventh,  and  eighth  years  where  the  geometry  is  wholly  inventional 
and  the  symbolic  forms  of  algebra  are  used  as  a means  for  solving 
problems.  The  pupils  continue  the  work  in  graphics  by  plotting  baro- 
metric and  thermometric  readings,  thus  getting  the  first  real  taste 
of  a continuous  variation. 

Algebra  and  geometry  are  taught  simultaneously  in  the  third  form 
(first  high-school  year).  The  transition  from  inductive  to  deductive 
geometry  is  in  no  way  abrupt;  but  the  notion  of  one  dimensional  and 
two  dimensional  figures  is  carefully  explained  and  with  it  the  notion 
of  equations  of  one  and  two  unknown  quantities,  thus  making  the 
analogous  relation  between  the  two  evident.  The  practical  aspect 
of  the  two  subjects  is  emphasized  and  their  correlation  with  physics 
is  continued. 

In  the  study  of  formal  deductive  geometry  the  tendency  is  to 
introduce  the  principle  of  continuity  as  often  as  possible  and  thus 
avoid  the  difficulties  to  be  encountered  later  on,  resulting  from  the 
archaic  methods  of  treating  isolated  topics;  it  also  tends  to  make 
the  work  conform  to  the  general  results  obtained  in  algebraic  proc- 
esses. This  involves,  among  others,  a consideration  of  magnitudes 
and  directions  in  the  study  of  metrical  properties  and  also  the  geo- 
metric interpretation  of  real  and  imaginary,  equal  and  unequal 
numbers,  and  is  shown  in  the  study  of  propositions  involving  secants 
and  tangents,  parallels,  perpendiculars,  similar  figures,  etc. 

In  the  treatment  of  originals  particular  care  is  paid  to  the  gaining 
of  correct  notions  of  analytic  and  synthetic  methods  of  proof,  and 
the  equivalency  of  equations  in  transformations  is  very  carefully 
treated. 

In  the  more  advanced  courses  the  fundamental  notions  of  the  rep- 
resentation of  a condition  algebraically  by  means  of  the  equation 
and  geometrically  by  means  of  the  locus,  and  the  expression  of  one 
in  terms  of  the  other,  are  taken  up  where  the  representation  of  the 
straight  line  and  circle  in  terms  of  algebra  by  its  required  number  of 


152 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDAKY  SCHOOLS. 


parameters  is  touched  upon.  Thus  is  brought  in,  in  their  true  per- 
spective, the  ideas  of  functional  dependence  and  functional  variation. 

The  ideas  of  maxima  and  minima  are  studied  in  the  graphical  rep- 
resentation of  functions,  and  the  algebraic  definition  of  a derived 
function  is  here  made  use  of.  In  this  work  the  pupil  is  taught  how 
to  express  the  conditions  of  his  problem  in  algebraic  forms  and  from 
this  to  plot  the  curve  of  the  function  whence  the  maxima  and  the 
minima  points  must  correspond  to  the  values  obtained  from  equat- 
ing the  first  derived  function  to  zero  and  solving. 

The  trigonometric  functions  are  brought  into  the  geometry  and 
their  use  in  the  generalized  Pythagorean  theorem  is  a tendency 
toward  generalization;  also,  the  idea  of  the  vector  quantity  is  fre- 
quently touched  upon,  so  that  when  the  pupil  comes  to  the  study  of 
velocities  and  forces  the  expression,  graphically,  of  resultants  in 
terms  of  components  presents  no  grave  difficulties. 

The  notion  of  a limit  is  treated,  not  with  strict  mathematical  rigor, 
but  with  the  idea  of  creating  a working  knowledge  of  it  gained  induc- 
tively through  concrete  examples;  it  makes  clear  the  similarity  of 
incommensurables  and  irrationals  by  means  of  a graph  where  seg- 
ments of  the  line  have  their  distances  measured  in  such  a way  as  to 
give  a clear  representation  of  the  limits  in  both  cases. 

In  the  constant  use  of  symbolic  forms  such  symbols  are  chosen  as 
are  applicable  to  the  work  at  hand  and  in  accord  with  usages  higher  up. 

These  somewhat  disconnected  statements  concerning  the  work 
done  in  elementary  mathematics  are  offered  to  show  that  the  gen- 
eral tendency  of  the  work  is  toward  unification,  having  as  an  ulti- 
mate end  the  easy  assimilation  of  the  more  difficult  and  severely 
rigorous  methods  employed  in  the  teaching  higher  up.  It  is  my 
opinion,  based  on  experience,  that  the  teaching  of  mathematics  as 
an  organic  unity  in  which  the  various  branches  stand  in  the  closest 
relation  of  interdependence  is  the  only  rational  method  of  presenta- 
tion, and,  further,  I am  convinced  that  irrespective  of  the  future 
work  of  the  pupil  he  can  be  carried  on  with  equal  efficiency  by  this 
method  of  breaking  down  barriers  and  treating  the  different  branches 
simply  as  multiform  ways  of  expressing  concepts  which  are  closely 
allied  as  different  modes  of  combining  these  concepts  and  as  differ- 
ent representations  by  means  of  distinctly  differing  symbols,  and 
these  because  the  same  laws  of  exact  reasoning  fundamentally  gov- 
ern all  the  branches. 

This  scheme  of  presentation  is  of  value  not  only  in  adding  to  the 
efficiency  of  the  pupil,  but  in  making  possible  the  covering  of  a 
wider  area,  even  to  including  in  his  preparatory  course  a major 
portion  of  the  work  of  the  freshman  year  in  college  and  this  with  an 
aggregate  appropriation  of  20  periods  for  the  four-year  course  of 
the  preparatory  school. 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


153 


COURSE  OF  STUDY— “ MIXED  MATHEMATICS.” 

[This  part  of  the  report  was  prepared  by  Prof  George  W.  Myers,  of  the  University  of  Chicago,  and  relates 
to  certain  experimental  work  in  the  University  High  School,  Chicago.  111.] 

The  School  of  Education  of  the  University  of  Chicago  consists  of 
four  distinct  parts,  the  graduate  school  of  education,  the  college  of 
education,  the  university  high  school,  and  the  university  elementary 
school.  In  this  complex  of  departments  the  university  high  school, 
a coeducational  institution  of  600  pupils,  undertakes  to  play  a three- 
fold role.  It  seeks  to  carry  forward  the  best  type  of  general  second- 
ary education  possible  to  its  favorable  situation  between  a carefully 
planned  and  executed  elementary  school  and  a strong  and  sympa- 
thetic university,  supervised  by  a collegiate  faculty  of  education  and 
stimulated  and  aided  academically  in  each  of  its  departments  of 
study  by  a strong  cognate  university  department.  It  functions  as  a 
laboratory  for  students  of  the  department  of  education  for  both 
observation  and  practice  teaching  in  preparation  for  actual  teaching 
in  secondary  schools  and  academies.  It  also  undertakes  to  furnish  a 
high  order  of  preparatory  training  for  colleges  and  universities.  It 
has  also  strong  departments  of  manual  training  and  of  applied  arts. 

Pursuant  to  this  threefold  office  the  department  of  mathematics  of 
the  school  of  education  a few  years  ago  undertook  the  double  duty 
of  endeavoring  to  work  out  in  the  classes  into  teachable  form  a body 
of  mathematical  subject  matter  of  high  educational  quality  that 
should  jeopardize  neither  the  interests  of  mathematical  training  nor 
of  university  entrance  and  at  the  same  time  to  make  the  classrooms 
function  as  exhibit  and  laboratory  rooms  for  teachers  in  training. 
After  considerable  preliminary  experimenting  it  was  determined  to 
undertake  to  organize  a body  of  mixed  mathematics  around  a central 
line  of  algebraic  notions  for  first-year  students  and  to  make  geo- 
metrical ideas  the  controlling  theme  for  second-year  students.  As  to 
whether  the  plan  of  unified  or  mixed  mathematics  is  to  be  carried 
through  the  third  and  fourth  years  or  the  plan  of  topical  treatment 
is  to  be  reverted  to  was  left  to  be  determined  on  the  basis  of  expe- 
rience with  the  classes  of  the  first  and  second  years.  The  first  two 
years  of  the  course  have  been  worked  out  and  the  material  is  published 
in  the  texts  entitled  First-Year  Mathematics  and  Second-Year  Math- 
ematics by  the  University  (of  Chicago)  Press.  Experience  is  now 
being  sifted,  analyzed,  and  studied,  and  it  is  believed  the  last  two 
years  of  the  course  will  soon  be  completed,  though  the  precise  nature 
of  this  part  of  the  course  can  not  yet  be  stated.  With  the  part  of 
the  course  already  completed  experience  is  highly  encouraging. 

Each  teacher  of  the  high  school  has  participated  both  in  the 
authorship  and  in  the  trying  out  of  the  material.  On  the  whole  the 
most  encouraging  feature  of  the  experiment  is  the  improvement  that 
it  has  wrought  in  the  teaching.  The  spirit  of  unity  it  has  begotten 


154 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS, 


in  the  corps  of  instruction  through  cooperation  on  a common  prob- 
lem can  be  fully  appreciated  only  by  schoolmen  who  have  seen  the 
waste  due  to  lack  of  cooperation. 

With  the  cooperation  of  the  high-school  principal  it  has  been  pos- 
sible to  give  each  teacher  at  least  one  first-year  class,  one  second- 
year  class,  and  one  or  more  third  or  fourth  year  classes.  This  ver- 
tical division  of  the  teacher’s  duties  brings  liim  into  close  touch  with 
all  parts  of  the  experiment  and  with  every  grade  of  maturity  in  the 
high  school.  This  enhances  interest  by  reducing  the  mere  routine  of 
both  teaching  and  learning. 

A fourth-year  review  course,  consisting  of  one  hour  per  week,  is 
now  required  of  all  high-school  students  who  are  intending  to  obtain 
a diploma  with  certification  to  college.  This  course  reexamines  and 
renews  the  hold  on  the  work  covered  during  the  first  two  years  and 
gives  to  this  work  something  of  a scientific  classification  and  treat- 
ment. The  purely  formal  aspects  of  the  work  of  algebra  and  geom- 
etry are  given  strong  emphasis  in  this  review.  The  work  of  the  first 
two  years  together  with  this  fourth-year  review  course  constitute  the 
required  work  of  the  school. 

In  the  third  year  parallel  courses  are  given  in  plane  trigonometry 
and  third-year  algebra  throughout  the  year,  two  hours  per  week 
being  given  to  one  subject  and  three  to  the  other  during  the  first 
semester,  the  time  ratio  being  reversed  the  second  semester.  At 
present  solid  geometry  and  college  algebra  are  given  as  separate 
subjects  in  the  fourth  year  to  those  who  elect  them. 

The  method  of  procedure  of  teaching  combines  the  laboratory, 
heuristic,  expository,  and  recitation  methods.  New  developments 
are  worked  out  with  the  classes,  sometimes  lieuristically,  sometimes 
by  the  laboratory  plan,  and  now  and  then  by  the  recitation,  quiz, 
and  lecture  plan.  Home  assignments  are  such  as  to  call  for  further 
developments  of  fairly  fully  developed  theory  or  examples  to  illus- 
trate and  emphasize  theory.  The  first  two  years  do  not  aim  so 
much  at  thoroughness  as  at  gaining  a first  hold  on  the  coarser  out- 
lines of  algebra  and  geometry.  The  later  work  places  more  emphasis 
on  thoroughness  and  accuracy,  though  it  does  not,  as  is  too  often 
the  case,  lay  great  stress  on  mere  “ labial”  precision. 

The  topics  in  order  that  are  covered  the  first  year  are: 

I.  General  uses  of  the  equation  based  on  the  notion  of  balance  of  values. 

II.  Uses  of  the  equation  with  perimeters  and  areas;  related  geometry. 

III.  The  equation  applied  to  angles;  related  geometry  and  arithmetic. 

IY.  Positive  and  negative  numbers;  related  arithmetic  and  algebra. 

Y.  Beam  problems  in  one  and  two  unknowns;  related  mechanics. 

YL  Problems  on  proportion  and  similarity;  related  geometry. 

YTI.  Problems  on  parallel  lines;  geometric  constructions. 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


155 


VIII.  Fundamental  operations  applied  to  integral  algebraic  expressions. 

IX.  Practice  in  algebraic  language;  general  arithmetic. 

X.  The  simple  equation  in  one  unknown. 

XI.  Linear  equations  in  two  or  more  unknowns;  graphic  solutions. 

XII.  Fractions. 

XIII.  Factoring;  quadratics;  radicals. 

XIV.  Polygons;  congruent  triangles;  radicals. 

In  the  second  year  the  topics  covered  are: 

I.  Congruency  of  rectilinear  figures  and  circles,  with  related  algebra. 

II.  Ratio,  proportion,  and  similar  triangles;  related  algebra  and  arithmetic. 

III.  Measurement  of  angles  by  arcs  of  circles;  related  algebra;  use  and  reduction 

of  radicals. 

IV.  Similarity  and  proportionality  in  circles;  quadratic  equations;  solution  by 

formula. 

V.  Inequalities  in  triangles  and  circles;  algebraic  inequalities,  indeterminate 
equations,  discussion  of  roots;  simultaneous  quadratics. 

VI.  Areas  of  polygons;  use  of  algebraic  formulas  and  expressions. 

VII.  Regular  polygons  in  and  about  a circle;  use  of  formulas  and  equations. 

VIII.  Problems  and  exercises  in  graphic  and  geometric  algebra;  radical  equations. 

We  have  as  yet  no  statistical  measures  of  the  precise  increase  of 
output  of  this  modus  operandi  with  high-school  students,  but  there 
are  some  improvements  that  are  none  the  less  real  because  they 
have  not  been  reduced  to  figures.  A few  of  them,  confessedly  of  a 
qualitative  nature,  I think  are  worthy  of  mention  in  this  report: 

1.  An  increase  in  mathematical  interest,  earnestness,  and  spirit 
among  early  pupils. 

2.  A genuine  belief  attained  earlier  than  formerly  among  pupils 
as  to  the  real  worth  of  mathematical  study. 

3.  An  improvement  in  independence  and  solidity  of  mathematical 
thinking  among  pupils  of  the  first  and  second  years. 

4.  There  is  less  of  the  disposition  manifested  now  than  formerly 
by  pupils  to  learn  a mathematical  study  mainly  to  pass  an 
examination. 

5.  Pupils  try  more  persistently  to  check  and  guarantee  algebraic 
results  by  some  sort  of  geometrical  means  than  was  formerly  the 
case. 

6.  Pupils  ask  more  frequently  than  formerly  in  friendly  interest 
what  advanced  subjects  are  like,  and  manifest  a desire  to  take  more 
rather  than  less  mathematics. 

7.  Pupils  acquire  more  of  the  all-round  benefits  of  mathematical 
education.  They  are  better  balanced  mathematically  than  formerly. 

Most  teachers  will  agree  that  such  results  as  these  indicate  a 
distinctly  tonic  influence  upon  the  mathematical  thinking  of  boys 
and  girls. 


156  MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 

THE  PLANE  GEOMETRY  COURSE  IN  THE  POLYTECHNIC  PREPARATORY 
SCHOOL,  OF  BROOKLYN,  N.  Y. 

[This  part  of  the  report  was  prepared  by  Eugene  R.  Smith,  of  the  Polytechnic  Preparatory  School,  of 

Brooklyn,  N.  Y.] 

The  Polytechnic  Preparatory  School  is  a day  school  having  a 
secondary  department  of  350  boys.  As  the  pupils  enter  from  various 
private  and  public  schools,  the  problem  of  the  school  is  not  simplified 
by  uniform  preparation.  Its  classes  are  small,  the  average  size  of 
the  mathematics  classes  for  the  year  1909-10  being  18.  The  de- 
partments are  highly  centralized,  the  head  of  each  department 
having  both  the  authority  and  the  responsibility  for  his  department, 
and  being  subject  only  to  the  headmaster’s  general  supervision  of 
the  school.  The  department  of  mathematics  is  composed  of  five 
men,  none  of  whom  teaches  any  other  subject. 

Elementary  and  intermediate  algebra  and  plane  geometry  are 
required  subjects,  and  are  allowed  five  43-minute  periods  per  week 
for  the  first  three  years  of  the  course.  The  first  year  is  given  up  to 
elementary  algebra,  but  the  other  two  years  have  a combination 
course  of  algebra  and  geometry,  about  three-fifths  of  the  time  being 
given  to  geometry.  The  object  of  this  simultaneous  arrangement  of 
courses  is  twofold:  Increased  interrelation  of  the  subjects,  and 
economy  of  time  through  continuous  treatment  of  each  subject  from 
the  time  of  its  introduction  until  its  completion. 

In  geometry,  the  use  of  a textbook  containing  the  proofs  of  the 
propositions  has  been  abandoned,  and  the  classes  are  supplied  with 
a text  containing  definitions,  statements  of  propositions,  discussions 
of  method,  including  summaries  and  other  helps  to  correct  attack, 
and  exercises. 

It  is  believed  that  the  chief  aim  in  the  teaching  of  geometry  is 
the  development  of  the  power  of  logical  thinking,  and  that  this 
power,  like  any  other,  improves  with  practice.  The  intention  of 
the  course  is,  then,  to  discourage  rote  memorization  of  proofs  and 
to  encourage  independent  thinking.  The  propositions  are  all  treated 
as  “originals,”  or  subjects  for  investigation,  and  sometimes  state- 
ments of  relationships  are  deferred  until  the  facts  needed  to  establish 
them  have  been  discovered.  Class  development  of  propositions 
and  exercises  is  by  the  “question  and  answer”  method,  the  teacher 
asking  questions  suited  to  the  ability  of  different  pupils,  and  aimed 
to  lead  to  a correct  method  of  attack.  Any  ordinarily  intelligent 
pupil  who  knows  the  preceding  part  of  geometry  as  this  requires 
him  to  know  it,  can  do  a good  share  of  his  own  thinking,  and  while 
he  must  have  guidance  from  the  teacher,  he  does  not  need  to  be 
told  things  outright. 

Besides  class  development  of  new  propositions,  there  is  much  oral 
discussion  and  cross-examination  on  the  relations  of  theorems, 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


157 


their  uses,  methods  of  attack  for  various  kinds  of  exercises,  and 
other  related  topics.  Propositions  and  exercises  are  assigned  to 
be  worked  out  at  home  or  in  study  hour,  and  a good  deal  of  written 
work  is  assigned;  this  written  work  comprises  careful  drafts  of 
propositions  and  proofs,  more  or  less  condensed,  of  many  exercises. 
It  will  be  seen  that  this  is  a combination  of  the  heuristic  method 
and  the  genetic  mode;  it  has,  however,  become  customary  to  speak 
of  it  as  the  “syllabus  method.’ * 

I have  said  that  the  pupils  must  know  the  preceding  part  of 
geometry.  In  no  other  way,  I believe,  does  a pupil  come  to  know 
so  thoroughly  just  what  he  has  had  and  for  what  he  can  use  his  knowl- 
edge as  the  subject  is  developed,  the  theorems  are  grouped,  the  use 
of  each  and  its  relation  to  those  that  precede  and  those  that  fol- 
low it  are  discussed,  and  an  attempt  is  made  to  have  the  proposi- 
* tions  classified  in  the  mind  of  each  pupil  according  to  their  uses. 
With  this  equipment  a pupil  who  wishes  to  prove  a proportion,  to 
demonstrate  a length  relation,  or  to  discover  any  geometrical  truth, 
is  able  to  decide  promptly  which  group  of  theorems  contains  the 
one  needed  for  his  purpose. 

For  example,  it  is  required  to  prove  that  if  a perpendicular  is 
dropped  from  one  end  of  a chord  to  the  line  tangent  to  the  circle 
at  its  other  end,  the  chord  is  the  mean  proportional  between  the 
diameter  and  the  perpendicular.  This  proportion  must  depend  on 
parallels  or  on  similar  figures;  presumably,  after  examination  of  the 
figure,  on  similar  triangles.  The  most  promising  way  of  attempting 
to  prove  the  triangles  similar,  since  the  conclusion  concerns  lines 
and  a circle  is  given,  is  by  showing  that  two  angles  of  one  triangle 
are  equal  to  two  angles  of  the  second  triangle.  The  pupil  draws 
the  diameter  from  either  end  of  the  chord,  so  as  to  have  it  in  position 
to  be  used  with  the  other  given  lines,  and  examines  the  angles, 
beginning  with  the  known  right  angle,  and  using  the  circle  in  meas- 
uring the  angles.  The  other  auxiliary  line  is  now  self-evident,  and 
when  this  point  in  the  analysis  has  been  reached  the  proposition  is 
practically  solved. 

The  principal  function  of  the  teacher  in  this  method  is  to  be  a leader 
of  discussion,  helping  the  class  to  avoid  difficulties,  guiding  the  inves- 
tigation in  such  a way  as  not  to  discourage  the  expression  of  all  the 
original  ideas  the  class  may  have,  and  yet  keeping  them  to  the  matter 
in  hand  so  that  time  is  not  wasted  in  useless  digressions.  This  does 
not  mean  that  a wrong  lead  is  not  sometimes  followed  when  it  might 
seem  to  the  pupils  a natural  method  of  attack;  as  a matter  of  fact, 
the  following  up  of  unusual  suggestions  often  leads  to  proofs  that  are 
new  to  the  teacher.  This  discovery  of  several  proofs  for  the  same 
proposition  is  one  of  the  interesting  features;  as  many  as  11  proofs 
of  one  theorem,  some  of  them  almost  if  not  quite  unknown,  have 


158 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


been  discovered  by  the  pupils,  some  proofs  with  guidance  from  the 
teacher  and  others  without  it. 

When  a class  is  for.  the  first  time  developing  some  new  part  of 
the  subject,  a very  interesting  recitation  is  sure  to  follow.  A pleasure 
in  discovery,  or  at  the  least  in  contributing  some  part  to  a discovery,  is 
awakened,  and  the  amount  of  new  work  that  can  be  developed  in 
one  period  and  left  to  the  class  to  put  in  finished  form  is,  after  the 
class  is  well  grounded  in  the  fundamentals  and  the  methods  of 
attack,  an  astonishing  feature. 

The  beginning  of  the  course  is  never  hurried.  Like  any  logical 
faculty,  the  geometrical  sense  is  of  slow  growth,  and  a thorough 
understanding  of  the  elements  is  so  vital  to  progress  that  whatever 
time  seems  needed  is  given  to  the  first  book  of  geometry.  After 
this  part  is  well  in  hand  the  course  moves  on  more  rapidly,  so  that 
in  the  end  time  is  actually  saved.  An  average  class  can  finish  the 
subject,  including  a large  number  of  exercises  of  various  types  and 
a great  deal  of  drill  on  interdependence  of  theorems  and  on  methods 
of  attack,  in  a little  more  than  three-quarters  of  the  time  allotted 
to  it,  thus  leaving  time  for  a thorough  review  of  the  subject  matter 
and  for  plenty  of  practice  on  college  entrance  examination  questions. 

The  success  of  this  method  of  teaching  geometry  seems  to  be 
proved  by  the  interest  shown  in  the  classes  while  such  recitations 
as  have  been  described  are  in  progress,  and  by  the  increased  logical 
strength  of  pupils  so  trained.  It  is  not  a cure-all,  and  should  not 
be  regarded  as  claiming  impossibilities,  for  its  excellence  lies  simply 
in  the  fact  that  it  attempts  to  awaken  and  to  train  whatever  logical 
faculties  each  student  may  possess.  The  relative  ability  of  different 
students  is  not  materially  changed,  but  each  pupil  is  encouraged 
and  trained  to  use  his  logical  power  to  as  great  an  extent  as  he  is 
capable,  and  each  grows  according  to  his  potentialities. 

For  those  who  are  interested  in  the  details,  I will  add  sample 
developments,  the  answers  expected  from  the  pupils  being  in  paren- 
theses, and  explanations  in  brackets.  Many  of  the  questions  and 
answers  are  in  rather  condensed  form. 

REVIEW  LESSON. 

Topic:  Proportions  between  sects. 

What  is  the  most  fundamental  way  of  proving  a proportion?  (By  the  use  of  par- 
allels cutting  transversals.)  What  is  the  most  important  special  case  of  this?  (A 
line  parallel  to  one  side  of  a triangle.)  What  is  the  next  way  of  proving  a proportion? 
(By  using  corresponding  parts  of  similar  polygons.)  What  special  case  of  this  is  of 
most  importance?  (Triangles.)  When  proving  a proportion  by  triangles,  which 
method  of  showing  the  triangles  similar  is  most  likely  to  be  used?  (By  two  angles 
equal.)  Why?  (Since  the  conclusion  is  to  be  a proportion  between  the  sides,  it  is 
not  as  likely  that  such  a proportion  will  be  known  at  the  start.)  Is  any  other  way 
possible?  (Yes;  two  sides  proportional  and  the  included  angles  equal.)  What  will 
the  new  proportion  be  in  that  case?  (The  third  sides  proportional  to  a pair  of  those 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


159 


used  in  the  given  proportion.)  State  three  proportion  theorems  depending  on  similar 
triangles.  [Different  pupils  are  called  on  for  the  parts  of  the  answer.]  Outline  the 
proof  of  each.  [Pupils  do  so  without  figures,  indicating  the  general  method  and  the 
important  steps.  Questions  are  asked  relative  to  the  points  likely  to  make  trouble, 
and  if  the  teacher  is  not  certain  that  the  pupils  have  visualized  the  figures  and  fol- 
lowed the  proofs,  the  figures  are  then  drawn  on  the  board  and  discussed,] 

DEVELOPMENT  LESSON:  NO  THEOREM  STATED. 

Topic : Trapezoids . 

Define  trapezoids.  Is  anything  additional  known  from  the  definition  alone?  (It 
has  two  pairs  of  supplemental  angles.)  [It  is  sometimes  best  to  compare  with  paral- 
lelograms, which  also  have  two  pairs  of  supplemental  angles.]  We  will  use  this  reci- 
tation to  find  out  all  we  can  about  trapezoids,  and  especially  to  see  what  theorems 
about  triangles  are  also  true  of  trapezoids.  In  order  to  do  this,  suggest  a way  to  divide 
a trapezoid  into  figures  you  have  already  investigated.  [Division  into  two  triangles 
and  into  a triangle  and  a parallelogram  are  suggested;  the  triangle  suggestion  is  found 
of  little  advantage  at  this  stage,  and  the  triangle  and  parallelogram  division  is  decided 
upon.]  What  is  known  about  the  parts  of  the  triangle  formed?  (The  base  of  the 
triangle  is  the  difference  of  the  bases  of  the  trapezoid,  and  the  sides  of  the  triangle 
are  equal  to  the  legs  of  the  trapezoid ; the  base  angles  of  the  triangle  are  equal  to  the 
base  angles  on  the  longer  base  of  the  trapezoid.)  State  a theorem  that  applies  to 
this  triangle.  (If  two  sides  of  a triangle  are  equal,  the  opposite  angles  are  equal.) 
[Some  other  theorems  may  be  suggested  first,  and  can  be  used  equally  well  if  it  can 
be  extended  to  the  trapezoid;  if  not,  that  fact  can  be  shown.]  Show  that  this  theo- 
rem applies  to  the  trapezoid.  [A  pupil  does  this  when  other  theorems  are  called  for, 
and  the  most  familiar  and  important  ones,  such  as  the  converse  of  the  one  already 
mentioned,  and  the  unequal  case,  are  stated  and  shown  to  apply  to  the  trapezoid.] 
What  about  the  angles  on  the  shorter  base?  (Equal  if  the  other  pair  are  equal,  and 
unequal  in  the  opposite  sense  if  they  are  unequal.)  Why?  (They  have  been  shown 
to  be  supplemental  to  the  base  angles  on  the  longer  base.)  What  other  lines  in  the  trap- 
ezoid might  we  examine?  (The  diagonals.)  Suppose  an  isosceles  trapezoid  with  the 
diagonals  drawn,  what  do  you  think  is  likely  to  be  true  of  the  diagonals?  (They  are 
equal.)  What  method  of  proof  is  most  likely?  (Corresponding  parts  of  congruent 
triangles.)  What  triangles  can  be  used?  [Pupils  name  them  and  show  them  con- 
gruent.] Does  this  prove  anything  besides  the  diagonals  equal?  (The  corresponding 
angles  are  equal.)  Can  these  angles  be  used  for  any  new  fact?  (The  triangles  from 
the  ends  of  the  bases  to  the  intersection  of  the  diagonals  are  isosceles.)  [The  recita- 
tion can  be  continued  until  every  desired  fact  about  trapezoids  is  found.  The 
continuation  of  the  legs  to  form  a triangle,  as  well  as  the  triangle  formed  by  drawing  a 
line  from  one  vertex  parallel  to  the  other  diagonal,  might  be  investigated;  the  subject 
is  prolific  of  simple  facts,  and  is  one  of  interest  and  of  importance  in  relation  to  other 
figures.  When  it  is  finished,  the  student  should  have  a good  idea  of  the  trapezoid 
and  its  properties.  This  is  of  course  but  one  of  many  such  investigations  that  are 
suited  to  a class  discussion.] 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  A PROPOSITION. 

Statement:  To  inscribe  a regular  decagon  in  a given  circle. 

[This  is  chosen  as  a sample  because  it  is  one  of  the  difficult  propo- 
sitions, and  at  first  thought  might  not  seem  likely  to  develop  readily. 
As  a matter  of  fact,  some  pupils  discover  it  practically  without 
suggestion  by  applying  the  analysis  method  of  attack.] 

What  is  the  best  way  to  discover  a construction?  (Draw  the  required  figure  free- 
hand, and  by  analysis  try  to  find  out  how  to  construct  it.)  Suppose  the  circle  0 to  be 


160 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


given,  and  let  AB  be  a side  of  the  required  decagon;  what  can  you  suggest?  (Draw 
OA  and  OB.)  IIow  can  you  use  the  condition?  (Angle  0 is  one-fifth  of  a straight 
angle.)  What  else  is  known  about  the  figure?  (The  triangle  is  isosceles,  so  angle  A 
and  angle  B are  each  two-fifths  of  a straight  angle.)  What  can  be  done  to  make  use  of 
the  relative  sizes  of  these  angles?  (Bisect  angle  B.)  Why?  (To  form  another  angle 
equal  to  angle  0.)  Call  the  bisector  BP;  what  is  now  known  about  the  angles  of  the 
figure?  [The  pupils  determine  the  size  of  each  angle  in  terms  of  fifths  of  a straight 
angle.]  What  follows  from  this?  (The  small  triangles  are  isosceles.)  How  many 
different  lengths  have  the  sects  in  the  figure?  (Three.)  And  what  relation  have 
the  three?  (The  sum  of  two  equals  the  third.)  Which  one  is  known  and  can  there- 
fore be  used  as  a basis  of  length?  (The  radius.)  Call  it  r;  which  do  we  wish  to  find? 
(The  chord.)  Call  it  x\  how  long  is  the  third  sect?  (PA=r-x.)  Have  we  made 
all  possible  use  of  the  bisector  BP  when  we  use  only  the  fact  that  it  makes  equal 
angles  with  the  arms  of  angle  B?  (It  also  divides  the  line  OA  into  parts  proportional 
to  the  arms  of  angle  B.)  Give  the  proportions  in  terms  of  r and  x.  ( r/x  = x/(r-x ).) 
Are  these  sects  all  in  one  line?  (Yes.)  Then  in  what  way  is  that  line  cut?  (In 
mean  and  extreme  ratio.)  Then  we  have  found  that  in  a regular  decagon  the  side  is 
what?  (The  mean  sect  gotten  by  dividing  the  radius  in  mean  and  extreme  ratio.) 
What  would  be  the  converse  statement?  (If  the  mean  sect  of  the  radius  is  used  as  a 
side  of  an  inscribed  polygon,  the  figure  is  a regular  decagon.)  But  does  the  converse 
always  hold?  (No.)  How  do  we  find  out  whether  it  holds  or  not?  (Take  each 
“given,”  and  see  if  the  figures  formed  are  the  same.)  In  this  case?  (Take  an 
angle  equal  to  one-fifth  of  a straight  angle,  and  a different  chord  equal  to  the  mean 
sect,  and  see  if  each  gives  the  other.)  Do  it.  (The  given  angle  has  its  chord  equal 
to  the  mean  sect  by  the  proof  just  given:  The  chord  taken  is  therefore  equal  to  this 
chord,  and  must  have  an  equal  central  angle;  therefore  the  chord  given  equal  to  the 
mean  sect  has  a central  angle  equal  to  one-fifth  of  a straight  angle,  and  so  is  the  side 
of  a regular  decagon.)  What  do  you  conclude  to  be  the  method  of  inscribing  a regular 
decagon?  (Cut  the  radius  in  mean  and  extreme  ratio,  and  use  the  mean  sect  as  a 
chord.)  Why  is  it  regular?  (It  is  inscribed  and  equilateral.) 

Note. — Soon  after  writing  this  development,  one  of  my  classes  took  up  this  propo- 
sition. I was  much  interested  to  see  that  the  answers  followed  the  plan  given  here 
almost  exactly.  If  a stenographic  report  had  been  taken  it  could  hardly  have  been 
more  accurate,  in  content  at  least,  than  was  this  forecast  of  such  a recitation.  The 
only  difference  was  that  the  class  went  on  and  found  two  other  methods  of  proving 
the  construction. 

SAMPLE  GEOMETRY  TEST. 

Given  in  February,  1911,  to  a beginning  class  that  had  studied  rectilinear  figures, 
including  triangles,  parallels,  and  parallelograms.  The  questions  were  not  counted 
of  equal  value.  Time  allowed,  one  hour. 

I.  What  is  the  sum  of  the  interior  angles  of  a polygon?  Of  the  exterior  angles? 
Prove  one.  Can  there  be  a polygon  such  that  the  sum  of  its  interior  angles  is 
five  times  the  sum  of  its  exterior  angles?  One  such  that  the  square  of  the 
number  of  straight  angles  in  the  sum  of  its  interior  angles  is  four  times  the 
number  of  straight  angles  in  the  sum  of  its  exterior  angles?  Prove  both 
answers,  showing  your  method  clearly. 

II.  What  is  the  most  fundamental  way  of  proving  triangles  congruent?  What  is 
the  principal  use  of  congruence?  List  the  ways  of  proving  triangles  congruent 
that  use  equal  parts.  How  can  corresponding  parts  of  congruent  triangles  be 
recognized? 

III.  State  three  important  facts  about  parallelograms,  and  prove  one.  What  is  a 

parallelogram,  and  how  can  this  definition  be  used  when  a parallelogram  is 
given? 

IV.  Prove  that  if  two  angles  of  a triangle  are  unequal,  the  opposite  sides  are  also 

unequal,  the (finish  the  statement.) 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


161 


REAL  APPLIED  PROBLEMS. 

[This  part  of  the  report  was  prepared  by  James  F.  Millis,  of  the  Francis  W.  Parker  School,  Chicago,  and 
relates  to  the  work  of  that  school.] 

For  a number  of  years  the  department  of  mathematics  in  the 
Francis  W.  Parker  School,  Chicago,  has  been  experimenting  along 
the  line  of  teaching  algebra  and  geometry  in  relation  to  their  practical 
uses. 

The  Francis  W.  Parker  School  is  primarily  an  experimental  school. 
It  was  founded  some  years  ago  by  Col.  Francis  W.  Parker,  whose 
name  stands  among  those  of  the  foremost  leaders  in  the  reform 
movements  in  education  in  the  United  States,  for  the  purpose  of 
putting  to  a practical  test  or  carrying  out  certain  fundamental  ideas 
in  the  modern  theory  of  education  which  he  evolved  or  championed. 
In  this  democratic  school  each  department  has  the  greatest  of  freedom, 
both  in  regard  to  methods  of  teaching  and  to  the  organization  of  the 
content  of  the  curriculum.  The  unifying  influence  in  the  work  of 
the  school  consists  of  adherence  to  a few  great  fundamental  princi- 
ples in  the  modern  theory  of  education,  chief  among  them  being  that 
of  self-activity  of  the  pupil  as  a basis  of  all  educative  work,  which 
demands  that  there  be  proper  motivation  of  all  school  work  and  that 
the  work  shall  relate  to  the  experiences,  interests,  and  needs  of  the 
individual  pupil. 

In  conformity  with  these  guiding  principles,  the  aims  of  the  mathe- 
matics work  as  planned  in  the  high  school  are  A>t  merely  those  of 
mental  discipline  and  preparation  for  college  entrance,  but  it  is  the 
aim  of  the  school  that  the  student  shall  look  upon  the  various  mathe- 
matical subjects  primarily  as  powerful  and  indispensable  scientific 
instruments  which  the  world  has  developed  and  uses  in  carrying  on 
its  practical  work.  Each  mathematical  subject  has  been  developed, 
it  is  aimed  to  show,  as  a scientific  body  of  principles  and  processes  for 
use  in  solving  certain  types  of  problems  that  are  actually  encountered 
in  the  world’s  work.  Algebra  undertakes  to  solve  problems  of  certain 
types,  geometry  problems  of  other  types,  calculus  problems  of  still 
different  types,  etc. 

Up  to  the  present  time  the  deviation  in  the  work  of  the  school  from 
the  traditional  courses  in  algebra  and  geometry  has  consisted  largely 
of  two  things:  (1)  Gathering  together  and  using  in  the  classrooms  a 
large  number  of  real  applied  problems  of  algebra  and  geometry  that 
are  encountered  in  ordinary*  everyday  life  in  the  various  trades,  in 
manufacturing,  in  the  construction  and  use  of  various  tools  and 
measuring  instruments,  in  science,  in  engineering,  in  architecture  and 
designing,  in  carpentry,  in  sheet-metal  work,  in  marine  surveying,  in 
navigation,  and  in  many  other  fields  of  activity;  (2)  practical  meas- 
urements, constructions,  and  field  work. 

9560°— II 11 


162 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


In  algebra  a textbook  has  been  used.  But  it  has  been  supple- 
mented by  the  use  of  mimeographed  pages  of  practical  problems. 
One  important  type  of  these  problems  consists  of  practical  formula 
that  are  used  in  computation.  These  formulae  include,  for  example, 
those  for  computing  the  horsepower  of  engines,  for  computing  wind 
pressure,  for  computing  the  draft  in  chimneys,  for  computing  the 
deflections  of  beams,  and  a great  variety  of  other  such  formulae; 
simple  electric  formulae,  formulae  for  computing  the  velocity  of  falling 
bodies,  and  other  simple  formulae  in  elementary  science,  and  the 
various  formulae  used  in  practical  mensuration. 

The  subject  of  algebra  is  approached  through  the  use  of  these 
formulae  in  making  practical  computations,  beginning  with  those 
which  express  in  symbols  the  simple  rules  of  mensuration,  interest, 
etc.,  with  which  the  student  is  already  familiar.  Gradually  and 
incidentally  the  idea  of  general  number  and  literal  notation,  the  use 
of  exponents,  signs  of  grouping,  etc.,  are  introduced  as  means  of 
expressing  and  solving  certain  types  of  problems,  and  the  student  is 
in  the  midst  of  algebra  before  he  knows  it. 

Similarly,  the  equation  is  developed  as  an  instrument  or  device 
that  is  used  in  solving  other  types  of  problems.  Enough  real  prac- 
tical problems  that  are  solved  by  equations  have  now  been  collected 
to  supplant  practically  all  of  the  traditional  artificial  problems  that 
have  filled  textbooks. 

In  teaching  geofiietry  a very  large  collection  of  real  problems  has 
been  made.  Good  applied  problems  of  geometry  are  more  easy  to 
find  than  practical  problems  of  algebra.  These  problems  represent 
applications  of  all  parts  of  elementary  geometry,  plane  and  solid. 
Many  of  them  are  problems  of  construction;  many  are  problems 
requiring  a proof;  and  others  are  problems  of  computation,  based 
upon  the  theorems  of  geometry. 

When  the  use  of  applied  problems  of  geometry  was  first  undertaken 
by  the  school  they  were  mimeographed  and  placed  in  the  hands  of 
the  students  and  used  to  supplement  the  “original”  exercises  of  the 
textbook.  With  later  classes  the  experiment  was  tried  of  teaching 
without  a textbook,  but  placing  in  the  students’  hands  mimeographed 
copies  of  a manuscript  in  which  real  applied  problems  were  made  an 
integral  part  of  the  subject.  Finally,  a textbook  was  evolved  reor- 
ganizing the  subject  along  new  lines,  emphasizing  constructions,  and, 
by  incorporating  the  best  of  the  applied  problems  that  had  been  tried 
out,  presenting  geometry  to  the  student,  not  as  a mere  exercise  to  bd 
pursued  for  purposes  of  mental  discipline  alone,  but  as  a scientific 
instrument  for  solving  those  problems  encountered  in  the  world’s 
work  for  which  it  is  adapted. 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


163 


In  addition  to  the  use  of  real  applied  problems  in  the  classroom, 
another  phase  of  the  work  in  geometry  has  consisted  of  practical 
constructions,  measurements,  and  field  work.  For  example,  each 
pupil  constructs  on  cardboard  or  metal  a diagonal  scale  that  will 
measure  to  hundredths  of  an  inch.  This  is  preserved  and  used  in 
making  accurate  measurements  in  later  problems  or  constructions. 
Its  construction  involves  the  problem  of  dividing  a sect  into  any 
number  of  equal  parts,  and  its  use  involves  the  principle  of  propor- 
tion in  similar  triangles.  Students  make  an  instrument  called  a 
quadrant  with  which  they  measure  the  altitude  of  the  sun  at  different 
times  of  the  year.  The  use  of  this  instrument  involves  the  principle 
that  vertical  angles  are  equal.  The  use  of  congruent  figures  is  made 
in  measuring  the  distances  out  of  doors  between  points  separated  by 
obstacles.  The  principles  of  proportion  are  applied  in  determining 
heights  and  distances  in  the  neighborhood.  The  plane  table  is  used 
in  measuring  the  distances  between  inaccessible  objects,  and  in  the 
construction  of  maps.  This  construction,  measuring,  and  field  work 
have  proved  of  intense  interest  to  students  in  the  high  school. 

It  is  hoped  to  work  out  in  a practical  way,  in  the  near  future,  the 
practical  correlation  of  algebra  and  geometry  with  science  and  other 
subjects  in  the  curriculum.  A few  points  of  contact  of  both  algebra 
and  geometry  with  physics,  of  algebra  with  chemistry,  and  of  geometry 
with  woodwork  have  been  made.  That  much  more  of  this  correlation 
of  algebra  and  geometry  with  other  school  subjects  can  be  made  is 
certain.  For  the  student  to  see  the  subjects  of  algebra  and  geometry 
as  scientific  instruments  that  the  world  uses  in  its  practical  work  is 
not  sufficient;  he  should  be  able  to  use  them  to  a considerable  extent 
in  the  solution  of  practical  problems  arising  in  his  own  work  in 
science,  in  the  shops,  etc.  Problems  that  are  the  student’s  own 
problems  are  of  the  most  intense  interest,  and  it  is  in  the  solution  of 
such  problems  that  the  greatest  educational  value  lies. 

The  theoretical  values  of  the  use  of  these  real  applied  problems  in 
the  mathematics  work  of  the  school  are  three.  They  lend  real  interest 
to  the  study  of  the  subjects,  and  hence  provide  genuine,  legitimate 
motivation  of  the  work.  They  assist  the  student’s  knowledge  to 
function  by  giving  him  practice  while  still  in  school  in  the  use  of  that 
knowledge  in  the  solution  of  problems  such  as  he  may  encounter  in 
later  life.  Finally,  through  their  informational  content  a more 
adequate  understanding  of  the  environment  in  which  the  individual 
lives  is  afforded,  and  avenues  of  life  interest  opened  that  otherwise 
would  remain  closed  to  the  individual  throughout  life.  That  the  first 
of  these  values  is  a real  one  the  school  has  already  demonstrated. 


164 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


A SECONDARY  SCHOOL  MATHEMATICS  CLUB. 

[This  part  of  the  report  was  prepared  by  C.  W.  Newhall,  of  the  Shattuck  School,  Faribault,  Minn.,  and 
relates  to  the  work  of  a club  in  that  school.] 

The  Shattuck  School  is  a boarding  school  for  boys  of  about  14  to  19 
years  of  age.  Its  pupils  come  from  many  States,  to  be  prepared  for 
various  colleges  and  engineering  schools. 

The  mathematics  club  to  be  described  was  organized  in  1903. 
Its  membership  is  limited  to  the  students  of  the  senior  class  in 
mathematics,  who  have  finished  the  usual  course  in  plane  geometry, 
have  had  two  years’  work  in  algebra,  and  are  studying  solid  geometry, 
trigonometry,  and  advanced  algebra.  The  instructor  of  the  class 
acts  as  leader  of  the  club  and  presides  at  the  meetings. 

The  meetings  are  held  on  the  evening  of  the  weekly  holiday,  and, 
as  an  offset  to  the  time  devoted  to  the  meeting,  no  preparation  is 
required  for  the  regular  classwork  in  mathematics  for  the  next  day. 
Each  of  the  15  or  20  members  is  expected  to  prepare  a report 
(requiring  about  10  minutes  for  presentation)  once  in  5 or  6 weeks. 

The  object  of  the  club  is  to  study  unusual  and  interesting  mathe- 
matical topics  which  do  not  find  a place  in  the  regular  curriculum. 
The  subjects  include  topics  from  the  history  of  mathematics,  famous 
problems,  puzzles,  fallacies,  and  tricks — anything,  in  fact,  which  is 
capable  of  a mathematical  solution  or  explanation,  and  which 
promises  to  be  interesting.  This  last  criterion  is  most  important, 
for  a voluntary  club  of  school  boys  will  not  thrive  if  the  meetings  are 
dull.  The  program  of  last  year,  giving  a list  of  the  subjects  discussed, 
is  appended  to  this  statement. 

As  the  boys  have  had  no  previous  experience  in  such  work,  they 
need  help  in  the  preparation  of  their  reports.  Brief  outlines  are 
furnished,  giving  rather  explicit  suggestions  as  to  the  treatment  of 
the  topic,  what  to  include,  and  especially  what  to  leave  out.  For 
historical  topics  it  is  easy  to  refer  the  student  to  books,  but  for  such 
a subject  as  “Mathematical  Symmetry  in  Nature”  he  must  hunt 
more  widely  for  his  material  and  needs  more  suggestions.  In 
taking  up  “Non-Euclidean  Geometry,”  “Infinity,”  and  “The  Fourth 
Dimension”  the  leader  must  point  the  way  with  still  more  care, 
and  with  such  a subject  as  the  “Foundations  of  Geometry,”  he  must 
open  the  discussion  and  perhaps  do  the  larger  part  of  the  work  himself. 

A list  of  the  books  in  the  mathematical  library  of  the  school,  which 
have  been  found  most  useful  in  the  club  work,  is  appended.  A collec- 
tion of  some  40  or  50  articles  on  appropriate  subjects  taken  from 
popular  magazines  is  also  available. 

At  each  meeting  three  or  four  special  topics  are  presented,  all 
bearing  on  a single  general  subject.  The  special  topics  as  well  as 
the  general  subject  for  each  meeting  are  listed  in  the  program  for 
1909-10  referred  to  above.  There  is  no  prescribed  form  of  presenta- 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


165 


tion.  Some  of  the  boys  speak  from  notes,  referring  perhaps  to 
illustrations  previously  placed  on  the  blackboard,  others  prefer  to 
read  selections  directly  from  the  books  which  they  have  consulted, 
while  still  others  prepare  carefully  written  papers  which  in  some 
cases  have  been  subsequently  elaborated  into  graduation  theses. 

Each  report  is  followed  by  informal  discussions  during  which 
the  speaker  is  expected  to  answer  any  questions  which  may  be 
raised.  The  leader  may  come  to  his  assistance  in  case  of  need 
or  may  add  a brief  comment  upon  the  topic,  but  one  of  the  cardinal 
principles  of  the  club  is  that  the  boys  shall  do  most  of  the  talking. 

F or  the  purpose  of  giving  some  suggestion  of  the  spirit  of  the  meet- 
ings, we  may  describe  in  some  detail  the  treatment  of  a subject 
which  always  arouses  the  keenest  interest — puzzles  and  fallacies. 

The  subject  is  presented  by  first  placing  a fallacy  or  puzzle  before 
the  members  and  giving  them  a reasonable  time  for  exercising 
their  wits  in  its  solution.  At  the  end  of  the  allotted  period,  the 
trick  is  “ given  away”  if  not  already  discovered,  and  the  mathe- 
matical principle  is  explained. 

An  idea  of  the  character  of  the  fallacies  discussed  may  be  had  by 
consulting,  for  geometric  fallacies,  Ball’s,  White’s,  or  Ozanam’s 
books  on  Mathematical  Recreations;  and  for  algebraic  fallacies, 
Viola’s  Mathematical  Sophisms.  The  puzzles  include  the  innumer- 
able card  tricks  which  rest  on  some  mathematical  formula  or  some 
principles  of  arrangement  and  tricks  by  which  the  performer  dis- 
covers one’s  age  or  birthday,  the  number  of  spots  on  a card,  etc., 
by  requiring  one  to  perform  a series  of  arithmetical  operations 
whose  result  reveals  the  required  number.  The  following  example 
of  this  type  was  given  at  one  of  the  meetings: 

The  performer  chose  seven  other  boys  and,  during  his  absence 
from  the  room,  a ring  was  placed  upon  a certain  joint  of  a certain 
finger  of  a certain  hand  of  a certain  boy.  The  right  and  left  hands 
were  numbered  1 and  2,  and  joints,  fingers,  and  boys  were  also 
designated  by  number.  The  four  numbers  indicating  the  position 
of  the  ring  may  be  designated  by  u,  v , x,  and  y. 

On  returning  to  the  room,  the  performer  called  for  certain  multipli- 
cations and  additions  of  these  four  numbers  resulting  in  the  expression 
1000u+  100v+  lOx  + y.  He  then  called  for  the  result  and,  on  being 
told  that  it  was  4182,  announced  that  the  ring  was  upon  the  second 
joint  of  the  third  finger  of  Smith’s  right  hand. 

In  conclusion,  I may  say  that  this  mathematics  club  has  proved 
to  be  a most  interesting  and  valuable  adjunct  of  the  regular  work 
of  the  classroom. 

The  members,  to  be  sure,  acquire  no  very  profound  knowledge 
of  the  subjects  discussed  but  they  do  come  to  have  a broader  view 
of  the  scope  of  mathematics  and — the  most  valuable  result — they 
are  stimulated  to  independent  thinking. 


166 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


PROGRAM  FOR  igog-io. 

First  Meeting. — Algebraic  Fallacies. 

An  informal  consideration  of  certain  proofs  (?)  that  2 equals  1,  1 equals  0,  1 equals 
— 1,  etc. 

Second  Meeting. — Our  Number  System. 

1.  First  notions  of  numbers. 

2.  Primitive  numeration. 

3.  Development  of  decimal  system. 

4.  The  positional  idea. 

Third  Meeting. — Number  Systems  and  Symbols. 

1.  History  of  our  Arabic  symbols. 

2.  Number  symbols  of  other  systems. 

3.  Nondecimal  systems. 

4.  Some  problems  in  a nondecimal  system. 

5.  The  duodecimal  vs.  the  decimal. 

Fourth  Meeting. — History  of  Arithmetic  and  Algebra. 

1.  Among  the  ancient  nations. 

2.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

3.  Among  the  Hindus  and  Arabs. 

4.  In  Mediaeval  Europe. 

5.  The  development  of  algebraic  symbolism. 

Fifth  Meeting. — Numerical  Curiosities. 

1.  Mystic  properties  of  numbers. 

2.  Prime  numbers,  triangular  numbers,  squares,  cubes,  etc. 

3.  Magic  squares. 

4.  Large  numbers. 

5.  Number  forms. 

Sixth  Meeting. — Numerical  Curiosities  (continued). 

1.  The  number  9 and  its  properties. 

2.  Other  curious  numbers. 

3.  Mathematical  short  cuts. 

4.  Mental  calculations. 

Seventh  Meeting. — Numerical  Tricks  and  Puzzles. 

1.  Numerical  tricks. 

2.  Numerical  puzzles  and  catch  questions. 

3.  To  discover  a number  thought  of. 

Eighth  Meeting. — Geometrical  Tricks  and  Puzzles  and  Mathematical  Games.  Infor- 
mal consideration;  no  formal  reports. 

Ninth  Meeting. — Card  Tricks  involving  some  mathematical  principle  of  number  or 
position.  Problems  on  a chess  board. 

Tenth  Meeting. — Foundations  of  Geometry. 

1.  The  assumptions. 

2.  Nature  of  space. 

3.  Definitions. 

4.  Logic  of  geometry. 

Eleventh  Meeting. — History  of  Geometry. 

1.  Beginnings  of  geometry. 

2.  Early  Greek  geometry. 

3.  Euclid  and  his  immortal  elements. 

4.  Recent  developments  in  geometry. 

Twelfth  Meeting. — Famous  Problems  of  Geometry. 

1.  Squaring  the  circle. 

2.  The  duplication  of  the  cube. 

3.  Regular  polygons  and  polyhedrons. 

4.  Famous  problems  of  solid  geometry. 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


167 


Thirteenth  Meeting. — Foundations  of  Geometry. 

1.  Geometric  assumptions. 

2.  The  straight  line,  and  how  to  draw  one. 

3.  Non-Euclidean  geometry. 

4.  Some  criticisms  of  the  class  textbook. 

Fourteenth  Meeting. — The  Mathematics  of  Common  Things. 

1.  The  mathematical  principles  of  maps. 

2.  Optical  illusions. 

3.  The  carpenter’s  square. 

4.  Weighing  and  measuring. 

5.  Mathematical  symmetry  in  nature. 

Fifteenth  Meeting. — The  Fairyland  of  Mathematics. 

1.  The  fourth  dimension. 

2.  A visit  to  Flatland. 

3.  A visit  to  Infinity. 

4.  Curved  space. 

Sixteenth  Meeting. — Higher  Mathematics. 

1.  History  of  trigonometry. 

2.  History  of  logarithms. 

3.  Calculus,  and  other  pleasures  to  come. 

4.  A world  without  mathematics. 

REFERENCE  BOOKS. 

Below  are  appended  the  titles  of  a few  books  and  pamphlets 
which  have  proved  most  valuable  in  the  work  of  the  club.  Only 
publications  in  the  English  language  are  mentioned.  Additional 
references  will  be  found  in  Smith’s  k ‘ Teaching  of  Elementary  Mathe- 
matics/’ Young’s  “Teaching  of  Mathematics,  ” Withers’s  “Parallel 
Postulate,”  White’s  “Scrap  Book  of  Elementary  Mathematics,” 
Ahrens’s  “Unterhaltungen  und  Spiele,  ” etc. 

This  list  does  not  include  textbooks,  nor  articles  in  encyclopaedias, 
magazines,  etc.  Among  magazines  frequently  containing  such  arti- 
cles of  interest  are  School  Science  and  Mathematics,  The  Open  Court, 
The  Monist,  Science,  The  Popular  Science  Monthly,  The  Scientific 
American,  etc. 

( 1 ) Foundations  and  criticisms. 

Common  Sense  of  the  Exact  Sciences Clifford Appleton. 

Space  and  Geometry Mach Open  Court. 

Euclid’s  Parallel  Postulate Withers Open  Court. 

Euclid Frankland Wessel  & Co. 

Non-Euclidean  Geometry Manning Ginn  & Co. 

Geometric  Axioms  (Popular  Science  Lectures,  Helmholtz Appleton. 

2d  series). 

The  Thirteen  Books  of  Euclid’s  Elements,  Heath Cambridge  Univer- 

with  Introduction  and  Commentary.  sity  Press. 

Mathematical  Monographs Young Longmans . 

Lectures  on  Elementary  Mathematics Lagrange Open  Court. 

Theories  of  Parallelism Frankland Cambridge  Press. 

Number  Systems Fine Ginn  & Co. 

The  Teaching  of  Geometry Smith Ginn  & Co. 


168 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


(2)  History. 

History  of  Mathematics Cajori Macmillan. 

History  of  Elementary  Mathematics Cajori Macmillan. 

Short  History  of  Mathematics Ball Macmillan. 

Primer  of  the  History  of  Mathematics Ball Macmillan. 

Greek  Geometry  from  Thales  to  Euclid Allman Dublin  University 

Press. 

History  of  Greek  Mathematics Gow Cambridge  Univer- 

sity Press. 

Euclid Smith Scribner. 

The  Story  of  Euclid Frankland Wessel  & Co. 

Famous  Problems  of  Geometry Klein Ginn  & Co. 

Mathematical  Monographs Heath  & Co. 

History  of  Teaching  of  Elementary  Geometry. Stamper Teachers  College,  Co- 

lumbia University. 

Portraits  of  Mathematicians Smith Open  Court. 

The  Teaching  of  Elementary  Mathematics Smith Macmillan. 

Rara  Arithmetica Smith Ginn  & Co. 

Sixteenth  Century  Arithmetic Jackson Teachers  College,  Co- 

lumbia University. 

The  Hindu-Arabic  Numerals Smith  and  Kar-  Ginn  & Co. 

pinski. 


(3)  Recreations. 


Scrap  Book  of  Elementary  Mathematics 

Mathematical  Recreations 

Mathematical  Essays 

The  Canterbury  Puzzles 

Paradoxes  of  Nature  and  Science 

The  Number  Concept 

Philosophy  of  Arithmetic 


White Open  Court. 

Ball Macmillan. 

Schubert Open  Court. 

Dudeney Dutton  & Co. 

Harpson Dutton  & Co. 

Conant Macmillan . 

Brooks N ormal  Publishing 

Co.,  Philadelphia. 


Recreations  in  Science  and  Mathematics  1 Ozanam 

Scientific  Romances Hinton Swan,  Sonnenschein 

& Co. 

Fourth  Dimension Hinton Swan,  Sonnenschein 

& Co. 

Flatland Anon Little,  Brown  & Co. 

Geometric  Exercises  in  Paper  Folding Row Open  Court. 

How  to  Draw  a Straight  Line Kempe Macmillan. 

Geometry  and  Faith Hill Lee  & Shepard. 

Short  Cuts  and  By  Ways  in  Mathematics Blakie 

Visit  to  Algebra  Land Ward Educational  Publish- 

ing Co.,  Syracuse. 

Primitive  Culture,  Vol.  I Tylor Henry  Holt. 

Magic  Squares  and  Cubes Andrews Open  Court. 

The  Fourth  Dimension Manning Munn  & Co. 

Pleasure  with  Profit Leybourn  (1693). Out  of  print. 


‘Translated  by  Hutton;  out  of  print;  only  second-hand  copies  obtainable. 


PRIVATE  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


169 


CONCLUSION. 

The  preliminary  classification  of  schools  has  been  used  com- 
paratively little  in  describing  courses  of  study  and  methods. 
Although  location,  religious  connection,  and  various  features  of 
organization  were  considered  in  making  tabulations,  few  distinctions 
between  these  various  types  of  schools  appeared  in  the  data  bear- 
ing upon  the  teaching  of  mathematics.  The  classification,  while 
unnecessary  for  describing  differentiation  in  courses  and  methods, 
has  been  retained  because  of  its  value  in  a description  of  the  general 
characteristics  of  the  schools  included  in  the  report. 

The  data  reported  by  the  schools  have  been  presented  as  accu- 
rately as  possible,  with  almost  no  comment.  The  report  is  not  a 
complete  description  of  mathematics  teaching  in  private  secondary 
schools,  and  we  have  indicated  roughly  limitations  to  the  reliability 
of  the  figures,  but  in  this  form  the  report  should  be  of  more  value 
for  comparison  of  the  schools  of  this  field  with  the  others  than  if 
interpretation  reflecting  the  personal  convictions  of  the  members  of 
the  committee  had  been  given. 

In  the  discussion  of  aims,  however,  criticism  of  the  prevailing 
views  with  regard  to  certain  questions  is  perhaps  implied,  and  in 
closing  the  report  a word  of  commentary  may  be  permitted.  The 
statement  in  regard  to  coeducation  and  to  the  various  questions 
of  aim  show  that  few  teachers  are  in  the  habit  of  analyzing  their 
problem  carefully.  One  of  the  greatest  needs  of  mathematical 
education  in  secondary  schools  to-day  is  the  scientific  determination 
of  its  legitimate  purposes.  Teachers  should  be  less  content  to  be 
guided  by  an  examination  requirement  or  to  have  blind  faith  in  the 
supreme  value  of  their  subject.  There  should  be  a conscious  pur- 
pose in  all  teaching  and  frequent  attempts  to  measure  results. 


APPENDIX. 


The  following  reports  relate  to  institutions  which,  though  not  sec- 
ondary institutions  exclusively,  cover  more  or  less  of  the  secondary 
field  in  their  work. 

A.  MATHEMATICAL  INSTRUCTION  FOR  EVENING  TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS. 

Meeting  requirements  of  compulsory  education. — With  the  excep- 
tion of  some  privately  endowed  schools,  the  evening  schools  have  in 
the  past  made  but  little  attempt  to  provide  mathematical  instruc- 
tion of  a sort  that  would  meet  the  requirements  of  men  and  boys 
engaged  in  our  constructive  industries.  In  fact,  most  of  the  instruc- 
tion in  mathematics  has  been  of  an  elementary  order,  meeting  only 
the  various  legal  requirements  in  the  several  States  with  reference 
to  employment  certificates.  For  the  benefit  of  those  who  are  un- 
familiar with  the  spirit  of  such  laws,  the  following  extract  from  the 
education  law  of  New  York  State  is  given: 

Every  boy  between  14  and  16  years  of  age  * * * who  is  engaged  in  any  useful 
employment  or  service  in  a city  of  the  first  class  or  a city  of  the  second  class  and 
who  has  not  completed  such  course  of  study  as  is  required  for  graduation  from  the 
elementary  public  schools  of  such  city,  and  who  does  not  hold  either  a certificate 
of  graduation  from  the  public  elementary  school  or  the  pre-academic  certificate 
issued  by  the  regents  of  the  university  of  the  State  of  New  York  or  the  certificate  of 
the  completion  of  an  elementary  school  issued  by  the  education  department,  shall 
attend  the  public  evening  schools  of  such  city,  or  other  evening  schools  offering  an 
equivalent  course  of  instruction,  for  not  less  than  six  hours  each  week  for  a period  of 
not  less  than  16  weeks  in  each  school  year  or  calendar  year. 

The  intent  of  all  such  laws  has  been  to  provide  for  the  illiterates. 
Consequently  evening  classes  have  been  filled  with  boys  and  men  of 
all  ages,  interests,  and  capacities,  who  could  hardly  understand  the 
language  of  the  classroom  and  who  knew  even  less  about  the  simplest 
operations  of  arithmetic. 

Such  a procedure  naturally  developed  a series  of  elementary  even- 
ing schools  with  little  or  no  plan  beyond  that  of  meeting  the  State 
laws.  Furthermore,  the  pupils  themselves  were  practically  driven 
to  these  schools  by  officials  appointed  to  enforce  compulsory  attend- 
ance. 

Development  of  evening  high  schools. — A series  of  evening  high 
schools  has  gradually  been  developing  in  the  larger  cities.  These 
170 


MATHEMATICS  IN  EVENING  TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS.  171 

schools  have  reached  a higher  class  of  pupils — young  men  and  women 
who  could  do  more  than  read  and  write. 

At  first,  many  of  them  were  naturally  studious  and  sought  with 
definite  purpose  educational  advantages  in  the  lines  of  algebra, 
geometry,  and  trigonometry.  Many  were  preparing  for  entrance  to 
some  college  while  at  the  same  time  they  were  earning  a living. 

Later  the  commercial  courses  were  introduced.  They  appealed 
to  a much  larger  constituency,  who  were  perhaps  not  naturally 
studious  and  yet  who  sought  definite  instruction  in  commercial 
arithmetic,  bookkeeping,  etc. 

Within  the  last  10  years  the  shop  and  laboratory  courses  of  our 
manual- training  and  technical  high  schools  have  been  made  available 
to  the  pupils  of  the  evening  schools.  Thus  we  find  another  broad- 
ening out  of  evening  instruction,  meeting  the  needs  of  boys  and  men 
working  in  manufacturing  industries. 

Present  weakness. — We  note  how  the  public  evening  schools  have 
broadened  their  scope  so  far  as  educational  activities  are  concerned. 
The  same  can  not  be  said  with  reference  to  the  method  of  instruction 
pursued,  for  in  too  many  instances  it  has  been  haphazard,  indefinite, 
and  unorganized.  Day-school  teachers,  unfamiliar  with  the  special 
needs  of  evening  students,  have  been  engaged;  textbooks  written 
for  the  day  elementary  and  high  schools  have  been  adopted ; methods 
of  teaching  peculiar  to  the  requirements  of  the  immature  day-school 
pupil  have  been  thrust  upon  the  mature  members  of  the  evening 
classes. 

Privately  endowed  schools. — Fortunately,  throughout  the  period  of 
the  development  of  the  public  evening  school  which  has  been  briefly 
described,  certain  institutions — notably,  Cooper  Union,  in  New 
York  City — have  been  steadily  building  up  a comprehensive  scheme 
of  evening  instruction  which  definitely  meets  the  individual  require- 
ments of  those  engaged  in  technical  work.  Courses  of  instruction 
covering  a definite  period  of  years,  trained  teachers,  special  notes, 
and  general  improvement  based  upon  previous  experience,  have 
made  these  schools  leaders  in  the  field  of  evening  technical  instruc- 
tion. 

Main  purpose  of  the  report. — The  movement  toward  better  public 
evening  school  instruction  along  lines  of  technology  is  so  recent  and 
the  number  of  privately  endowed  evening  schools  of  the  same  order 
so  few  that  this  report  is  necessarily  limited  in  its  statement  of  any 
definite  development  of  high  grade  institution.  Perhaps,  after  all,  it 
can  serve  no  more  useful  purpose  than  to  outline  some  fundamental 
points  which  must  be  considered  if  such  instruction  is  to  be  more 
effective,  particularly  in  view  of  the  fact  that  these  points  have  been 
suggested  by  the  answers  to  inquiries  sent  out  by  the  committee. 


172 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


Form  of  blank. — A series  of  questions  was  sent  by  the  committee  to 
all  evening  trade,  technical,  and  industrial  schools,  covering  the  fol- 
lowing points: 

1 . Nature  of  school — academic,  or  technical,  or  trade  school. 

2.  What  degrees  granted,  if  any;  and  for  how  much  work. 

3.  Number  of  years  required  for  full  course. 

4.  Approximate  number  entering  each  year. 

5.  Approximate  number  graduated  each  year. 

6.  Nature  of  course  in  mathematics.  Is  mathematics  taught 
with  relation  to  the  students’  occupations  ? 

7.  Number  of  hours  per  week  devoted  to  the  various  mathematical 
subjects. 

8.  Wliat  textbooks  are  used  ? 

9.  Are  these  satisfactory;  or  if  not,  in  what  points  are  they  defec- 
tive? 

10.  In  what  way  could  the  textbooks  you  use  be  bettered,  if  any? 

11.  Wliat  is  the  business  of  the  night  instructors  during  the  day- 
time; that  is,  is  it  at  all  related  to  those  subjects  which  they  teach  at 
night  ? 

12.  What  is  the  average  proportion  of  your  instructor’s  salary  for 
his  evening  work  to  his  day  salary  ? 

13.  In  what  way  could  the  “ personnel”  of  your  instructing  staff 
be  bettered,  if  any  ? 

14.  Wliat  proportionate  amount  of  time  should  be  given,  in  your 
opinion,  to  the  various  branches  of  mathematics  ? 

The  following  is  a summary  of  the  replies  to  the  more  important  of 
these  questions: 

Improvement  of  evening  schools. — An  important  educational  move  in 
the  immediate  future  should  be  in  the  direction  of  improving  the 
instruction  in  evening  schools  and  adapting  them  to  the  needs  of  in- 
dustrial workers.  The  methods  of  these  schools  should  be  recast. 
They  should  adapt  themselves  to  modern  industrial  conditions,  and 
through  proper  instruction  of  practical  subjects  touch  more  closely 
the  economic  and  social  life  of  the  times.  The  evening  school  student 
attends  to  satisfy  a definite  need.  These  students  have  already  re- 
ceived a more  or  less  formal  education  in  the  public  schools.  They 
are  receiving  in  their  daily  work  incidental  industrial  experience,  and 
have  learned  from  this  thorough  teacher  that  they  are  deficient  in 
some  lines;  hence  this  endeavor,  outside  of  their  working  hours,  to 
fit  themselves  for  definite  lines  of  activity. 

Vital  needs. — There  are  certain  vital  needs  in  the  organization  and 
methods  of  conducting  evening  industrial  improvement  schools.  The 
evening  technical  school  deals  with  two  rather  distinct  classes:  First, 
those  who  are  naturally  students  and  seek  with  a definite  purpose 
educational  advantages  in  the  advanced  lines  of  mathematics,  and 


MATHEMATICS  IN  EVENING  TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS. 


173 


mechanics;  second,  those  who  are  not  naturally  students  and  yet  who 
seek  with  a more  or  less  definite  aim  educational  help  in  a solution 
of  some  present  problem  which  involves  special  service.  The  latter 
class  is  interested  in  shop  mathematics,  elementary  engineering  prac- 
tice, etc. 

Courses  must  be  of  two  Jcinds. — The  recognition  of  these  two  classes 
means  that  the  courses  of  instruction  must  be  of  two  kinds,  one  com- 
paring favorably  with  the  day-school  work  in  its  general  scheme,  the 
other  and  major  part  differing  decidedly  from  the  methods  ordinarily 
pursued.  The  evening  work  of  the  nonstudent  class  must  have  its 
own  distinct  ideals,  methods,  and  estimates  of  value  based  upon 
current  community  conditions  and  individual  needs  rather  than  based 
on  the  regular  school  standards  which  are  applicable  primarily  to  the 
student  class. 

Teaching  staff. — Day-school  teachers  are  employed  too  much  at 
present  in  evening  schools.  These  teachers  can  meet  the  needs  of 
the  student  class,  but  they  can  not  properly  teach  the  nonstudent 
class  which  often  consists  of  industrial  workers.  To  the  custom  of 
employing  day-school  teachers  must  be  laid  much  of  the  lack  of  defi- 
niteness in  the  planning  of  evening-school  work.  It  is  a very  simple 
matter  for  the  average  day-school  teacher  to  adopt  the  regular  text- 
books and  to  use  the  regular  outlines  and  methods.  This  is  a perfectly 
consistent  action,  for  few  regular  teachers  have  opportunity  to  know 
the  vital  industrial  needs  of  their  students  through  their  own  academic 
experience.  Now,  the  only  people  competent  to  teach  in  our  evening 
industrial  and  technical  schools,  even  on  the  book  side,  are  the  men 
and  women  who  know  from  their  contact  with  modern  industrial  and 
commercial  life  vital  points  of  interest  which  concern  these  workers 
who  come  to  the  evening  schools  to  meet  definite  needs. 

A few  typical  answers  to  question  No.  11  will  show  how  few  in- 
structors are  in  touch  with  the  practical  aspects  of  technical  problems 
relating  to  their  mathematical  teaching. 

“ Three  teach  mathematics  during  the  day.”  “We  employ  day- 
school  teachers.”  “Practically  all  our  teachers  teach  the  same  sub- 
jects in  the  day  school.”  “Both  are  teachers  in  the  day  school.” 
“Teach  mathematics  in  the  daytime.”  “Teacher  in  grammar 
school.”  “All  teach  in  day  schools.” 

Contrasted  with  these  statements  are  those  from  the  majority  of 
the  evening  technical  institutes  like  Franklin,  Cooper,  and  Lewis. 

“Only  two  of  our  day-school  teachers  teach  in  evening  school.” 
“Night  instructors  are  employed  in  engineering  work  during  the  day.” 
“Part  are  teachers;  remaining  ones  are  engineers  and  draftsmen.” 
“Most  of  our  teachers  have  been  with  us  for  many  years  and  are 
thoroughly  capable.” 


174 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


The  direct  appeal. — Evening  school  instruction  must  appeal  to  the 
student  immediately  at  the  beginning  of  his  work.  The  subject 
matter  of  the  early  lessons  must  satisfy  his  need  as  he  has  defined 
it.  The  success  of  evening  instruction  depends  upon  this  principle. 
For  example,  a young  machinist  has  received  a reprimand  from  his 
foreman  because  he  can  not  estimate  the  amount  of  “ set-off”  of  the 
tailstock  of  a lathe  to  cut  a taper.  He  enrolls  in  a class  in  trigonom- 
etry to  meet  that  deficiency  and  finds  that  the  first  two  lessons  are 
concerned  with  definitions,  the  next  three  with  quadrants  and  tables, 
and  that  the  remainder  of  the  term  is  to  be  spent  on  the  development 
of  formula.  During  this  time  he  is  receiving  in  his  daily  work  the 
same  reprimands,  and  is  therefore  debating  in  his  own  mind  the  value 
of  his  evening  instruction.  The  average  apprentice  machinist  does 
not  see  the  direct  application  of  this  instruction  to  his  work.  He 
enrolled  for  a definite  purpose.  It  would  have  been  perfectly  possible 
to  give  in  the  first  five  lessons  some  elementary  but  practical  in- 
struction in  the  application  of  the  right-angled  triangle  to  the  offset 
of  a tailstock.  Instead  of  leaving  school  at  the  end  of  the  fifth 
lesson  with  no  instruction  which  appealed  to  him,  he  would  have 
received  enough  in  those  five  lessons  to  fit  him  to  meet  the  demands 
of  his  foreman  and  more  than  likely  he  would  have  remained  in  the 
mathematical  class  to  receive  the  more  definite  and  thorough  instruc- 
tion in  its  theory  which  must  be  gained  if  one  is  fully  to  comprehend 
and  cover  the  entire  range  of  the  subject. 

Flexible  courses. — The  various  features  of  the  different  courses  in 
mathematics  must  be  elective  and  flexible  and  presented  in  small 
and  varied  units.  Instead  of  printing  in  a course  of  study  “arith- 
metic,” “geometry,”  etc.,  there  should  be  printed,  “arithmetic  for 
mechanics,”  “arithmetic  for  clerks,”  “mechanical  drawing  for  ap- 
prentices,” etc.  Where  it  is  possible  even  a liner  differentiation  is 
desirable,  such  as  “arithmetic  for  plumbers,”  “arithmetic  for  errand 
boys,”  “geometry  for  machinists,”  etc.  Not  only  will  this  presen- 
tation serve  to  catch  the  eye  of  the  prospective  student,  but  it  will 
also  suggest  to  him  that  special  effort  is  to  be  made  in  the  class  work 
to  help  him  in  his  daily  occupation.  The  instruction  in  the  various 
branches  must  be  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  various  occupations. 
The  terms  used  in  the  classroom  must  savor  of  the  shop,  office,  and 
store.  Experience  shows  that  the  problem  “What  is  f of  37 J ?”  does 
not  appeal  so  much  to  a clerk  as  the  problem,  “What  will  f of  a yard 
of  cloth  cost  at  37 J cents  a yard?”  On  the  other  hand,  the  latter 
problem  does  not  awaken  the  interest  of  the  mechanic  as  much  as 
the  problem  involving  the  same  operations,  which  reads,  “If  a copper 
casting  weighs  37  \ pounds  and  specific  gravity  of  iron  is  f that  of 
copper,  what  will  the  casting  weigh  if  made  of  iron?” 


MATHEMATICS  IN  EVENING  TECHNICAL  SCHOOLS. 


175 


Departmental  system  is  not  always  suited. — Oftentimes  the  students 
will  do  better  work  and  more  will  be  accomplished  if  the  mathematical 
instruction  is  definitely  related  to  the  vocational  work  and  is  given 
by  or  under  the  direction  of  the  teacher  of  the  technical  subject. 
For  example,  it  is  possible  to  teach  the  mathematics  of  steam  engi- 
neering in  connection  with  steam-engine  practice.  If  the  student 
sees  the  need  of  using  a certain  formula  he  can  be  better  taught  the 
derivation  of  that  formula  when  the  necessity  arises  for  its  use.  In 
general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  major  subject  in  evening-school  work 
is  the  vocational  one — that  is,  the  one  related  to  the  daily  occupation 
of  the  student — and  that  all  the  other  subjects,  such  as  mathematics 
and  science,  are  but  incidents  to  the  accomplishment  of  the  vocational 
purpose.  An  illustration  will  serve  to  make  clear:  A machinist 
enrolls  in  an  evening  school  for  mechanical  drawing  and  finds  that  he 
needs  to  brush  up  in  fractions  and  decimals  and  that  he  needs  square 
root  in  order  to  work  out  a formula  for  screw  threads.  The  oppor- 
tune time  to  teach  him  these  topics  is  when  the  need  for  them  arises, 
and  none  is  more  qualified  to  give  the  required  practical  instruction 
in  such  topics  than  a competent  drawing  teacher.  The  value  of 
sending  him  to  another  class  for  a line  of  mathematics  unrelated  to 
his  main  “ center  of  interest”  is  questioned. 

Along  the  same  general  lines  the  following  description  of  work  in 
Lewis  Institute,  Chicago,  may  be  cited: 

The  larger  group,  however,  is  composed  of  men  and  boys  who  must  have  a practical 
grasp  of  mathematical  principles  for  their  work  in  engineering.  Here  there  is  no 
attempt  to  teach  mathematics  as  a thing  apart  from  its  applications.  For  the  first  20 
weeks  the  students  in  the  first-year  engineering  principles,  about  250  in  number,  meet 
two  evenings  a week  for  two  hours.  During  the  first  hour  in  the  mathematics  lecture 
room  a sheet  of  problems  is  given  to  each  student,  and  the  instructor  works  the  prob- 
lems on  the  blackboard  and  explains  the  principles  involved.  These  problems  are 
based  directly  on  the  second  hour’s  work,  which  consists  of  a demonstration  lecture  in 
applied  physics.  Thus,  in  the  physics  lecture  room  a crane  is  set  up,  and  spring 
balances  are  arranged  to  show  the  stresses  in  the  boom  and  tie.  The  following  evening 
in  the  mathematics  lecture  room  problems  on  the  crane  and  triangle  of  forces  are 
solved  and  the  mathematical  principles  are  discussed.  A motor-power  test  with  the 
Prony  brake  is  the  basis  for  work  and  power  problems.  During  the  third  term  of  10 
weeks  the  students  spend  two  evenings  a week  in  the  laboratory  and  one  evening  in 
solving  problems  based  on  their  laboratory  work.  At  the  end  of  the  year  each  student 
has  a set  of  sheets  containing  the  necessary  definitions,  tables,  and  statement  of  prin- 
ciples from  the  physics  lectures,  a set  of  laboratory  report  blanks  in  which  is  a record 
cf  his  laboratory  work,  and  a set  of  problem  sheets  with  a solution  of  the  problems. 
These  are  bound  for  the  students,  and  by  this  means  they  have  a permanent  record  of 
the  year’s  work  for  future  reference  and  study. 

During  the  remaining  three  years  of  the  engineering  work  the  mathematics  is  con- 
tinued in  the  closest  possible  relations  with  it.  All  the  while  the  methods  of  solving 
the  various  problems  that  arise  are  kept  as  simple  as  possible.  A judicious  use  of 
arithmetic,  a very  little  algebra,  or  a simple  diagram  secures  results  that  are  often 
obtained  through  elaborate  processes  involving  lengthy  operations  and  complicated 
equations.  Many  of  the  students  learn  to  use  a table  of  four-place  logarithms,  the 


176 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


slide  rule,  and  the  table  of  series,  cosines,  and  tangents  skillfully  and  intelligently. 
We  have  learned  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  tell  a man  that  he  can  not  enter  an  engineer- 
ing class  in  the  evening  school  till  he  has  studied  mathematics  one  or  two  years.  He 
can  get  a working  knowledge  of  mathematics  through  the  problems. 

In  the  Springfield  (Mass.)  Evening  School  of  Trades  the  instructor 
of  drawing  used  a method  similar  to  the  following : 

When  the  student  reached  a place  in  a drafting  course  dealing  with  the  subject 
of  screw  threads,  it  became  necessary  for  him  to  apply  some  such  formula  as 
P— 0.24-y/ d+0.625— 0.175,  where  P is  the  pitch  of  the  thread  and  d is  the  diameter  of 
the  bolt.  This  problem  involves  square  root  and  decimals.  One  hour  of  individual 
or  small-group  instruction  by  this  teacher  gave  a student  the  necessary  familiarity 
with  these  mathematical  processes  to  make  them  sufficiently  clear  to  him  in  their 
application  to  the  formula. 

Undoubtedly  many  students  are  not  satisfied  with  this  incomplete  instruction,  and 
this  is  often  made  evident  through  their  joining  the  regular  class  in  mathematics  the 
next  year  in  order  to  gain  an  insight  into  the  reasons  involved  in  the  process  of  square 
root.  Instead  of  thorough  preparation  in  mathematics  for  mechanical  drawing,  it 
would  be  better  to  have  the  mechanical  drawing  lead  the  students  into  mathematics. 
This  reversal  of  the  usual  procedure,  while  it  may  not  be  pedagogical  so  far  as  the 
subject  matter  is  concerned,  is  certainly  true  to  experience  when  one  deals  with  the 
characteristics  of  the  average  evening-school  student.  The  teaching  of  application 
before  theory  should  be  always  emphasized  in  evening  instruction. 

Sequential  arrangement  of  courses. — Mathematical  instruction  should 
have  a sequential  arrangement,  elementary  and  advanced  courses 
being  given.  Experience  teaches  that  evening  schools  are  so  over- 
crowded in  the  elementary  courses  that  the  more  advanced  students 
suffer  through  insufficient  attention.  If  the  student’s  transient  need 
is  well  met,  it  will  place  him  in  a better  position,  only  again  to  make 
him  feel  a renewed  need  of  self-improvement.  This  means  that  he 
will  return  to  the  evening  school  in  some  subsequent  year,  when  he 
ought  to  be  given  advanced  work.  Not  only  must  each  school  year’s 
work  be  driven  home  and  clinched,  but  each  series  of  years’  work 
must  be  so  clinched  as  to  meet  the  needs  of  industry.  The  strength 
of  the  work  of  such  evening  institutes  as  Cooper,  Pratt,  Lewis,  and 
Franklin  testifies  to  the  value  of  sequential  arrangement  of  courses. 

Classification  by  ages. — Where  possible  there  should  be  in  the 
evening-school  work  a separation  in  the  class  instruction  of  the 
immature  from  the  mature  nonstudent  class.  The  latter  are  ex- 
tremely self-conscious.  Their  feelings  should  be  respected  as  far  as 
possible.  Is  it  any  wonder  that  a foreman  of  a pattern  shop  does 
not  take  kindly  to  being  instructed  in  arithmetic  in  the  same  class 
with  a boy  machine  tender  over  whom  he  has  charge  during  the  day  ? 

Classification  by  vocations. — Undoubtedly,  as  far  as  is  possible, 
students  should  be  classified  in  the  mathematical  classes  according 
to  their  trade  or  business.  To-day  workingmen  have  common  trade 
interests.  Evening-school  students  grouped  according  to  occupation 
would  have  an  opportunity  to  talk  over  these  interests.  The  teacher 


MATHEMATICS  IN  CORRESPONDENCE  SCHOOLS.  177 

could  act  as  a leader  and  draw  out  the  students  into  telling  their  trade 
experiences,  and  through  the  expression  of  these  various  opinions  the 
most  practical  solution  of  the  particular  problem  at  hand  would  be 
obtained.  Teachers  who  have  had  evening-school  experience  know 
how  difficult  it  is  to  get  the  students  to  recite  and  express  themselves 
at  the  blackboard.  A free  discussion  of  the  point  at  issue  makes  the 
student  lose  his  self-consciousness  and  before  he  is  aware  of  it  he  is  at 
the  board  illustrating  his  particular  method  of  solution. 

It  is  recognized  by  the  committee  that  small  schools  will  have  diffi- 
culty in  dividing  the  classes  into  occupational  groups.  However, 
any  evening  school  with  an  enrollment  which  requires  the  formation 
of  more  than  one  class  in  a given  subject  can  at  least  divide  its  class 
enrollment  into  two  divisions:  (1)  Those  engaged  in  mechanical, 
electrical,  and  steam-engine  practice  trades  during  the  day;  (2)  those 
engaged  in  building  trades  during  the  day.  The  larger  the  enroll- 
ment the  finer  the  differentiation  as  based  upon  the  daily  occupation 
of  the  students. 

Textbooks  for  industrial  workers. — Textbooks  written  expressly  for 
the  kind  of  instruction  demanded  in  evening  schools  should  be  used. 
There  should  be  a marked  difference  between  the  methods  of  instruc- 
tion in  day  and  evening  schools.  What  is  needed,  for  instance,  is  not 
an  elaborate  textbook  in  general  arithmetic,  with  all  its  topics  of  frac- 
tions, decimals,  square  root,  percentage,  interest,  partial  paypents, 
bank  discounts,  etc.,  but  rather  a book  which  appeals  to  a man  in  the 
machine  trades,  then  one  which  appeals  to  a plumber,  or  a clerk,  or  an 
errand  boy;  small  enough  to  slip  into  the  side  pocket  of  a coat  and 
cheap  enough  so  that  he  can  readily  own  a copy  for  reference  in  his 
daily  work. 

Furthermore,  there  should  be  textbooks  so  arranged  as  to  relate  a 
series  of  questions  to  one  given  plan;  it  would  be  much  better  than  a 
large  number  of  totally  unrelated  questions.  In  addition  it  may  be 
said  that  these  questions  should  deal  with  simple  actual  problems. 


B.  THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS  IN  PRIVATE  CORRESPONDENCE 

SCHOOLS. 

Preliminary  statement. — In  the  preparation  of  this  report  the  most 
complete  list  of  correspondence  schools  possible  was  obtained.  The 
list  showed  that  many  of  these  institutions  were  of  such  nature  that 
they  did  not  give  instruction  in  mathematics.  In  obtaining  the  data 
for  the  report  the  committee  sent  a blank  which  contained  questions 
asking  for  the  information  desired  by  the  general  committee.  One 
hundred  and  thirty-five  correspondence  schools,  colleges,  and  univer- 
sities doing  correspondence  work  received  these  inquiries.  Only  a 
9560°— 11 12 


178 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


small  number  replied.  For  this  reason  the  conclusions  in  this  report 
are  drawn  from  insufficient  data  to  make  them  of  the  highest  value. 
Nevertheless,  the  replies  received  were  from  such  institutions  as  make 
them  fairly  representative  of  the  field  covered  by  correspondence 
instruction  in  mathematics. 

Historical  sketch. — Instruction  by  correspondence  is  of  compara- 
tively recent  origin.  It  was  first  successfully  developed  in  Germany 
about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  first  attempts  to 
introduce  this  method  of  instruction  in  the  United  States  were  in 
connection  with  the  Chautauqua  Literary  and  Scientific  Circle,  which 
organized  a department  of  correspondence  in  1884.  Since  then  the 
work  has  extended  throughout  the  country,  and  the  correspondence 
method  of  instruction  is  employed  not  only  by  independent  schools, 
but  also  by  a number  of  the  leading  colleges  and  universities. 

Two  classes  of  institutions  are  engaged  in  instruction  by  corre- 
spondence. These  are  the  independent  correspondence  schools — insti- 
tutions doing  all  of  their  work  by  correspondence — and  colleges  and 
universities  having  correspondence  departments.  The  following 
report  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  first  part  dealing  with  the  inde- 
pendent correspondence  schools  and  the  second  with  correspondence 
departments  of  other  institutions. 

Independent  Correspondence  Schools. 

Organization. — The  plan  of  organization  of  independent  corre- 
spondence schools  varies  somewhat  in  detail,  but  in  their  essential 
features  all  plans  are  nearly  the  same.  No  system  of  classes  or  class 
work  exists,  and  instruction  is  with  the  individual  student.  With 
scarcely  an  exception  these  schools  are  entirely  independent  of  other 
institutions  of  learning.  However,  those  whose  instruction  is  recog- 
nized as  thorough  often  have  their  students  accredited  in  higher  insti- 
tutions of  learning  which  the  said  students  desire  to  enter.  This 
credit,  it  should  be  said,  is  a matter  resting  entirely  with  the  accred- 
iting school,  and  unless  the  student  so  accredited  is  able  to  sustain 
himself  in  the  department  which  he  enters,  the  credit  is  withdrawn. 
Nearly  all  of  the  best  schools  have  courses  which  prepare  their 
students  for  the  freshman  year  of  colleges  and  universities,  but  most 
of  them  are  also  highly  specialized  and  devote  the  greater  part  of 
their  time  to  preparing  their  students  for  the  various  vocations  which 
these  students  wish  to  follow.  For  this  reason  the  courses  in  mathe- 
matics and  the  instruction  given  are  on  a much  more  limited  plane 
than  courses  of  equal  strength  in  high  schools,  colleges,  and  univer- 
sities. 

Courses  of  study. — The  reports  received  show  that  arithmetic,  alge- 
bra, and  geometry  are  taught  in  a large  majority  of  those  schools 
which  teach  mathematics  at  all.  A limited  number  have  courses  in 


MATHEMATICS  IN  CORRESPONDENCE  SCHOOLS. 


179 


trigonometry  and  commercial  arithmetic,  and  a still  smaller  number 
have  special  courses,  by  which  is  meant  courses  especially  adapted 
to  fitting  the  student  for  some  vocation,  such  as  accounting  and  elec- 
trical engineering.  While  the  schools  offering  such  courses  are  few  in 
number,  their  patronage  is  very  large,  and  most  of  the  courses  in 
mathematics  which  these  schools  offer  are  devoted  to  the  various 
lines  of  industrial  work. 

Methods  of  instruction. — The  method  of  instruction  is  practically 
the  same  in  all  of  these  institutions.  Texts  are  sent  the  students  and 
they  are  required  to  prepare  the  lessons  assigned  on  these  texts. 
When  the  lesson  is  prepared  the  student  writes  his  lesson  paper,  an- 
swering questions  and  solving  problems  required  by  the  school.  This 
paper  is  forwarded  to  the  school,  where  it  is  reviewed,  criticised,  and 
usually  graded ; then  returned  to  the  student,  together  with  such  sug- 
gestions and  directions  as  the  instructor  feels  that  the  student  needs. 

The  plan  of  sending  out  the  lessons  varies.  Some  schools  send  at 
once  a volume  containing  all  the  lessons  of  the  course;  others  send 
pamphlets  containing  one  or  two  lessons  each,  and  when  the  course 
is  completed,  present  the  student  with  a bound  volume  containing  all 
the  lessons  previously  sent  in  pamphlet  form.  The  questions  for  the 
lesson  paper  may  be  in  the  text  or  they  may  be  sent  from  time  to 
time  as  the  student  requires  them.  The  schools  vary  also  in  their 
plan  of  assisting  students.  Some  schools  send  along  with  the  first 
lessons  carefully  prepared  directions  for  study,  and  others  give  these 
directions  from  time  to  time  as  the  lesson  papers  are  returned.  In 
every  case  the  student  is  thrown  upon  his  own  resources  in  the  prep- 
aration of  his  lesson  and  his  lesson  paper. 

Textbooks. — In  the  matter  of  supplying  students  with  textbooks 
three  plans  are  followed.  Some  schools  use  a special  text,  prepared 
by  their  own  instructors  and  adapted  to  the  needs  of  their  students. 
Others  use  the  regular  texts  employed  in  residence  work,  sending  the 
students  questions  based  upon  the  lessons  in  these  texts.  The  third 
plan  uses  the  regular  textbook  and  supplements  it  by  a correspondence 
instruction  book,  in  which  the  lessons  are  outlined,  instructions  for 
study  given,  and  occasionally  supplementary  exercises  added.  These 
instruction  books  in  most  cases  also  contain  the  questions  upon  which 
the  lesson  paper  is  based. 

The  special  texts  used  in  correspondence  instruction  are  prepared 
as  carefully  as  those  used  in  residence  work.  Nevertheless,  these 
same  books  differ  widely  from  the  general  textbooks  on  the  same  sub- 
ject. Concerning  this  the  report  from  one  of  the  schools  makes  the 
following  statement: 

The  aim  of  the  author  of  the  ordinary  textbook  is  to  produce  a work  that  may  be 
used  by  all  who  wish  information  that  would  naturally  come  under  the  heading  under 
which  the  book  would  be  classified,  and  he  is  not  at  liberty  to  restrain  the  scope  of  his 
book  by  leaving  out  sections  which  are  ordinarily  included  in  works  of  that  character. 


180 


MATHEMATICS  IN'  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


The  leading  correspondence  schools,  however,  are  constantly  and  deliberately  vio- 
lating all  recognized  rules  of  textbook  making.  They  aim  to  give  the  student  exactly 
what  he  wants  and  needs  in  connection  with  the  particular  line  of  study  he  desires  to 
pursue,  and  to  give  him  no  more  and  no  less,  and  the  books  are  prepared  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  student  can  obtain  the  information  desired  in  the  shortest  possible 
time. 

Furthermore,  the  makers  of  these  books  aim  to  make  them  so  clear  that  they  can 
not  be  misunderstood  by  one  of  average  intelligence,  and  to  make  all  explanations  so 
complete  that  the  student  will  have  no  trouble  in  interpreting  them  for  himself.  In 
the  correspondence  textbook,  in  other  words,  all  the  difficulties  of  the  student  are  as 
far  as  possible  anticipated,  because  the  author  keeps  constantly  in  mind  the  fact  that 
many  of  these  students  can  not  get  assistance  from  any  one  except  by  writing  to  the 
school,  and  in  some  instances  it  may  take  several  weeks  or  even  months  to  obtain  an 
answer. 

Another  important  particular  in  which  the  correspondence  text  varies  from  that  for 
residence  work  is  in  the  space  it  devotes  to  those  particular  phases  of  the  subject 
needed  by  the  student;  that  is,  the  arithmetic  for  use  in  a course  of  engineering  will 
contain  much  more  upon  the  subject  of  evolution  than  is  found  in  the  ordinary  arith- 
metic of  similar  grade,  while  it  may  contain  little  or  nothing  on  the  subject  of 
denominate  numbers  or  of  percentage. 

The  textbooks  in  mathematics  prepared  by  correspondence  schools 
are  particularly  “doing”  books.  They  show  the  student  how  to 
arrive  at  the  results  he  must  attain  in  the  shortest  and  most  practical 
way,  omitting  the  discussion  of  principles  or  the  reasons  underlying 
the  formula  and  rules  given.  They  prepare  the  student  to  perform 
some  special  line  of  work,  but  in  gaining  this  preparation  he  acquires 
little  or  no  power  to  solve  problems  in  other  lines  of  work,  unless  they 
are  very  closely  related  to  the  course  which  he  has  studied. 

Conclusion. — The  committee  found  no  independent  correspondence 
schools  which  have  special  courses  in  mathematics  for  the  preparation 
of  teachers  of  this  subject.  Some  of  them  offer  review  courses  with  a 
view  to  assisting  the  teachers,  but  these  are  limited  in  extent  and  ap- 
parently contain  but  little  in  the  way  of  directions  for  teaching. 

In  the  matter  of  examinations  the  committee  found  no  uniformity 
whatever.  Some  schools  require  examinations  at  stated  intervals; 
some  when  the  course  is  completed,  and  others  consider  each  lesson 
paper  an  examination,  and  when  the  last  paper  is  received  consider 
the  course  to  be  completed.  If  the  student  has  met  the  required 
standard  a certificate  to  this  effect  is  returned  to  him  with  his  last 
paper.  Where  examinations  are  given  there  is  also  a wide  difference 
in  the  value  assigned  them  in  determining  the  student’s  standing  at 
the  completion  of  his  course.  Some  schools  consider  them  to  be  of 
equal  value  to  lesson  papers;  others  consider  the  final  examination 
to  have  two-fifths  of  the  value  of  the  recitation  papers  and  few  place 
but  little  value  upon  them.  From  the  reports  concerning  exami- 
nations the  committee  was  unable  to  draw  any  satisfactory  conclu- 
sion. Considering  the  reports  as  a whole,  it  would  seem  that  less 
attention  was  paid  to  written  examinations  in  correspondence  work 
than  is  usually  assigned  that  subject  in  residence  work. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  CORRESPONDENCE  SCHOOLS. 


181 


Universities  and  Colleges. 

Organization. — All  colleges  and  universities  reporting  to  the  com- 
mittee state  that  their  correspondence  work  is  organized  as  a depart- 
ment of  the  institution.  These  departments  have  no  direct  connec- 
tion with  other  schools,  but  without  exception  the  credits  gained 
through  correspondence  work  with  colleges  and  universities  are 
accepted  not  only  by  the  institution  giving  the  course,  but  by  any 
other  university,  college,  normal  school,  or  high  school  to  which  the 
student  applies  for  admission. 

Courses  of  study. — Most  of  these  institutions  offer  courses  in  corre- 
spondence parallel  with  those  offered  in  residence  work.  One 
replies:  “We  offer  courses  in  elementary  algebra  covering  one  year 
of  the  usual  high  school  course;  plane  geometry  covering  one  year 
of  high  school  work;  solid  geometry  representing  the  usual  half  year 
of  high  school;  higher  algebra  representing  the  half  year  of  advanced 
high  school  work;  higher  algebra  representing  one  semester  of  fresh- 
man work  in  a university  and  trigonometry  covering  plane  and 
spherical  trigonometry  and  representing  one  semester  of  freshman 
work.”  One  of  these,  a State  university  which  has  established  a 
very  extensive  correspondence  department,  offers  12  courses  of  ele- 
mentary grade  and  6 courses  of  university  grade.  Six  of  the  ele- 
mentary courses  are  vocational,  each  being  designed  especially  for 
the  purpose  of  assisting  those  who  take  it  in  the  particular  vocation 
they  are  following.  In  this  respect  these  courses  and  the  texts  con- 
taining them  follow  very  closely  the  plan  of  similar  courses  prepared 
by  independent  correspondence  schools  doing  industrial  work.  The 
elementary  courses  and  those  of  university  grade  in  this  institution 
are  similar  to  the  same  courses  provided  for  residence  work. 

Methods  of  instruction. — Methods  of  instruction  in  vogue  in  the 
correspondence  departments  of  colleges  and  universities  are  prac- 
tically the  same  as  those  employed  by  independent  correspondence 
schools.  However,  a larger  proportion  of  these  institutions  use  the 
ordinary  textbook,  expecting  their  students  to  prepare  their  lessons 
from  these  texts  as  best  they  can.  When  these  texts  are  used,  ques- 
tions upon  which  the  lesson  papers  are  based  are  sent  the  students 
at  regular  intervals.  Some  of  these  schools  send  students  special 
instructions  with  the  return  of  their  lessons  or  with  the  assignment 
of  lessons. 

Preparation  of  teachers. — From  the  replies  received  it  appears  that 
a majority  of  colleges  and  universities  maintaining  correspondence 
departments  provide  through  these  departments  for  the  training  of 
teachers  in  mathematics  to  a limited  extent.  An  occasional  institu- 
tion gives  a special  course  for  this  purpose,  but  the  others  give  the 
work  in  connection  with  an  ordinary  course  in  the  subject  studied, 
as  in  arithmetic  or  algebra. 


182 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


The  requirements  for  admission  to  these  courses  vary  somewhat 
widely.  Some  institutions  will  not  allow  undergraduate  students  to 
take  teachers'  courses.  Others  open  these  courses  to  those  who  have 
completed  a four-year  high  school  course  and  two  years’  work  at  a 
good  university  or  college.  Some  of  these  institutions  require  the 
candidate  to  enter  upon  a course  leading  to  the  degree  of  Ph.  D.  and 
to  do  a part  of  the  work  in  residence,  devoting  at  least  one-third  of 
his  time  to  giving  instruction  in  undergraduate  classes.  Another 
institution  in  addition  to  the  work  in  mathematics  requires  the  study 
of  the  pedagogy  of  mathematics,  a course  which  concerns  itself 
chiefly  with  reasons  and  methods  for  teaching  elementary  mathe- 
matics, especially  arithmetic. 

Conclusion. — The  replies  received  by  the  committee  show  that 
instruction  through  correspondence  is  rapidly  increasing  in  our  lead- 
ing colleges  and  universities,  and  that  no  subject  can  be  taught  by 
this  method  more  successfully  than  mathematics.  Some  of  the 
State  universities  are  using  this  method  of  extending  work  to  reach 
a large  number  of  people  within  their  respective  States  who  desire 
mathematical  training  to  assist  them  in  their  various  vocations.  In 
neither  the  universities  and  colleges  nor  the  independent  correspond- 
ence schools  do  we  find  uniformity  in  courses  of  study  of  require- 
ments for  admission  to  the  courses  or  standards  for  securing  evi- 
dence that  courses  have  been  completed.  The  courses  in  methods 
of  the  universities  and  colleges,  with  the  exception  named,  follow 
more  closely  similar  courses  for  residence  students  than  do  those  of 
the  independent  schools,  and  reports  from  all  institutions  complying 
with  the  committee’s  request  show  that  the  work  accomplished  is 
of  such  nature  as  to  be  of  permanent  benefit  to  the  student. 


C.  THE  TEACHING  OF  MATHEMATICS  IN  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES 

FOR  NEGROES. 

Source  of  data. — The  following  report  is  based  largely  upon  material 
furnished  by  the  following  well-known  schools  and  colleges  for 
negroes : 

Atlanta  Baptist  College,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

Atlanta  University,  Atlanta,  Ga. 

Fisk  University,  Nashville,  Tenn. 

Florida  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College,  Tallahassee,  Fla. 
Shaw  University,  Raleigh,  N.  C. 

Talladega  College,  Talladega,  Ala. 

Virginia  Union  University,  Richmond,  Va. 

Hampton  Institute,  Hampton,  Va. 

Armstrong  Manual  Training  School,  Washington,  D.  C. 
Colored  High  School,  Baltimore,  Md. 

St.  Augustine’s  School,  Raleigh,  N.  C. 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SCHOOLS  FOR  NEGROES. 


183 


Character  of  the  work. — Owing  to  the  poor  instruction  in  the 
elementary  public  schools  generally,  the  schools  of  secondary  and 
higher  grades  for  negroes  are  compelled  in  most  cases  to  offer  ele- 
mentary courses  also.  And  even  when  the  teaching  happens  to  be 
good  in  the  elementary  school  the  chances  are  that  the  upper  grammar 
grades  are  not  given.  In  order,  then,  to  connect  their  courses 
with  the  ordinary  elementary-school  courses  it  is  necessary  for 
the  private  schools  to  do  some  elementary  work.  The  bulk  of  the 
work  of  high-school  and  college  grade  among  colored  people  is  done 
in  these  private  schools.  There  are  comparatively  few  high  schools 
and  colleges  for  colored  youth  maintained  at  public  expense.  Most 
of  the  private  schools  and  colleges  carry  all  of  the  elementary  grades 
from  the  first  through  the  eighth,  and  all  of  them  have  at  least 
the  last  one  or  two  grammar  grades.  In  the  best  of  these  schools 
the  work  of  a given  grade  is  about  the  same  as  that  in  the  correspond- 
ing grade  in  northern  public  schools,  but  the  pupils  are  often  con- 
siderably older.  In  the  public  schools  the  grades  fall  somewhat 
behind  similar  ones  in  the  North. 

The  curriculum. — In  the  schools  for  negroes,  then,  the  work  in 
mathematics  is  about  as  follows: 

Elementary  school.  Years  I- VIII,  inclusive.  (Often  only  I-VII 
years  are  given  in  the  public  schools.)  Five  recitations  per  week, 
except  in  certain  industrial  schools  like  Tuskegee  and  Hampton 
with  only  three  and  four  recitations  per  week.  In  the  lower  grades 
the  periods  are  usually  30  minutes  and  in  the  upper  at  least  45 
minutes. 

Arithmetic  usually  is  the  only  subject  offered. 

High  (secondary)  school. 

IX.  Algebra,  5 recitations  per  week. 

X.  Algebra,  half  year,  5 recitations  per  week. 

Plane  geometry,  half  year,  5 recitations  per  week. 

XI.  Plane  geometry,  half  year,  5 recitations  per  week. 

Solid  geometry,  half  year,  5 recitations  per  week. 

Advanced  algebra,  half  year,  5 recitations  per  week. 

XII.  Mathematics  rarely  required. 

The  following  are  offered  in  a few  cases: 

Advanced  algebra,  half  year. 

Plane  trigonometry,  surveying,  half  year. 

Analytical  geometry,  half  year. 

Mechanics,  half  year. 

Mathematics  of  chemistry,  half  year. 

Shop  problems,  half  year. 

Few  of  the  schools  give  the  work  in  mathematics  in  exactly  the 
order  given  above.  But  nearly  all  of  them  devote  about  three  years 
to  the  algebra  and  plane  geometry  ordinarily  taught  in  a high-school 
course.  Most  of  them  require  a year  and  a half  for  the  elementary 


184 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


algebra.  For  the  plane  geometry  a year  is  usually  given,  but  the 
schools  vary  all  the  way  from  a half  year  to  a year  and  a half  for 
this  subject.  A half  year  is  the  rather  uniform  time  given  to  solid 
geometry.  The  latter  subject  and  advanced  algebra,  however,  are 
offered  by  but  few  institutions  in  their  high-school  departments. 

College.  The  required  work  in  mathematics  usually  covers  only 
the  first  two  years  of  the  college  course.  Some  choice  of  subject  is 
often  allowed  in  this  period.  But  few  schools  offer  other  electives  in 
subsequent  years. 

The  following  courses  are  commonly  given : 

College  algebra,  half  year,  4 or  5 periods  per  week. 

Solid  geometry,  half  year,  4 or  5 periods  per  week. 

Plane  trigonometry,  half  year,  4 or  5 periods  per  week. 

Spherical  trigonometry  (in  a few  cases). 

Analytic  geometry,  whole  year  in  a number  of  cases. 

Surveying,  half  year. 

Astronomy,  half  year. 

Most  of  the  schools  do  not  offer  analytic  geometry  or  spherical 
trigonometry.  But  several  of  them  not  only  give  these  subjects,  but 
differential  and  integral  calculus  also  as  electives.  Such  schools  are 
Howard  University,  Fisk  University,  Virginia  Union  University,  At- 
lanta University,  and  possibly  some  others. 

The  work  in  arithmetic  in  the  grades. — The  work  in  arithmetic  is 
usually  routine  and  conventional,  following  the  textbook,  with  little 
regard  for  the  choice  of  subj  ect  matter.  Some  of  the  better  schools  are 
beginning  to  eliminate  obsolete  material  and  to  leave  such  subjects 
as  square  and  cube  root  for  work  in  algebra.  Too  often  by  far  the 
teaching  is  abstract  and  usually  without  practical  applications.  The 
most  notable  exceptions  to  these  conditions  are  to  be  found  in  the 
model  schools  and  teacher- training  departments  of  the  better  schools, 
such  as  Spelman  Seminary,  Atlanta  University,  and  the  Whittier 
School,  at  Hampton  Institute.  With  the  work  of  these  primary 
schools  should  be  mentioned  also  that  of  industrial  schools  like  the 
Calhoun  Colored  School,  the  Penn  School,  Tuskegee  Institute,  and 
Hampton  Institute.  In  such  institutions  the  arithmetic  work  is 
very  concrete  and  the  method  of  teaching  mainly  objective.  Lines, 
solids,  paper  cutting,  measures  and  weights  are  used  in  the  teaching, 
and  outdoor  measurements  are  made  by  the  students.  Material  for 
classroom  exercises  is  taken  from  the  fields,  shops,  offices,  and  indus- 
trial activities  of  the  schools  and  their  neighborhoods.  And  classes 
are  taken  into  the  shops  and  offices  to  see  practical  illustrations  of 
the  problems  studied. 

Secondary  work. — The  work  in  mathematics  in  the  secondary  or 
high  schools  for  negroes  corresponds  favorably  in  subject  matter  with 
that  of  the  ordinary  northern  high  school.  White  teachers  from  the 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SCHOOLS  FOR  NEGROES.  185 

North  or  colored  teachers  educated  in  northern  schools  have  charge 
of  most  of  this  work. 

The  algebra  covers  at  least  elementary  work,  including  ratio  and 
proportion,  radicals,  radical  equations,  theory  of  exponents,  and  the 
binomial  theorem,  and  in  the  stronger  schools  special  drill  in  quad- 
ratics, complex  numbers,  logarithms,  and  the  use  of  the  graph. 

The  plane  geometry  is  usually  taken  complete  with  original  demon- 
strations, but  in  many  schools  a number  of  the  original  exercises  are 
omitted.  - 

Solid  geometry  is  taken  complete. 

The  public  high  schools  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  offer  perhaps  a fuller 
course  than  any  others  of  the  secondary  schools  for  negroes.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  algebra  and  plane  geometry  usually  given  they  have  ad- 
vanced algebra,  plane  trigonometry  and  surveying,  solid  geometry, 
plane  analytical  geometry,  mechanics,  mathematics  of  chemistry,  and 
shop  problems. 

In  these  schools  the  teachers  of  algebra  frequently  visit  the  grades 
where  arithmetic  and  elementary  algebra  are  taught,  so  as  to  keep 
their  work  in  close  touch  with  that  of  the  grades.  Pupils  coming 
from  the  grades  find  the  transition  less  difficult  for  this  reason. 

In  geometry  pupils  are  required  to  make  accurate  geometrical  con- 
structions of  figures  embodying  the  conditions  of  the  hypothesis  for 
each  theorem.  Simple  original  exercises  are  begun  early  in  the 
course  and  continued  throughout.  Particular  attention  is  given  to 
the  development  of  general  principles  for  attacking  original  prob- 
lems. And  the  lesson  assignments  always  include  preparation  for 
advance  work. 

The  work  in  solid  geometry  begins  with  preliminary  instruction  in 
the  best  conventional  ways  of  representing  in  drawings  intersecting 
and  parallel  planes,  and  with  a review  of  the  idea  of  perspective  in 
the  representation  of  solid  figures.  An  easy  and  rapid  free-hand 
oblique  projection  is  taught  and  insisted  upon  in  the  construction  of 
all  figures.  Construction  of  cardboard  models  is  encouraged  at  the 
beginning  of  the  course. 

In  trigonometry  the  aim  is  to  complete  the  simplest  and  most 
concrete  part  of  the  subject  before  taking  up  the  more  general  and 
abstract  parts.  In  the  latter  part  of  the  course  surveying  is  stressed, 
and  the  derivation  of  many  of  the  formulas  is  reserved  till  some 
problem  in  surveying  shows  an  actual  need  of  them. 

This  work  is  fairly  typical  of  what  is  done  in  the  more  advanced 
high  schools  and  colleges  with  secondary  grades.  In  the  weaker 
institutions  and  in  the  industrial  schools,  like  Tuskegee  and  Hamp- 
ton, no  courses  above  plane  geometry  are  offered.  In  the  latter  schools 
particularly,  the  work  in  geometry  is  largely  inventional.  Many  of 
the  most  important  theorems  are  demonstrated  and  a good  deal  of 


186 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SECONDARY  SCHOOLS. 


original  work  is  done.  This  study  supplements  the  courses  in  me- 
chanical drawing.  Its  relations  to  the  various  trades  taught  are 
constantly  shown. 

Practical  applications. — In  arithmetic,  problems  of  a practical 
character  are  used  by  the  better  institutions,  as  already  mentioned. 
Geometry  is  used  in  mechanical  drawing  and  in  the  work  of  the 
various  trades.  Mathematics  is  also  applied  in  the  work  in  chem- 
istry, physics,  and  in  the  electrical  engineering  laboratories  of  some 
of  the  colleges,  in  such  high  schools  as  those  in  Washington  and  pos- 
sibly in  the  new  and  finely  equipped  Sumner  High  School  in  St. 
Louis,  the  most  complete  public  high  school  for  colored  youth  in 
America,  costing,  with  equipment,  $500,000.  The  schools  for  col- 
ored students  are,  however,  not  strong  in  applied  mathematics.  As 
President  John  Hope,  of  the  Atlanta  Baptist  College,  well  says: 
“ Openings  in  jobs  that  call  for  higher  mathematical  development 
have  been  almost  absolutely  closed  to  young  negroes,  so  they  have 
not  had  the  incentive  that  white  students  have  had  along  mathe- 
matical lines.” 

College  Work. 

Character  of  the  work. — Apart  from  their  weakness  in  applied 
mathematics,  the  colleges  for  colored  youth  do  about  the  same  kind 
of  work  as  the  northern  colleges.  They  naturally  do  not  offer  so 
many  courses.  But  they  very  uniformly  give  those  indicated  above. 
And  they  do  their  work  with  considerable  thoroughness.  The  better 
students  from  the  best  of  the  schools  are  able  upon  completing  their 
courses  to  enter  the  junior  classes  at  Harvard  and  Yale,  and  a few  have 
even  been  able  to  enter  the  senior  classes . Many  of  the  northern  univer- 
sities give  them  full  college  credit  for  their  work  in  mathematics.  In 
fact  these  students  are  more  likely  to  compare  favorably  with  north- 
ern white  students  in  mathematics  than  in  the  natural  and  social 
sciences.  For  the  latter  the  colored  schools  are  not  well  equipped. 
Generally,  as  Shaw  University  reports,  the  graduate  of  the  prepara- 
tory department  of  these  schools  is  about  a year  below  the  standard 
of  the  typical  high  school,  and  consequently  the  college  classes  are 
below  the  standard  to  the  same  extent.  There  are,  of  course,  excep- 
tions and  especially  in  the  case  of  a few  high  schools  in  the  border 
States. 

Entrance  requirements. — Since  practically  all  these  schools  carry 
the  elementary  grades  to  some  extent,  there  is  no  hard  and  fast  re- 
quirement for  admission  to  the  institution.  But  the  work  of  each 
department  must  be  completed  before  a student  is  admitted  to  the 
next  higher  department.  None  of  these  institutions  is  more  exacting 
in  such  matters  than  Atlanta  University,  which  writes: 

For  entrance  to  the  high  school  we  require  an  examination  in  the  arithmetic  of  the 
eighth-grade  grammar  school.  The  inability  of  many  negroes,  especially  in  the 


MATHEMATICS  IN  SCHOOLS  FOR  NEGROES. 


187 


country,  to  get  good  preparation  forces  us  to  be  very  lenient  in  these  examinations; 
and  a large  percentage  of  our  pupils  have  to  spend  two  years  in  the  completion  of  the 
work  required  of  the  first  year. 

For  college  entrance  we  require  an  examination  in  the  mathematics  of  our  high- 
school  course  or  its  equivalent. 

This,  for  Atlanta  University,  means  algebra,  including  quadratics, 
logarithms,  and  the  use  of  the  graph.  Most  colleges  are  not  quite  so 
rigid  in  their  requirements. 

For  entrance  to  Hampton  Institute  proper,  work  that  would  pre- 
pare for  a typical  fifth  grade  is  required.  Tuskegee’s  requirements 
are  no  higher. 

For  the  well-ordered  city  high  schools  the  usual  work  of  seventh 
or  eighth  grade  is  required  for  admission. 

Requirements  for  graduation. — Very  few  of  the  schools  offer  more 
than  one  or  two  electives  in  mathematics.  So  that  with  the  excep- 
tion of  spherical  trigonometry  and  analytic  geometry,  and  in  a few 
cases  surveying  and  astronomy,  all  the  work  set  down  above  is 
required  in  the  several  departments  as  a rule. 

The  mathematical  ability  of  the  colored  race  as  compared  with  the 
white  race. — The  general  feeling  in  the  institutions  covered  by  this 
report  is  that  the  differences  between  the  races  in  the  matter  of 
mathematics,  in  so  far  as  any  differences  exist,  are  due  to  conditions 
rather  than  to  race  characteristics.  In  addition  to  this,  it  is  inter- 
esting to  notice  the  opinions  given  directly  by  the  11  schools  con- 
tributing to  this  study.  Five  of  them  feel  that  there  is  no  difference 
due  to  race.  Two  are  of  the  opinion  that  colored  students  generally 
are  not  the  equals  of  white  students.  One  school  was  not  able  to 
make  any  comparison.  Three  did  not  reply  to  the  question  regard- 
ing a comparison  of  the  races.  Replies  were  made  by  both  white 
and  colored  teachers  who  have  had  years  of  experience  in  colored 
schools  and  in  some  cases  in  white  schools. 

o 


UNITED  STATES  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 

BULLETIN,  1911:  NO.  17 WHOLE  NUMBER  464 


LIST  OF  PUBLICATIONS 

OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 

AVAILABLE  FOR  FREE  DISTRIBUTION 


OCTOBER,  1911 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 


CONTENTS 


Page. 

Letter  of  transmittal 5 

Explanatory  note . 6 

I.  Annual  statements  of  the  commissioner 7 

II.  Annual  reports 7 

III.  Circulars  of  information — Collected  annual  volumes 21 

IV.  Publications  on  special  subjects — 

1.  Agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges 23 

2.  Agricultural  education 23 

3.  Alaska  school  and  reindeer  service 23 

4.  American  educational  history 24 

5.  Associations  and  congresses 25 

6.  Barnard’s  American  journal  of  education 26 

7.  Bibliography  of  education 26 

8.  Bureau  of  Education:  Publications  and  work 27 

9.  Defectives:  Education 27 

10.  Education  and  crime 27 

11.  Educational  exhibitions 28 

12.  Educational  values 28 

13.  Foreign  school  systems 28 

14.  Higher  education 29 

15.  Indian  schools 29 

16.  Industrial  and  technical  education 29 

17.  Libraries 30 

18.  Mathematical  instruction 31 

19.  Museums 31 

20.  Music  education 31 

21.  Professional  education 31 

22.  Promotion  of  pupils 32 

23.  Research 32 

24.  School  administration  (State  and  city) 32 

25.  School  architecture  and  sanitation 33 

26.  School  hygiene - 33 

27.  Secondary  education 33 

28.  Southern  States:  Education 34 

29.  Spelling  reform 34 

30.  Sunday  schools 34 

31.  Training  of  teachers 34 

32.  Universities  and  colleges:  Statistics 35 

Index 37 

3 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


Department  of  the  Interior, 

Bureau  of  Education, 
Washington,  September  28,  1911. 

Sir:  The  Bureau  of  Education  at  present  lias  in  stock,  available 
for  distribution,  a considerable  number  of  its  publications  of  various 
dates,  which  should  be  of  great  service  to  teachers,  school  officials, 
librarians,  and  others  interested  in  educational  subjects.  In  order 
to  bring  this  material  to  the  notice  of  those  persons  to  whom  it  is  of 
value  and  into  circulation,  I have  had  compiled  in  the  library  division 
of  this  office  a classified  and  annotated  list,  brought  down  to  date, 
which  is  herewith  transmitted  for  publication.  Previous  lists  of 
publications  of  the  bureau  have  presented  a complete  record,  without 
annotations,  of  all  titles  issued,  including  those  out  of  print. 

Very  respectfully, 


P.  P.  Claxton,  Commissioner. 
The  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 


EXPLANATORY  NOTE. 


This  bulletin  names  and  describes  the  publications  of  the  Bureau 
of  Education  which,  at  the  time  of  its  compilation  (October,  1911), 
are  available  for  free  distribution  by  this  office.  Bequests  for  titles 
from  this  list  will  be  filled  as  long  as  the  publications  desired  continue 
in  stock,  but  it  should  be  understood  that  the  supply  of  many,  espe- 
cially earlier  issues,  is  scant  and  likely  soon  to  be  exhausted.  Many 
publications  of  the  bureau,  which  can  no  longer  be  supplied  by  this 
office,  may  be  purchased  from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents, 
Washington,  and  are  named  in  his  Price  List  31,  Government 
publications  relating  to  education.  For  a complete  record  of  publi- 
cations of  this  bureau,  1867-1910,  its  Bulletin,  1910,  No.  3,  should  be 
consulted. 

Publications  in  the  following  list  should  be  ordered  by  publication 
number,  which  precedes  each  main  entry,  and  is  also  given  in  paren- 
theses after  titles  of  reprints  in  the  tables  of  contents  of  the  reports. 
Separates  of  chapters  or  of  sections  of  the  reports  should  be  requested 
by  chapter  number  or  by  title.  From  the  report  for  1894-95  to  that 
for  1910,  inclusive,  the  commissioner’s  introduction  and  individual 
chapters  listed  can  at  present  be  supplied  in  separate  form,  except  in 
cases  indicated  by  an  asterisk  (*),  which  precedes  sections  and  chap- 
ters not  available  for  free  distribution.  No  sections  or  chapters  from 
reports  prior  to  that  for  1894-95  can  be  separately  furnished,  except- 
ing reprints  which  are  specifically  mentioned  in  part  IV  of  this  list. 

Many  of  these  publications  are  of  great  value  to  teachers,  students 
of  education,  librarians,  and  people  having  a general  interest  in  edu- 
cation and  the  improvement  of  public  and  private  schools. 

G 


p 


LIST  OF  PUBLICATIONS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 
BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION  AVAILABLE  FOR  FREE 
DISTRIBUTION,  OCTOBER,  1911. 


I.  ANNUAL  STATEMENTS  OF  THE  COMMISSIONER. 

[An  account  of  the  operations  of  the  Bureau  for  each  fiscal  year.] 


180. 

1891 

(Harris) 

Washington,  1891. 

21  p. 

189. 

1892 

(Harris) 

Washington,  1892. 

21  p. 

204. 

1893 

(Harris) 

Washington,  1893. 

25  p. 

219. 

1895 

(Harris) 

Washington,  1895. 

27  p. 

230. 

1896 

(Harris) 

Washington,  1896. 

31  p. 

245. 

1898 

(Harris) 

Washington,  1898. 

32  p. 

259. 

1899 

(Harris) 

Washington,  1899. 

47  p. 

266. 

1900 

(Harris) 

Washington,  1900. 

49  p. 

277. 

1901 

(Harris) 

Washington,  1901. 

45  p. 

285. 

1902 

(Harris) 

Washington,  1902. 

41  p. 

333. 

1903 

(Harris) 

Washington,  1903. 

39  p. 

351. 

1905 

(Harris) 

Washington,  1905. 

48  p. 

378. 

1907 

(Brown) 

Washington,  1907. 

18  p. 

413. 

1909 

(Brown) 

Washington,  1909. 

14  p. 

441. 

1910 

(Brown) 

Washington,  1910. 

10  p. 

II.  ANNUAL  REPORTS 

4.  1871  (Eaton)  Washington,  1872.  715  p. 

Contents:  Report  of  the  Commissioner,  p.  1-64.  Appendix:  [1]  Abstracts  from  the 
official  reports  of  school  officers  of  states,  territories,  and  cities,  with  other  additional  infor- 
mation, p.  65-401.  [2]  General  condition  of  education  among  the  Indians,  p.  402-411.  [3] 
Educational  conventions  and  institutes,  p.  412-426.  [4]  D.  C.  Gilman:  National  schools 
of  science,  p.  427-444.  [5]  Education  of  the  blind,  p.  445-448.  [6]  Education  of  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  p.  449-452.  [7]  Annual  review  of  education  in  foreign  countries,  p.  453-504.  [8] 
Education  in  foreign  countries  aided  by  American  efforts,  p.  505-506.  [9]  J.  F.  Meyers: 
Educational  methods  in  Germany,  p.  507-510.  [10]  Anna  T.  Smith:  Progress  of  education 
for  women,  p.  511-518.  [11]  D.  O’C.  Townley:  Cooper  union,  p.  519-525.  [12]  L.  J.  Hin- 
ton: Education  of  artisans,  p.  526-528.  [13]  Elizabeth  P.  Peabody:  The  objects  of  the 
kindergarten,  p.  529-535.  [14]  E.  F.  Tourjee:  Musical  education  in  common  schools,  p. 
536-537.  [15]  The  relation  of  education  to  insanity,  p.  538-547.  [16]  A.  S.  Fiske:  Relation 
of  education  to  crime,  p.  548-552.  [17]  J.  J.  Noah:  The  press  as  an  educator,  p.  553-570.  [18] 
General  school  statistics  of  the  United  States,  p.  571-700. 

5.  1872  (Eaton)  Washington,  1873.  lxxxviii,  1018  p. 

Contents:  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  education,  p.  i-Ixxxviii.  Appendix:  [1] 
Abstracts  of  the  official  reports  of  school  officers  of  states,  territories,  and  cities,  with  other 
additional  information,  p.  3-404.  [2]  General  condition  of  education  among  the  Indians, 
p.  405-418.  [3]  Educational  conventions  and  institutes,  p.  419-429.  [4]  Education  of  the 
deaf  and  dumb,  p.  430-432.  [5]  Education  of  the  blind,  p.  433-436.  [6]  Annual  review  of 
education  in  foreign  countries,  p.  437-564.  [7]  C.  J.  Lyons:  Education  in  the  Hawaiian 
islands,  p.  567-571.  [8]  Edward  Jarvis:  The  value  of  common-school  education  to  common 
labor,  p.  572-585.  [9]  E.  D.  Mansfield:  The  relation  between  crime  and  education,  p.  586-595. 
[10]  E.  D.  Mansfield:  The  relation  between  education  and  pauperism,  p.  596-602.  [11] 
M.  B.  Anderson:  Suggestions  respecting  art-training  in  American  colleges,  p.  603-607.  [12] 
Educational  statistics  for  the  year  1872,  p.  608-940.  [13]  Statistics  derived  from  the  census 
of  1870,  p.  941-997. 


7 


8 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


6.  1873  (Eaton)  Washington,  1875.  clxxviii,  870  p. 

Contents:  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  education,  p.  v-clxxviii.  Appendix:  [1] 
Abstracts  of  the  official  reports  of  school  officers  of  states,  territories,  and  cities,  with  other 
additional  information*  p.  3-468.  [2]  Education  among  the  Indians,  p.  469-480.  [3]  Edu- 
cational work  of  Sunday-schools  and  foreign  missions,  p.  481-482.  [4]  Educational  conven- 
tions and  institutes,  p.  483-491.  [5]  C.  O.  Thompson:  Art  education,  p.  495-498.  [6]  E.  M. 
Gallaudet:  On  the  instruction  of  deaf-mutes,  p.  499-504.  [7]  J.  F.  Meyers:  Industrial  train- 
ing for  girls,  with  practical  lessons  in  household-economics,  as  taught  in  Germany,  p.  505-508. 
[8]  Statistics  of  education  for  the  year  1873,  p.  509-850. 

7.  1874  (Eaton)  Washington,  1875.  clii,  935  p. 

Contents:  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  education,  p.  v-clii.  Appendix:  [1]  Abstracts 
of  the  official  reports  of  school  officers  of  states,  territories,  and  cities,  with  other  additional 
information,  p.  5-505.  [2]  Education  among  the  Indians,  p.  506-516.  [3]  Educational  con- 
ventions and  institutes,  p.  517-522.  [4]  Statistics  of  education  for  the  years  1874,  p.  523-914. 

8.  1875  (Eaton)  Washington,  1876.  clxxiii,  1016  p. 

Contents:  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  education,  p.  vii-clxxiii.  Appendix:  [1J 
Abstracts  of  the  official  reports  of  school  officers  of  states,  territories,  and  cities,  with  other 
additional  information,  p.  5-518.  [2]  Education  among  the  Indians,  p.  519-528.  [3]  Educa- 
tional conventions  and  associations,  p.  529-544.  [4]  Education  in  Sunday  schools  and 
mission  schools,  p.  545.  [5]  Statistics  of  education  for  the  year  1875,  p.  548-997. 

11.  1878  (Eaton)  Washington,  1880.  cci,  730  p. 

Contents:  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  education,  p.  vii-cci.  [Appendix]  [1]  Abstracts 
of  the  official  reports  of  the  school  officers  of  states,  territories,  and  cities,  with  other  addi- 
tional information,  p.  5-296.  [2]  Educational  associations,  p.  297-301.  [3]  Education  in 
Sunday  schools,  p.  302.  [4]  Statistics  of  education  for  the  year  1878,  p.  303-721. 

14.  1881  (Eaton)  Washington,  1883.  cclxxvii,  840  p. 

Contents:  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  education,  p.  v-cclxxvii.  [Appendix]  [1] 
Abstracts  of  the  official  reports  of  the  school  officers  of  states,  territories,  and  cities,  with 
other  additional  information,  p.  4-307.  [2]  Educational  associations  and  conventions,  p. 
308-318.  [3]  Statistics  of  education  for  the  year  1881,  p.  319-831. 

15.  1882-83  (Eaton)  Washington,  1884.  ccxciii,  872  p. 

Contents:  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  education,  p.  v-ccxciii.  [Appendix]  [1] 
Abstracts  of  the  official  reports  of  the  school  officers  of  states,  territories,  and  cities,  with 
other  additional  information,  p.  4-307.  [2]  Educational  associations  and  conventions, 
p.  308-314.  [3]  Statistics  of  education  for  the  year  1882,  p.  315-862. 

16.  1883-84  (Eaton)  Washington,  1885.  cclxxi,  943  p. 

Contents:  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  education,  p.  v-cclxxi.  [Appendix]  [1] 
Abstracts  of  the  official  reports  of  the  school  officers  of  states,  territories,  and  cities,  with 
other  additional  information,  p.  4-309.  [2]  Educational  associations  and  conventions,  p. 
310-314.  [3]  Statistics  of  education  for  the  year  1884,  p.  315-935. 

17.  1884-85  (Eaton)  Washington,  1886.  cccxvii,  848  p. 

Contents:  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  education,  p.  v-cccxvii.  [Appendix]  [1] 
Abstracts  of  the  official  reports  of  the  school  officers  of  states,  territories,  and  cities,  with 
other  information,  p.  4-317.  [2]  Educational  associations  and  conventions,  p.  318-325. 
[3]  Statistics  of  education  for  the  year  1884-85,  p.  328-837.  (Statistics  of  public  libraries  in 
the  United  States,  p.  691-782.  Reprinted,  with  p.  ccxxix-ccxxx,  pub.  no.  143.) 

18.  1885-86  (Dawson)  Washington,  1887.  xxi,  792  p. 

Contents:  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  education,  p.  ix-xxi.  Appendixes:  [1]  State 
school  systems,  including  Summary  of  constitutional  and  legal  provisions  relating  to  edu- 
cation in  the  several  states  and  territories,  p.  5-214.  [2]  City-school  systems,  p.  217-304. 
[3]  Training  of  teachers,  p.  307-330.  [4]  Kindergartens,  p.  333-356.  [5]  Secondary  instruc- 
tion, p.  359-436.  [6]  Superior  and  professional  instruction,  p.  439-593.  [7]  Special  training, 
p.  596-629.  [8]  Education  of  special  classes,  p.  632-660.,  [9]  Miscellaneous  (educational 
benefactions,  publications,  and  periodicals;  public  libraries,  necrology)  p.  662-721.  [10] 
Education  in  foreign  countries,  p.  725-740.  [11]  H.  B.  Adams:  The  promotion  of  higher 
political  education,  p.  743-747.  [12]  H.  B.  Adams:  University  extension  in  England,  p. 
748-749.  [13]  Schools  in  Alaska,  p.  750-753. 


ANNUAL  REPORTS. 


9 


19.  1886-87  (Dawson)  Washington,  1888.  1170  p. 

Contents  (chapters):  1.  The  Commissioner’s  statement,  p.  11-49.  2.  Statistics  of 
state  common-school  systems,  p.  51-93.  3.  Digests  of  state  school  reports,  p.  94-172.  4. 
Discussions  of  educational  questions  by  state  superintendents  and  others,  p.  173-222.  5. 
City-school  systems,  p.  223-395.  6.  Training  of  teachers,  p.  396-465.  7.  Kindergartens, 
p.  466-493.  8.  Secondary  instruction,  p.  494-641.  9.  Superior  instruction,  p.  642-734. 
10.  Professional  instruction,  p.  735-775.  11.  Degrees  conferred,  p.  776-781.  12.  Manual 
and  industrial  training,  p.  782-800.  13.  Business  colleges;  nurses’  training  schools,  p. 
800-817.  14.  Training  of  special  classes,  p.  818-881.  15.  Noteworthy  gifts  and  bequests 
to  education,  p.  882-887.  16.  Obituary  list  of  notable  educators  and  benefactors  to  educa- 
tion, p.  888-893.  17.  Educational  associations  and  conventions,  p.  894-900.  18.  Libraries 
in  the  United  States,  p.  901-972.  19.  Educational  periodicals,  p.  973-979.  20.  Education 
in  foreign  countries,  p.  980-1004.  21.  Papers  on  educational  subjects— C.  W.  Eliot:  Can 
school  programmes  be  shortened  and  enriched?  p.  1005-1014.  J.  W.  Holcombe:  The  high 
school  question,  p.  1015-1017.  George  Stewart:  The  raison  d’etre  of  the  public  high  school, 
p.  1017-1022.  Charles  Warren:  Medical  colleges  and  the  medical  profession,  p.  1023-1030. 

22.  Index  to  the  publications  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  education,  from  1868  to  1887, 
p.  1031-1108. 

20.  1887-88  (Dawson)  Washington,  1889.  1209  p. 

Contents  (chapters):  1.  The  Commissioner’s  executive  statement,  p.  1-17.  2.  The 
Commissioner’s  educational  statement,  p.  18-60.  3.  State  common  school  statistics,  p. 
61-88.  4.  Digests  of  state  school  reports,  p.  89-156.  5.  Discussions  of  educational  ques- 
tions, chiefly  by  state  superintendents,  p.  157-180.  6.  Alaska,  p.  181-194.  7.  Discussion 
of  questions  relating  to  city  school  systems,  p.  195-227.  8.  Statistics  of  city  school  systems, 
p.  228-378.  9.  The  training  of  teachers,  p.  379-480.  10.  Secondary  instruction,  p.  481- 
582.  11.  Superior  instruction,  p.  583-755.  12.  Professional  instruction,  p.  756-806.  13. 
Degrees  conferred,  p.  807-815.  14.  Kindergartens,  p.  816-824.  15.  Manual  and  industrial 
training,  p.  825-926.  16.  Commercial  and  business  colleges;  nurses’  training  schools,  p. 
927-943.  17.  Education  of  special  classes,  p.  944-1004.  18.  Educational  periodicals,  p. 
1005-1011.  19.  Education  in  foreign  countries,  p.  1012-1030.  20.  Papers  on  educational 
subjects,  p.  1031-1049  (Melvil  Dewey:  Libraries  as  related  to  the  educational  work  of  the 
state,  p.  1031-1039.  G.  W.  Knight:  Higher  education  in  the  Northwest  territory,  p.  1039- 
1047).  21.  State  teachers’  reading  circles,  p.  1050-1074.  22.  Obituary  list  of  notable  edu- 
cators, p.  1075-1084.  Appendix— J.  H.  Keatley:  Report  on  the  Sitka  industrial  training 
school,  p.  1087-1092.  Additional  digests  of  state  school  reports,  p.  1093-1113.  Record  of 
work  accomplished  by  the  Bureau  of  education,  from  August  5,  1886,  to  September  3,  1889, 
p.  1114-1120. 

181.  1888-89  (Harris)  Washington,  1891.  V.  1,  ix,  669  p. 

182.  Same.  V.  2,  vi,  671-1669  p. 

Contents:  Volume  1.  The  Commissioner’s  introduction,  p.  xv-lix.  Chapters:  Part  I. 
General  and  comparative  exhibit  of  education  in  the  United  States  and  foreign  countries. 
1.  General  statistical  exhibit  of  education  in  the  United  States,  p.  1-31.  2.  A comparison 

of  the  schools  of  the  United  States,  Germany,  and  France,  p.  32-77.  3.  Detailed  view  of 

the  educational  system  of  England,  p.  78-111.  4.  The  educational  system  of  France,  p. 
112-149.  5.  Bird’s-eye  view  of  the  schools  of  Germany,  Austria,  Hungary,  and  Switzer- 
land, p.  150-181.  6.  The  school  system  of  Italy,  p.  182-195.  7.  Education  in  Sweden 

and  Finland,  p.  196-235.  8.  Education  in  Spain,  p.  236-247.  9.  Education  in  Brazil,  p. 

248-262.  10.  Name  register,  p.  263-274.  Part  II.  Normal  schools,  manual  training  schools, 

courses  of  study,  etc.  11.  The  inception  and  the  progress  of  the  American  normal-school 
curriculum  to  1880,  p.  275-318.  12.  The  teaching  force  of  New  England  from  1866  to  1888, 
p.  319-346.  13.  Professional  work  in  the  normal  schools  of  the  United  States,  p.  347-368. 

14.  The  “new  plan”  of  the  trustees  of  the  Peabody  fund,  in  1878,  p.  369-372.  15.  Course 

of  study  in  public  elementary  schools  of  cities,  p.  373-410.  16.  Wellford  Addis:  Manual 

and  industrial  training,  p.  411-428.  17.  Religious  instruction  in  public  schools,  p.  429-463. 
17A.  P.  Voss:  Coeducation  of  the  sexes,  p.  464-469.  18.  Compulsory  attendance  laws  in  the 
United  States,  p.  470-531.  19.  State  text-book  laws  and  systems,  p.  532-578.  20.  Powers 
of  city  school  boards  with  regard  to  school  sites  and  buildings,  p.  579-587.  21.  Discussions 
of  educational  questions,  chiefly  by  school  officers,  p.  588-644.  21A.  R.  G.  Moulton:  The 
university  of  the  future,  p.  645-648.  21B.  Fellowships  in  colleges  and  universities,  p. 
649-654.  21C.  J.  H.  Thiry:  School  savings  banks,  p.  655-669. 

Volume  2.  Part  III.  Detailed  statistics  of  educational  systems  and  institutions,  with 
comments  and  discussions.  22.  Statistics  of  state  common  school  systems,  p.  671-698. 

23.  Digests  of  state  school  reports,  p.  699-752.  24.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Report  of  the  general 
agent  of  education  for  Alaska,  p.  753-764.  25.  City  school  systems,  p.  765-952.  26.  Schools 

11133°— Bull.  17—11 2 


10 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION. 


for  the  training  of  teachers,  p.  953-976.  27.  Secondary  instruction,  p.  977-1069.  28.  Superior 
and  professional  instruction,  p.  1070-1361.  29.  Manual  training,  p.  1362-1367.  30.  Com- 
mercial and  business  colleges,  p.  1368-1378.  31.  Nurses’  training  schools,  p.  1379-1381.  32. 
Education  of  special  classes,  p.  1382-1439.  33.  Statistics  of  public  elementary  schools  in 
foreign  countries,  p.  1440-1447.  34.  Obituary  list  of  notable  educators,  p.  1448-1452.  35. 
Index  to  the  publications  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  education  from  1867  to  1890,  p.  1453-1551. 

183.  Part  I of  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner  of  education  for  the  year  1888-89,  with 
the  Commissioner’s  introduction  and  table  of  contents  of  Parts  I,  II,  III. 
Special  edition.  Washington,  1891.  lix,  274  p. 

198.  1889-90  (Harris)  Washington,  1893.  V.  1,  xxvii,  601  p. 

199.  Same.  V.  2,  vii,  603-1724  p. 

Contents:  Volume  1.  The  Commissioner’s  introduction,  p.  xiii-xxvii.  Part  I. 
Chapters:  1.  Statistical  exhibit  of  education  in  the  United  States  for  the  year  1889-90,  p. 
1-40.  2.  W.  H.  Widgery:  Report  on  the  educational  congresses  and  exhibition  held  in 
Paris  in  1889,  p.  41-142.  3.  Edmond  Dreyfus-Brisac:  The  international  congress  of  sec- 
ondary and  superior  education  held  at  Paris,  1889,  p.  143-186.  4.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Edu- 
cational system  of  Scotland,  p.  187-236.  5.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Historical  survey  of  education 
in  Scotland  prior  to  the  establishment  of  the  present  system,  p.  212-236.  6.  Anna  T.  Smith: 
Educational  system  of  England  and  operations  for  1889-90,  p.  237-248.  7.  Anna  T.  Smith: 
Educational  system  of  France  and  operations  for  1888-89,  p.  249-261.  8.  Anna  T.  Smith: 
Elementary  education  in  London  and  Paris,  p.  263-280.  9.  L.  R.  Klemm:  Education 
in  Germany,  p.  281-311.  10.  C.  H.  Thurber:  The  higher  schools  of  Prussia  and  the  school 
conference  of  1890,  p.  313-418.  11.  L.  R.  Klemm:  Education  in  Austria-Hungary  in  1889- 
90,  p.  419-454.  12.  L.  R.  Klemm:  Brief  statement  of  the  school  system  of  Prussia,  p.  455- 
464.  13.  L.  R.  Klemm:  Brief  statement  of  the  school  system  of  Austria,  p.  465-474.  14. 
Frances  G.  French:  The  educational  system  of  Norway,  p.  475-517.  15.  Frances  G.  French: 
Educational  system  of  Denmark,  p.  519-548.  16.  L.  R.  Klemm:  Education  in  Europe 
and  America,  p.  549-560.  17.  Foreign  universities,  p.  561-572.  18.  Social  pathology  and 
education,  p.  573-590.  19.  Name  register,  p.  591-601. 

Volume  2.  Part  II.  Chapters:  1.  City  school  systems,  p.  603-616.  2.  Salaries  of  teachers 
in  city  public  schools,  p.  617-693.  3.  Scientific  temperance  instruction  in  the  public  schools, 
p.  695-742.  4.  Higher  education  of  women,  p.  743-754.  5.  Colleges  and  universities  of  the 
United  States,  p.  755-798.  6.  Length  of  college  curriculum,  p.  799-813.  7.  Graduate  depart- 
ments of  universities,  p.  815-826.  8.  University  and  school  extension,  p.  827-835.  9.  Well- 
ford  Addis:  Comparative  diagrams  illustrating  the  statistics  of  professional  education  during 
the  decade  1880-90,  p.  837-873.  10.  Wellford  Addis:  Curricula  of  professional  schools,  p. 
875-1020.  11.  Statistics  of  professional  instruction,  1889-90,  p.  1021-1062.  12.  Wellford 
Addis:  Methods  employed  in  the  reformation  of  juvenile  offenders,  p.  1063-1072.  13.  Edu- 
cation of  the  colored  race,  p.  1073-1102.  14.  G.  B.  Putnam:  The  Swedish  or  Ling  gymnastics, 
p.  1103-1108.  15.  Discussions  of  educational  questions,  p.  1109-1184.  16.  Education  abroad, 
p.  1185-1243.  17.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Education  in  Alaska,  p.  1245-1300.  18.  Educational 
necrology,  p.  1301-1316.  Part  III.  Statistical  tables,  p.  1318-1677. 

207.  1890-91  (Harris)  Washington,  1894.  V.  1,  xxx,  654  p. 

208.  Same.  V.  2,  655-1549  p. 

Contents:  Volume  1.  The  Commissioner’s  introduction,  p.  ix-xxx.  Chapters:  Part  I. 

I.  Statistics  of  state  common  school  systems,  p.  1-44.  2.  Sir  Robert  Stout:  Secondary 
education  in  New  Zealand,  p.  45-94.  3.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Education  in  France,  p.  95-124. 
4.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Brief  view  of  the  educational  systems  of  England  and  Scotland,  and 
operations  for  1890-91,  p.  125-134.  5.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Provision  for  secondary  and  for  tech- 
nical instruction  in  Great  Britain,  p.  135-150.  6.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Educational  system  of 
Ireland,  p.  151-164.  7.  Industrial  and  technical  education  in  central  Europe,  p.  165-194. 
8.  Frances  G.  French:  Education  in  Russia,  p.  195-262.  9.  Frances  G.  French:  The  edu- 
cational system  of  Japan,  p.  263-317.  10.  Alexander  Oldrini:  Education  in  Italy,  p.  319-339. 

II.  P.  K.  Soh:  Education  in  Korea,  p.  341-363.  12.  John  Eaton:  Education  in  Hawaii,  p. 
365-373.  13.  Legal  education  in  the  United  States,  p.  376-445.  14.  Legal  education  in 
Europe,  p.  447-547.  15.  Legal  education  in  Canada,  Australia,  Spanish  America,  Japan, 
and  China,  p.  549-563.  16.  Wellford  Addis:  Bibliography  of  legal  education,  p.  565-578. 
17.  R.  H.  Alvey:  Colleges  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  p.  579-654. 

Volume  2.  Part  II.  18.  Name  register,  p.  655-675.  19.  W.  N.  Hailmann:  History  and 
status  of  public  kindergartens  and  6coles  gardiennes  in  several  European  countries,  p.  676-783. 
20.  Statistical  summaries  of  city  public  schools,  p.  785-787.  21.  Secondary  schools,  p.  789-812. 
22.  Higher  education,  p.  813-864.  23.  Professional  instruction,  p.  865-880.  24.  A.  D.  Mayo: 
Education  in  southwestern  Virginia,  p.  881-921  (pub.  no.  206).  25.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Report 
on  education  in  Alaska,  p.  923-960.  26.  Education  of  the  colored  race,  p.  961-980.  27.  J.  C. 


ANNUAL  REPORTS. 


11 


Boykin:  Class  intervals  in  city  public  schools,  p.  981-1009.  28.  Educational  statistics; 
reports  made  to  the  Department  of  superintendence  of  the  National  educational  association 
by  its  Committee  on  school  statistics  (W.  T.  Harris,  chairman)  p.  1011-1029.  29.  Discussions 
of  current  educational  questions,  p.  1031-1079.  30.  Francis  Warner:  Report  to  the  British 
medical  association  and  charity  organization  society  of  London  on  the  physical  and  mental 
condition  of  50,000  children  seen  in  106  schools  of  London,  p.  1081-1138.  31.  W.  O.  Krohn: 
Facilities  in  experimental  psychology  in  the  colleges  of  the  United  States,  p.  1139-1151. 
Part  III.  Statistical  tables,  p.  1155-1515. 

211.  1891-92  (Harris)  Washington,  1894.  V.  1,  xxviii,  636  p. 

212.  Same.  V.  2,  v,  637-1294  p. 

Contents.  Volume  1.  The  Commissioner’s  introduction,  p.  xi-xxviii.  Chapters:  Parti. 
1.  General  classified  summary  of  pupils  of  all  grades,  in  public  and  private  schools  and 
institutions,  p.  1-25.  2.  Statistics  of  state  common  school  systems,  p.  27-71.  3.  Anna  T. 
Smith:  Education  in  France,  p.  73-95.  4.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Elementary  education  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  in  1892,  p.  97-104.  5.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Technical  instruction  in  Great 
Britain,  p.  105-137.  6.  L.  R.  Klemm:  Training  of  teachers  in  Germany,  Austria,  and 
Switzerland,  p.  139-196.  7.  L.  R.  Klemm:  The  Swiss  school  system;  an  historical  and 
statistical  review,  p.  197-230.  8.  Franz  Schoberle:  The  results  of  home  training  and 
influence,  p.  231-237.  9.  School  museums,  educational  libraries,  and  permanent  exhibitions 
of  appliances  for  teaching,  p.  239-246.  10.  Friedrich  Paulsen,  J.  Conrad:  German  uni- 

versities, p.  247-368.  11.  W.  F.  Willoughby  and  W.  W.  Willoughby:  Schools  for  recruit- 
ing the  civil  service  in  France,  and  an  account  of  the  civil  service  requirements  in  Prussia, 
p.  369-422.  12.  Frances  G.  French:  Education  in  Sweden,  p.  423-449.  13.  J.  C.  Boykin: 
Physical  training,  p.  451-594.  14.  W.  T.  Harris:  The  age  of  withdrawal  from  the  public 
schools,  p.  595-600.  15.  W.  T.  Harris:  Classification  in  graded  schools,  p.  601-636. 

Volume  2.  Part  II.  16.  Name  register,  p.  637-659.  17.  J.  C.  Boykin:  City  school 

systems,  p.  661-683.  18.  Secondary  schools,  p.  685-709.  19.  Universities  and  colleges, 
p.  711-730.  20.  Colleges  for  women,  p.  731-741.  21.  W.  T.  Harris:  The  place  of  university 
extension  in  American  education,  p.  743-752.  22.  The  relation  of  the  independent  colleges 
to  the  system  of  state  schools,  p.  753-756.  23.  P.  C.  Ricketts:  Rensselaer  polytechnic 
institute,  p.  757-766.  24.  E.  S.  Holden:  The  United  States  military  academy  at  West 
Point,  p.  767-774.  25.  E.  P.  Seaver:  The  care  of  truants  and  incorrigibles,  p.  775-782. 
26.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Co-education  of  the  sexes  in  the  United  States,  p.  783-862.  27.  Educa- 
tion of  the  colored  race,  p.  863-872.  28.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Report  on  education  in  Alaska, 
p.  873-892  (pub.  no.  214).  29.  W.  W.  Willoughby:  The  history  of  summer  schools  in  the 
United  States,  p.  893-959.  Part  III.  Statistical  tables,  p.  962-1271. 

217.  1892-93  (Harris)  Washington,  1895.  V.  1,  lx,  1224  p. 

218.  Same.  V.  2,  v,  1225-2153  p. 

Contents.  Volume  1.  The  Commissioner’s  introduction,  p.  1-15.  Part  I.  Chapters: 
1.  Statistical  summaries,  p.  19-113.  2.  Alexander  Summers:  Illiteracy  in  the  United 
States,  p.  115-155.  3.  Anna  T.  Smith:  System  of  public  education  in  Belgium,  p.  157-201. 
4.  Elementary  education  in  Great  Britain,  p.  203-218.  5.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Education  in 
France,  p.219-237.  6.  Education  in  Ontario,  New  Zealand,  and  India,  p.239-278.  7.  Recent 
developments  in  the  teaching  of  geography  in  central  Europe,  p.  279-321.  8.  Lorenz  Reiser: 
The  common  school  system  of  Bavaria,  p.  323-336.  9.  Frances  G.  French:  Education  in 
Uruguay,  p.  337-355.  10.  Child  study,  p.  357-391.  11.  Bibliography  of  Herbartianism, 
p.  393-396.  12.  Name  register,  p.  397-420.  Part  II.  Education  and  the  World’s  Columbian 
exposition  (Chapters  1-8,  pub.  no.  223).  Chapters:  1.  Programme  of  the  International 
congress  of  education  and  addresses  of  welcome,  p.  423-443.  2.  American  views  and  com- 
ments on  the  educational  exhibits,  p.  445-520.  3.  German  criticism  on  American  education 
and  the  educational  exhibits,  p.  521-583.  4.  French  views  upon  American  education  and 
the  educational  exhibits,  p.  585-599.  5.  Medical  instruction  in  the  United  States  as  pre- 
sented by  French  specialists,  p.  601-613.  6.  Notes  and  observations  on  American  education 
and  the  educational  exhibits,  by  the  Italian,  Swedish,  Danish,  and  Russian  delegates, 
p.  615-656.  7.  A.  Riedler:  American  technological  schools,  p.  657-686.  8.  Serge  Wolkonsky: 
Higher  education  of  women  in  Russia,  p.  687-690.  9.  Melvil  Dewey,  ed.:  Papers  prepared 
for  the  World’s  library  congress,  p.  691-1014.  10.  John  Eaton:  Notes  on  education  at  the 
Columbian  exposition,  p.  1015-1224  (pub.  no.  225). 

Volume  2.  Part  III.  Chapters:  1.  B.  A.  Hinsdale:  Documents  illustrative  of  American 
educational  history,  p.  1225-1414.  2.  Report  of  the  Committee  of  ten  on  secondary  school 
studies,  with  papers  relating  thereto,  p.  1415-1494.  3.  The  National  educational  association, 
p.  1495-1549.  4.  The  education  of  the  negro;  its  character  and  facilities,  p.  1551-1572.  5, 
Pecuniary  aid  for  students  in  universities  and  colleges,  p.  1573-1612.  6.  University  extension, 
p.  1613-1615.  7.  A.  E.  Miller:  Medical  education,  p.  1617-1632.  8.  Education  in  the  various 
states,  p.  1633-1703.  9.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Report  on  educational  affairs  in  Alaska,  p.  1705- 
1748  (pub.  no.  220).  10.  Necrology,  p.  1749-1784.  Part  IV.  Statistical  tables,  p.  1786-2081. 


12 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION, 


221.  1893-94  (Harris)  Washington,  1896.  V.  1,  xlvii,  1061  p. 

222.  Same.  V.  2,  1063-2290  p. 

Contents.  Volume  1.  The  Commissioner’s  introduction,  p.  xiii-xlvii.  Part  I. 
Chapters:  1.  Whole  number  of  pupils  and  students,  p.  3-5.  2.  Consolidated  statistics 
of  state  and  city  common  school  systems,  p.  7-32.  3.  Statistical  review  of  secondary  edu- 
cation, p.  33-95.  4.  Statistical  review  of  higher  education,  p.  97-164.  5.  Anna  T.  Smith: 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  p.  165-185.  6.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Education  in  France,  1891-92, 
p.  187-201.  7.  Education  in  Central  Europe,  p.  203-323.  8.  B.  A.  Hinsdale:  Public  in- 
struction in  Italy,  p.  325-383.  9.  Frances  G.  French:  Education  in  Russia  and  Finland, 
p.  385-412,  413-424.  10.  Anna  T.  Smith:  The  psychological  revival,  p.  425-467.  11.  Report 
of  the  Committee  of  fifteen,  on  training  of  teachers,  p.  469-487.  12.  Report  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  fifteen,  on  correlation  of  studies,  p.  489-541.  13.  Report  of  the  Committee  of 
fifteen,  on  city  school  systems,  p.  543-556.  14.  J.  M.  Greenwood:  Verbatim  reports  of 
recitations  in  arithmetic  and  language  in  the  schools  of  Kansas  City,  Missouri,  p.  557-616. 
15.  W.  T.  Harris:  Educational  values,  p.  617-638  (reprinted  1904,  pub.  no.  250).  16.  A.  D. 
Mayo:  Public  schools  during  the  Colonial  and  Revolutionary  period  in  the  United  States, 
p.  639-738.  17.  A.  D.  Mayo:  Robert  Charles  Winthrop  and  the  Peabody  education  fund 
for  the  South,  p.  739-771.  18.  Name  register,  p.  773-788.  Part  II.  Chapters:  1.  Colleges 
of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  p.  791-807.  2.  C.  W.  Parks:  Forestry  education, 
p.  809-818.  3.  T.  C.  Hopkins:  Geology  in  the  colleges  and  universities  of  the  United  States, 
p.  819-872.  4.  Rules  for  the  spelling  and  pronunciation  of  chemical  terms,  p.  873-876. 
5.  C.  M.  Woodward:  The  rise  and  progress  of  manual  training,  p.  877-949.  6.  University 
extension,  p.  951-971.  7.  A.  E.  Miller:  Professional  education,  p.  973-1018.  8.  Education 
of  the  colored  race  in  industry,  p.  1019-1061. 

Volume  2.  9.  Wellford  Addis:  Digest  of  the  laws  regulating  the  administration,  char- 
acter, and  finances  of  the  public  school  systems  of  the  states  of  the  Union,  p.  1063-1300.  10. 
Hannah  B.  Clark:  Sanitary  legislation  affecting  schools  in  the  United  States,  p.  1301-1349 

II.  Education  in  the  several  states,  p.  1351-1449.  12.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Report  on  education 
in  Alaska,  p.  1451-1492.  13.  S.  B.  Weeks:  A preliminary  list  of  American  learned  and  edu- 
cational societies,  p.  1493-1661.  14.  Arthur  MacDonald:  Criminological  studies,  p.  1663- 
1675.  15.  Arthur  MacDonald:  Psychological,  criminological,  and  demographical  con- 
gresses in  Europe,  p.  1677-1699.  16.  Some  recent  educational  bibliographies  and  lists  of 
books  designed  more  particularly  for  the  use  of  educators  and  students,  p.  1701-1722.  17. 
C.  W.  Parks:  International  exposition  of  1894  in  Milan,  p.  1723-1728.  18.  C.  W.  Parks: 
The  Lyons  universal  exposition  of  1894,  p.  1729-1734.  19.  General  programme  of  the  World’s 
congresses  at  the  Columbian  exposition,  p.  1735-1760.  20.  Necrology,  p.  1761-1778.  Part 

III.  Statistical  tables,  p.  1779-2243. 

227.  1894-95  (Harris)  Washington,  1896.  V.  1,  lvii,  1152  p.  (not  available  as  volume). 

228.  Same.  V.  2,  v,  1153-2314  p. 

Contents.  Volume  1.  [The  following  separates  are  available:  The  Commissioner’s  intro- 
duction, p.  ix-lvii.  Chapters:  10.  Education  in  central  Europe,  p.  321-473.  11.  Sophia 
Nussbaum:  Education  in  the  Netherlands,  p.  475-542.] 

Volume  2.  Part  II.  *23.  G.  B.  Morrison:  The  Bell  and  Lancaster  system — what  there 
is  in  it  for  the  schools  of  the  South,  p.  1153-1160.  *24.  C.  M.  Woodward:  At  what  age  do 
pupils  withdraw  from  the  public  schools,  p.  1161-1170.  *25.  Admission  to  college  by  cer- 
tificate, p.  1171-1188.  *26.  Wellford  Addis:  Technological  instruction  in  the  land-grant 
colleges,  p.  1189-1210.  *27.  Daniel  Fulcomer:  Instruction  in  sociology  in  institutions  of 
learning,  p.  1211-1221.  28.  A.  E.  Miller:  Professional  education,  p.  1223-1259.  *29.  Marcel 
Baudouin:  Medical  schools  of  the  United  States,  p.  1261-1275.  *30.  Education  in  the  several 
states,  p.  1277-1329.  *31.  Education  of  the  colored  race,  p.  1331-1366.  *32.  The  Slater 
fund  and  the  education  of  the  negro,  p.  1367-1424.  *33.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Report  on  edu- 
cation in  Alaska,  p.  1425-1455.  *34.  Wellford  Addis:  The  social  unit  in  the  public  school 
systems  of  the  United  States,  p.  1457-1467.  *35.  The  conveyance  of  children  to  school, 
p.  1469-1482.  *36.  S.  B.  Weeks:  A check  list  of  American  summer  schools,  p.  1483-1503 
37.  A.  D.  Mayo:  Original  establishment  of  state  school  funds,  p.  1505-1511.  38.  A.  D.  Mayo: 
Education  in  the  Northwest  during  the  first  half  century  of  the  Republic,  1790-1840,  p. 
1513-1550.  39.  A.  D.  Mayo:  The  American  common  school  in  New  England  from  1790  to 
1840,  p.  1551-1615.  40.  J.  H.  Blodgett:  Parochial  schools,  p.  1617-1671.  41.  J.  O.  Wilson: 
Eighty  years  of  the  public  schools  of  Washington,  1805  to  1885,  p.  1673-1698.  42.  R.  M. 
Johnston:  Early  educational  life  in  middle  Georgia,  p.  1699-1733.  43.  J.  C.  Boykin:  The 
Cotton  states  and  international  exposition,  held  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  September  18  to  December 
31,  1895,  p.  1735-1756.  44.  English  methods  of  teaching  American  history,  p.  1757-1787. 
*45.  Luigi  Bodio:  The  protection  of  Italian  emigrants  in  America,  p.  1789-1793.  *46.  N. 
H.Imber:  Education  and  the  Talmud,  p.  1795-1820.  *47-.  Publications  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau 
of  education,  1867-1895,  p.  1821-1828.  *48.  A.  H.  Plumb:  Scientific  temperance  instruction 
in  the  public  schools,  p.  1829-1833.  *Part  III.  Statistical  tables,  p.  1837-2285. 


*Not  separately  available. 


ANNUAL  REPORTS, 


13 


233.  1895-96  (Harris)  Washington,  1897.  V.  1,  Ixxv,  965  p. 

234.  Same.  V.  2,  vii,  967-2173  p. 

Contents.  Volume  1.  The  Commissioner’s  introduction,  p.  ix-lxxv.  Chapters:  Part 
I.  *1.  J.  C.  Boykin:  Laws  relating  to  city  school  boards,  p.  3-78.  *2.  Anna  T.  Smith: 
The  English  education  bill  of  1896,  p.  79-121.  *3.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Education  in  Great  Brit- 
ain and  Ireland,  p.  123-135.  4.  Education  in  Central  Europe,  p.  137-185.  *5.  Music  in 
German  schools,  p.  187-217.  *6.  A.  D.  Mayo:  The  American  common  school  in  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania  during  the  first  half  century  of  the  Republic,  p.  219-266. 
*7.  A.  D.  Mayo:  The  American  common  school  in  the  Southern  states  during  the  first  half 
century  of  the  Republic,  1790-1840,  p.  267-338.  8.  Alexander  Summers:  Public,  society, 
and  school  libraries,' p.  339-521.  9.  Henderson  Presnell:  Library  legislation  in  the  United 
States,  p.  523-599  (Chapters  8-9,  pub.  no.  232).  10.  E.  Levasseur:  Comparative  study  of 
popular  education  among  civilized  nations:  administration  of  popular  education,  p.  601-610. 
*11.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Education  in  France,  p.  611-639.  12.  F.  F.  Hilder:  Education  in 
Mexico  and  Central  America,  p.  641-667.  13.  C.  D.  Randall:  The  fifth  International  prison 
congress,  p.  669-700.  *14.  N.  H.  Imber:  The  letters  of  Rabbi  Akibah,  or  the  Jewish  primer 
as  it  was  used  in  the  public  schools  two  thousand  years  ago,  p.  701-719.  15.  E.  J.  James: 
Commercial  education  in  Europe,  particularly  in  Austria,  France,  and  Germany,  p.  721-837. 
*16.  R.  M.  Johnston:  Early  educational  life  in  Middle  Georgia,  p.  839-886.  *17.  W.  T. 
Harris:  Horace  Mann,  p.  887-927.  18.  Correlation  of  studies— E.  E.  White:  Isolation  and 
unification  as  bases  of  courses  of  study,  p.  929-933.  G.  H.  Howison:  On  the  correlation  of 
elementary  studies,  p.  934-938.  19.  Educational  directory,  p.  939-965. 

Volume  2.  Part  II.  20.  Frances  G.  French:  Education  in  Sweden  and  Iceland,  p.  967- 
1000.  *21.  J.  C.  Boykin:  Typical  institutions  offering  manual  or  industrial  training, 
p.  1001-1152.  *22.  Gabriel  Compayrd:  Higher  and  secondary  education  in  the  United 
States,  p.  1153-1174.  *23.  Mental  fatigue  in  school,  p.  1175-1198.  *24.  How  agriculture  Is 
taught  in  Prussia  and  France,  p.  1199-1213.  25.  Industrial  education  in  Germany,  Austria, 
and  Switzerland,  p.  1215-1231.  26.  Wellford  Addis:  Recent  efforts  in  Europe  for  the 
advancement  and  improvement  of  agriculture,  p.  1233-1241.  27.  Wellford  Addis:  Colleges 
endowed  by  Congress  for  the  benefit  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  p.  1243-1297. 
28.  Wellford  Addis:  The  Bertillon  system  as  a means  of  suppressing  the  business  of  living 
by  crime,  p.  1299-1311.  *29.  Current  discussions— N.  M.  Butler:  What  knowledge  is  of  most 
worth,  p.  1313-1321.  The  relation  of  manual  training  and  art  education  (C.  A.  Bennett, 
W.  S.  Goodnough,  C.  R.  Richards,  W.  H.  Goodyear),  p.  1321-1329.  Olympic  games  of  1896, 
p.  1329-1334.  W.  R.  Harper:  Ideals  of  educational  work,  p.  1334-1342.  *30.  Current  ques- 
tions, p.  1343-1362.  *31.  S.  B.  Weeks,  comp.:  Art  decorations  in  school  rooms,  p.  1363-1411. 
32.  Foreign  universities,  p.  1413-1424.  33.  Educational  matters  of  interest  in  various 
states,  p.  1425-1433.  34.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Report  on  education  in  Alaska,  p.  1435-1468 
(pub.  no.  236).  35.  Necrology,  1895,  p.  1469-1486.  36.  City  school  systems,  p.  1487-1553. 
37.  Statistics  of  secondary  schools,  p.  1555-1865.  38.  Statistics  of  normal  schools,  p.  1867- 
1915.  39.  Statistical  review  of  higher  education,  1895-96,  p.  1917-2020.  40.  Statistical 
review  of  professional  schools,  p.  2021-2057.  41.  Commercial  and  business  schools,  p.  2059- 
2079.  42.  Education  of  the  colored  race,  p.  2081-2115.  43.  Schools  for  the  defective  classes, 
p.  2117-2137.  44.  Reform  schools,  p.  2139-2145;  Education  in  foreign  countries,  p.  2146-2151. 

238.  1896-97.  (Harris)  Washington,  1898.  V.  1,  lxxx,  1136  p. 

239.  Same.  V.  2,  vii,  1137-2390  p. 

Contents.  Volume  1.  The  Commissioner’s  introduction,  p.  ix-lxxx.  Chapters:  Parti. 
1.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Education  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  p.  3-27.  2.  Anna  T.  Smith: 
Education  in  France,  p.  29-70.  3.  Frances  G.  French:  Education  in  Denmark,  p.  71-101. 
4.  Frances  G.  French:  Education  in  Norway,  p.  103-123.  *5.  Education  in  Central  Europe, 
p.  125-206.  *6.  Commercial  education  in  Europe,  p.  207-231.  7.  The  teaching  of  civics  in 
Switzerland,  France,  and  England,  p.  233-266.  8.  Daniel  Quinn:  Education  in  Greece, 
p.  267-347.  9.  J.  H.  Blodgett:  Sunday  schools,  p.  349-425  (pub.  no.  241).  10.  Wellford  Addis: 
The  curriculum  of  the  land-grant  colleges,  p.  427-456.  *11.  Requirements  for  admission  to 
Freshman  class  in  colleges,  universities,  and  schools  of  technology,  p.  457-613.  *12.  Well- 
ford Addis:  The  legal  rights  of  children,  p.  615-669.  *13.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Psychological 
tendencies;  the  study  of  imitation,  p.  671-694.  14.  Discussion  of  educational  topics  by 
President  Francis  A.  Walker,  of  the  Massachusetts  Ihstitute  of  technology,  with  some 
account  of  his  life,  p.  695-714.  *15.  A.  D.  Mayo:  Horace  Mann  and  the  great  revival  of  the 
American  common  school,  1830-1850,  p.  715-767.  16.  A.  D.  Mayo:  Henry  Barnard,  p.  769- 
810.  *17.  Report  of  the  Committee  of  twelve  on  rural  schools,  p.  811-890.  18.  Entrance 
requirements  for  engineering  colleges,  p.  891-898.  *19.  Early  history  of  the  kindergarten  in 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  p.  899-922.  *20.  Wellford  Addis:  Some  recent  contributions  of  biology, 
sociology,  and  metallurgy  to  the  curriculum  of  colleges  endowed  by  the  Federal  govern- 


* Not  separately  available. 


14 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION. 


ment  for  the  benefit  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts,  p.  923-1080.  *21.  J.  C.  Boykin: 
The  Tennessee  centennial  and  international  exposition,  held  fn  Nashville,  Tenn.,  May  1 to 
October  31, 1897,  p.  1081-1109.  22.  Educational  directory,  p.  1111-1136. 

Volume  2.  Part  II.  23.  Wellford  Addis:  Federal  and  state  aid  to  establish  higher 
education,  p.  1137-1164.  24.  G.  G.  Bush:  The  first  common  schools  of  New  England,  p. 
1165-1186.  *25.  Wellford  Addis:  The  learned  professions  and  social  control,  p.  1187-1239. 
26.  Roger  Wells,  jr.,  and  J.  W.  Kelly:  Eskimo  vocabularies,  p.  1241-1275.  27.  Educa- 
tional matters  of  interest  in  various  states,  p.  1277-1363.  28.  Foreign  universities,  p.  1365- 
1378.  *29.  S.  B.  Weeks:  The  beginnings  of  the  common  school  system  in  the  South;  or, 
Calvin  Henderson  Wiley  and  the  organization  of  the  common  schools  of  North  Carolina, 
p.  1379-1474.  30.  The  teaching  of  geography  in  certain  foreign  countries,  p.  1475-1493. 
31.  Consular  reports  on  educational  topics,  p.  1495-1505.  32.  Miscellaneous  educational 
topics — E.  E.  White:  Several  problems  in  graded  school  management,  p.  1507-1514.  John 
Eaton:  Education  in  Hawaii  for  1896,  p.  1514-1522.  *33.  Current  questions,  p.  1523-1540 
(coeducation,  compulsory  school  laws,  temperance  instruction,  teachers’  pensions,  etc.). 
34.  Franz  Boas:  The  growth  of  Toronto  children,  p.  1541-1599.  35.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Report 
on  education  in  Alaska,  p.  1601-1646  (pub.  no.  246).  Part  III.  36.  Institutions  for  higher 
education,  p.  1647-1755.  37.  Wellford  Addis:  Agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges,  p.  1757- 
1771.  38.  Professional  schools,  p.  1773-1817.  39.  Statistics  of  normal  schools,  p.  1819-1871. 
40.  Statistics  of  secondary  schools,  p.  1873-2166.  41.  Statistics  of  city  school  systems,  p. 
2167-2255.  42.  Statistics  of  commercial  and  business  schools,  p.  2257-2277.  43.  Statistics  of 
schools  for  manual  and  industrial  training,  p.  2279-2294.  *44.  Education  of  the  colored  race, 
p.  2295-2333.  45.  Statistics  of  schools  for  the  defective  classes,  p.  2335-2355.  * 46.  Statistics 
of  reform  schools,  p.  2357-2365.  * 47.  Statistics  of  education  in  foreign  countries,  p.  2366-2373. 

[Attention  is  invited  to  chapters  23  and  24  as  available  separates  of  current  utility.] 

257.  1897-98.  (Harris)  Washington,  1899.  Y.  1,  cxx,  1280  p.  (not  available  as  volume). 

258.  Same.  V.  2,  vii,  1281-2640  p.  (not  available  as  volume). 

The  following  separates  are  available:  The  Commissioner’s  introduction,  with  statistics  of 
state  school  systems,  p.  xi-xcvii.  Courses  of  study  in  medical  schools,  p.  xcix-cxx.  Chap- 
ters: 2.  H.  B.  Adams:  Summer  schools  in  England,  Scotland,  France,  and  Switzerland,  p. 
83-131.  3.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Education  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  p.  133-167.  4.  Anna  T. 
Smith:  Education  in  Canada,  p.  169-187.  5.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Systems  of  public  education 
in  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  Tasmania,  p.  189-214.  8.  C.  P.  Brooks:  Report  on  the 
European  textile  schools,  p.  269-293.  10.  W.  E.  DeRiemer:  Education  in  India,  p.  339-354. 
11.  A.  D.  Mayo:  The  organization  and  reconstruction  of  state  systems  of  common  school 
education  in  the  North  Atlantic  states  from  1830  to  1865,  p.  355-486.  13.  B.  A.  Hinsdale: 
Notes  on  the  history  of  foreign  influence  upon  education  in  the  United  States,  p.  591-629. 
16.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Education  in  France,  p.  693-788.  17.  J.  M.  Greenwood:  Notes  on  the 
history  of  American  text-books  on  arithmetic,  p.  789-868.  18.  E.  S.  Holden:  The  teaching  of 
astronomy  in  the  primary  and  secondary  schools  and  in  the  university,  p.  869-892.  22.  F.  F. 
Hilder:  Education  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  Uruguay,  and  Brazil,  p.  1205-1233.  23. 
Dental  education  in  the  United  States,  p.  1235-1254.  24.  Educational  directory,  p.  1255- 
1280.  27.  University  types  and  ideals,  p.  1435-1460.  28.  State  supervision  of  degree-con- 
ferring institutions,  p.  1461-1476.  29.  Report  on  school  statistics,  made  by  a committee  of 
the  Department  of  superintendence  of  the  National  educational  association  (W.  T.  Harris, 
chairman)  p.  1477-1488.  39.  Foreign  universities  and  other  institutions  of  higher  education, 
p.  1741-1751.  41.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Eighth  annual  report  of  the  introduction  of  domestic 
reindeer  into  Alaska,  p.  1773-1796.  42.  Institutions  for  higher  education,  p.  1797-1901.  44. 
Wellford,  Addis:  Agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges,  p.  1969-1990.  45.  Statistics  of  normal 
schools,  p.  1991-2041.  46.  Statistics  of  secondary  schools,  p.  2043-2336.  47.  City  school 
systems,  p.  2337-2418.  48.  Manual  and  industrial  training,  p.  2419-2440.  49.  Commercial 
education  in  the  United  States,  p.  2441-2477.  50.  Education  of  the  colored  race,  p.  2479-2507. 
51.  Schools  for  the  defective  classes,  p.  2509-2527.  52.  Reform  schools,  p.  2529-2535.  53. 
Public  and  private  kindergartens,  p.  2537-2579.  54.  Necrology  of  1897,  p.  2581-2611.  55. 
Statistics  of  elementary  education  in  foreign  countries,  p.  2613-2619. 

[Chapter  11  deals  with  an  important  historical  topic;  chapter  13  traces  English,  French, 
and  German  influence  on  American  education.] 

260.  1898-99.  (Harris)  Washington,  1900.  Y.  1,  xcii,  1248  p. 

261.  Same.  Y.  2,  viii,  1249-2518  p. 

Contents.  Volume  1.  The  Commissioner’s  introduction,  with  statistics  of  state  com- 
mon school  systems,  etc.,  p.  ix-xcii.  Chapters:  Part  I-.  1.  Education  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  p.  3-65.  2.  Education  in  Australasia,  p.  67-87.  3.  Education  in  Belgium, 
p.  89-123.  *4.  Education  in  Central  Europe,  p.  125-235.  5.  Education  in  Sweden,  p. 


* Not  separately  available. 


ANNUAL  REPORTS. 


15 


237-257.  6.  R.  E.  Lewis:  State  education  in  Japan,  p.  259-302.  7.  Classification  and  pro- 
motion of  pupils  (pub.  no.  268,  355)— W.  T.  Harris:  The  development  of  the  short-interval 
system  in  St.  Louis,  p.  303-330.  W.  J.  Shearer:  The  Elizabeth  plan  of  grading,  p.  330- 
335.  F.  J.  Barnard:  The  Seattle  plan  of  promotion  and  classification,  p.  335-341.  J.  H. 
Van  Sickle:  Plan  of  the  north-side  schools  of  Denver,  p.  341-346.  Francis  Cogswell:  Pro- 
motions in  the  grammar  schools  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  p.  346-356.  8.  A.  D.  Mayo:  The 
development  of  the  common  school  in  the  Western  States  from  1830  to  1865,  p.  357-450.  9. 
John  Eaton:  The  Royal  normal  college  for  the  blind,  London,  together  with  incidents  in 
the  life  of  its  founder  and  president,  Dr.  F.  J.  Campbell,  a native  of  Tennessee,  U.  S.  A., 
p.  451-470.  *10.  W.  O.  Krohn:  Minor  mental  abnormalities  in  children  as  occasioned  by 
certain  erroneous  school  methods,  p.  471-478.  *11.  Miscellaneous  educational  topics,  p. 
479-685.  *12.  W.  T.  Harris:  The  study  of  art  and  literature  in  schools,  p.  687-706.  13.  B.  A. 
Hinsdale  and  Mary  L.  Hinsdale:  The  Western  literary  institute  and  college  of  professional 
teachers,  p.  707-745.  14.  E.  S.  Holden:  The  United  States  naval  academy  at  Annapolis; 
its  organization  and  methods  of  training,  p.  747-780.  15.  J.  M.  Greenwood  and  Artemas 
Martin:  Notes  on  the  history  of  American  text-books  on  arithmetic,  Part  II,  p.  781-837 
(Parts  I-II,  pub.  no.  271).  16.  Alexander  Oldrini:  Public  education  in  Italy  and  its  reform, 
1895-1899,  p.  839-870.  17.  J.  S.  Eaton:  Educational  training  for  railway  service,  p.  871-955 
(pub.  no.  270).  18.  H.  B.  Adams:  University  extension  in  Great  Britain,  p.  957-1055.  19. 
W.  T.  Harris:  Bird’s-eye  view  of  the  St.  Louis  public  school  system  in  1880,  p.  1057-1066. 
*20.  E.  Gang:  School  gardens,  p.  1067-1084.  21.  Education  in  France,  p.  1085-1138.  22. 
S.  B.  Weeks:  Confederate  text-books,  1861-1865,  p.  1139-1155.  23.  List  of  educational  peri- 
odicals in  the  United  States,  p.  1157-1160.  24.  Educational  directory,  p.  1161-1187.  *25. 
Applied  (or  economic)  geography,  p.  1189-1208.  *26.  Theodore  Hough:  A review  of  Swedish 
gymnastics,  p.  1209-1226.  *27.  A.  D.  Mayo:  The  future  of  the  colored  race,  p.  1227-1248. 

Volume  2.  28.  Education  and  crime,  p.  1249-1343  (pub.  no.  274).  29.  Education  in 
Canada,  p.  1345-1365.  30.  A.  D.  Mayo:  William  Preston  Johnston’s  work  for  a new  South, 
p.  1367-1371.  *31.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Report  on  education  in  Alaska,  p.  1373-1402.  *32. 
Sheldon  Jackson:  Ninth  annual  report  on  the  introduction  of  domestic  reindeer  into  Alaska, 
p.  1403-1432.  33.  Consular  reports,  p.  1433-1458.  34.  Foreign  universities  and  other  institu- 
tions of  higher  education,  p.  1459-1473.  *35.  Current  questions,  p.  1475-1490.  Part  II.  36. 
City  school  systems,  p.  1491-1558.  37.  Institutions  for  higher  education,  p.  1559-1674.  38. 
Professional  schools,  p.  1675-1735  (pub.  no.  273).  39.  Agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges, 
p.  1737-1788.  40.  Statistics  of  normal  schools,  p.  1789-1842.  *41.  Statistics  of  secondary 
schools,  p.  1843-2138.  42.  Manual  and  industrial  training,  p.  2139-2162.  *43.  Commercial 
and  business  schools,  p.  2163-2199.  44.  Education  of  the  colored  race,  p.  2201-2225.  45. 
Statistics  of  reform  schools,  p.  2227-2233.  46.  Schools  for  the  defective  classes,  p.  2235-2255. 
47.  Statistics  of  public  kindergartens,  p.  2257-2262.  48.  M.  A.  Newell:  Contributions  to  the 
history  of  normal  schools  in  the  United  States,  p.  2263-2470.  49.  Necrology  for  1908,  p.  2471- 
2496.  50.  Portable  school  buildings,  p.  2497-2501.  51.  Statistics  of  elementary  schools  in 
foreign  countries,  p.  2503-2509. 

[In  educational  history,  chapters  8 and  48  should  be  noted  as  available  separates. jj 

275.  1899-1900.  (Harris)  Washington,  1901.  V.  1,  lxxx,  1280  p. 

276.  Same.  V.  2,  vii,  1281-2648  p. 

Contents.  Volume  1.  The  Commissioner’s  introduction,  with  statistics  of  state  school 
systems,  p.  ix-lxxx.  Chapters:  1.  System  of  public  education  in  British  India,  p.  1-43. 
2.  Ph.  Aronstein:  The  development  of  English  secondary  schools  for  boys,  p.  45-84.  3. 
Truant  schools,  p.  85-219.  *4.  John  Eaton:  Education  in  Porto  Rico,  p.  221-273.  *5. 
H.  B.  Adams:  Educational  extension  in  the  United  States,  p.  275-379.  *6.  Some  historical 
documents  bearing  upon  common  school  education  in  Virginia  and  South  Carolina  previous 
to  the  civil  war,  p.  381-426.  *7.  A.  D.  Mayo:  The  organization  and  development  of  the 
American  common  school  in  the  Atlantic  and  central  states  of  the  South,  1830-1860,  p.  427- 
561.  8.  Papers  read  at  the  Chicago  meeting  of  the  Department  of  superintendence,  1900, 
p.  563-602.  9.  A.  Sluys:  The  r61e  of  the  school-teacher  in  the  struggle  against  alcoholism, 
p.  603-614.  10.  S.  E.  Baldwin:  The  readjustment  of  the  collegiate  to  the  professional  course, 
p.  615-628.  *11.  H.  H.  Morgan:  The  justification  of  the  public  high  school,  p.  629-642. 
*12.  H.  R.  Corbett:  Free  high  schools  for  rural  pupils,  p.  643-662.  *13.  Report  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  the  National  educational  association  on  the  relations  of  public  libraries  to  public 
schools,  p.  663-719.  *14.  Education  in  central  Europe,  p.  721-894.  *15.  Public  play  grounds 
and  vacation  schools,  p.  895-904.  16.  E.  D.  Mead:  The  Old  South  work,  p.  905-921.  17 
Public,  society,  and  school  libraries,  p.  923-1165  (pub.  no.  278).  18.  Education  in  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  p.  1167-1244.  19.  List  of  educational  periodicals  in  the  United  States, 
p.  1245-1248.  20.  Educational  directory,  p.  1249-1275.  *21.  Mary  H.  Hunt:  Temperance 

physiology,  p.  1277-1280. 


* Not  separately  available. 


16 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


Volume  2.  22.  H.  R.  Willard:  Contributions  to  the  history  of  the  Hopkins  grammar 
school,  New  Haven,  Conn.,  1660  to  1900,  p.  1281-1296.  23.  Daniel  Quinn:  The  language 
question  in  Greece  and  some  reflections  suggested  by  it,  p.  1297-1319  . 24.  G.  W.  Atherton: 
The  legislative  career  of  Justin  S.  Morrill,  p.  1321-1335.  *25.  Miscellaneous  educational 
topics,  p.  1337-1387.  20.  Educational  matters  of  interest  in  various  states,  p.  1389-1422. 
*27.  Consular  reports,  p.  1423-1450.  28.  L.  F.  Ward:  Sociology  at  the  Paris  exposition  of 
1900,  p.  1451-1593.  *29.  Education  in  the  Philippines,  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  Hawaii,  and 
Samoa,  p.  1595-1659.  30.  Education  at  the  Paris  exposition,  p.  1661-1709.  31.  Educa- 
tion in  France,  p.  1711-1732.  32.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Report  on  education  in  Alaska,  p.  1733- 
1762.  33.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Tenth  annual  report  on  the  introduction  of  domestic  reindeer 
into  Alaska,  p.  1763-1785  (Chapters  32-33,  pub.  no.  279).  34.  City  school  systems,  p.  1787- 
1854.  *35.  Institutions  for  higher  education,  p.  1855-1957.  *36.  Professional  schools,  p.  1959- 
2029.  37.  Agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges,  p.  2031-2065.  38.  Statistics  of  normal 
schools,  p.  2067-2117.  *39.  Statistics  of  secondary  schools,  p.  2119-2436.  40.  Manual  and 
industrial  training,  p.  2437-2467.  41.  Commercial  and  business  schools,  p.  2469-2499 
42*.  Education  of  the  colored  race,  p.  2501-2531.  43.  Statistics  of  reform  schools,  p.  2533- 
2539.  44.  Schools  for  the  defective  classes,  p.  2541-2562.  45.  Statistics  of  public  kinder- 
gartens, p.  2563-2568.  *46.  Current  topics,  p.  2569-2614.  *47.  Statistics  of  elementary 
education  in  foreign  countries,  p.  2615-2621. 

[Chapter  2,  The  development  of  English  secondary  schools  for  boys,  is  in  two  parts — 
1,  From  the  fourteenth  to  the  nineteenth  century;  2,  The  century  of  reform.  Chapter  3, 
Truant  schools,  is  both  historical  and  descriptive.  Chapter  8,  Papers  of  the  Department 
of  superintendence,  1900,  contains:  N.  M.  Butler,  Status  of  education  at  the  close  of  the 
century;  Aaron  Gove,  The  trail  of  the  city  superintendent;  E.  A.  Alderman,  Obligations 
and  opportunities  of  scholarship;  W.  O.  Atwater,  Alcohol  physiology  and  superintendence. 
The  section  of  education  at  the  Paris  exposition  of  1900  is  described  in  chapter  30.] 

287.  1900-1901  (Harris)  Washington,  1902.  Y.  1,  cxii,  1216  p. 

288.  Same.  Y.  2,  vii,  1217-2512  p. 

Contents.  Volume  1.  *The  Commissioner’s  introduction,  p.  ix-cxii.  Chapters:  1. 
Education  in  central  Europe,  p.  1-28.  2.  Mary  L.  Hinsdale:  A legislative  history  of  the 
public  school  system  of  the  state  of  Ohio,  p.  129-159.  *3.  Consolidation  of  schools  and 
transportation  of  pupils,  p.  161-213.  *4.  American  industrial  education:  What  shall  it  be? 
p.  215-234.  *5.  Educational  pathology,  p.  235-262.  6.  Patrick  Geddes:  International 
association  for  the  advancement  of  science,  arts,  and  education,  p.  263-304.  *7.  Educational 
training  for  railroad  service,  p.  305-323.  8.  Frederic  Burk:  From  fundamental  to  accessory 
in  the  development  of  the  nervous  system  and  of  movements,  p.  325-344.  9.  H.  S.  Curtis: 
Inhibition,  p.  345-356.  *10.  A.  D.  Mayo:  The  common  school  in  the  Southern  states 
beyond  the  Mississippi  river,  from  1830-1860,  p.  357-401.  *11.  Common  school  education 
in  the  South  from  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  war  to  1870-1876,  p.  403-490.  *12.  E.  S.  Joynes: 
Letter  concerning  the  establishment  of  a normal  school  for  the  women  of  Virginia,  p.  491- 
507.  13.  Education  in  the  South,  p.  509-530.  *14.  L.  Viereck:  German  instruction  in 
American  schools,  p.  531-708.  *15.  The  first  comprehensive  attempts  at  child  study, 
p.  709-729.  *16.  Kelly  Miller:  The  education  of  the  negro,  p.  731-859.  17.  Foster  Watson: 
Notices  of  some  early  English  writers  on  education,  p.  861-884.  18.  Third  annual  conference 
of  the  Association  of  Catholic  colleges,  p.  885-938.  19.  Education  in  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  1900-1901,  p.  939-1008.  20.  C.  W.  Dabney:  The  public  school  problem  in  the  South, 
p.  1009-1026  (pub.  no.  290).  21.  Temperance  instruction,  p.  1027-1050.  22.  C.  D.  Walcott: 
Relations  of  the  National  government  to  higher  education  and  research,  p.  1051-1065.  23.  The 
Carnegie  institution  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  p.  1067-1080.  24.  Education  in  France,  p.  1081-1136. 
25.  Higher  commercial  education,  p.  1137-1182.  26.  List  of  educational  periodicals  in  the 
United  States,  p.  1183-1187.  27.  Educational  directory,  p.  1189-1216. 

Volume  2.  *28.  Coeducation  of  the  sexes  in  the  United  States,  p.  1217-1315.  *29.  F.  W. 
Atkinson:  The  present  educational  movement  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  p.  1317-1440.  30. 
Foreign  universities  and  other  foreign  institutions  of  higher  education,  p.  1441-1457.  31. 
Sheldon  Jackson:  Report  on  education  in  Alaska,  p.  1459-1480.  32.  Sheldon  Jackson: 
Eleventh  annual  report  on  the  introduction  of  domestic  reindeer  into  Alaska,  p.  1481-1498. 
33.  Consular  reports,  p.  1499-1525.  34.  City  school  systems,  p.  1527-1610.  *35.  Universities, 
colleges  and  technological  schools,  p.  1611-1730.  *36.  Statistics  of  professional  and  allied 
schools,  p.  1731-1800.  37.  Agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges,  p.  1801-1841.  38.  Statistics 
of  normal  schools,  p.  1843-1901.  39.  Statistics  of  secondary  schools,  p.  1903-2230  (pub.  no. 
299).  40.  Manual  and  industrial  training,  p.  2231-2268.  41.  Commercial  and  business 
schools,  p.  2269-2297.  42.  Education  of  the  colored  race,  p.  2299-2331.  43.  Statistics  of 


* Not  separately  available. 


ANNUAL  REPORTS. 


17 


reform  schools,  p.  2333-2349  . 44.  Schools  for  the  defective  classes,  p.  2351-2376.  *45.  Instruc- 
tion in  mining  engineering,  p.  2377-2394.  *46.  Current  topics,  p.  2395-2415.  *47.  Miscellane- 
ous educational  topics,  p.  2417-2486. 

[Chapter  2 is  of  special  interest  to  teachers  in  Ohio.  The  following  addresses,  delivered  at 
the  tenth  annual  meeting  of  the  Southern  educational  association,  December,  1900,  are 
contained  in  chapter  13:  G.  T.  Winston,  Industrial  education  and  the  New  South;  C.  W. 
Dabney,  Education  and  production;  R.  B.  Barringer,  Negro  education  in  the  South— 
Julius  Dreher,  Reply;  H.  B.  Frissell,  Discussion— P.  B.  Barringer,  Reply.  Chapters  13 
and  20  are  of  interest  to  Southern  educators.] 

329.  1902  (Harris)  Washington,  1903.  Y.  1,  oxii,  1176  p. 

330.  Same.  V.  2,  vii,  1177-2447  p. 

Contents.  Volume  1.  The  Commissioner’s  introduction,  with  statistics  of  state  school 
systems,  p.  ix-cxii  (pub.  no.  296).  Chapters:  1.  General  laws  relating  to  agricultural  and 
mechanical  land-grant  colleges,  p.  1-90.  2.  F.  N.  Thorpe:  Franklin’s  influence  in  American 
education,  p.  91-190.  *3.  The  college-bred  negro,  p.  191-229.  4.  Francis  W ayland  Parker  and 
his  work  for  education,  p.  231-284.  *5.  A.  D.  Mayo:  The  work  of  certain  northern  churches 
in  the  education  of  the  freedmen,  1861-1900,  p.  285-314.  6.  Laws  relating  to  temperance  in- 
struction, p.  315-338.  7.  Necrology  for  1899,  1900,  and  1901,  p.  339-422.  8.  Education  in 
Canada,  p.  423-463.  9.  Education  in  the  British  South  African  colonies,  p.  465-480.  10. 
Foster  Watson:  Notices  of  some  early  English  writers  on  education,  Part  2,  p.  481-508.  11. 
Leo  Burgerstein  and  August  Netolitzky:  Medical  inspection  of  schools  abroad,  p.  509-526. 
12.  Admission  to  college  on  certificate  of  secondary  schools,  p.  527-539.  13.  Miscellaneous 
educational  topics,  p.  541-646.  14.  W.  R.  Harper:  The  educational  progress  of  the  year 
1901-02,  p.  647-666.  15.  Education  in  France,  p.  667-719.  *16.  F.  Buisson:  Education  of  the 
will,  p.  721-740.  17.  Education  in  Italy— Tullio  de  Suzzara-Verdi:  Progress  of  public  educa- 
tion in  Italy,  p.  741-767.  Alexander  Oldrini:  The  Bacelli  bill  for  the  reform  of  superior  edu- 
cation in  Italy,  p.  767-787.  *18.  C.  W.  Dabney:  Illiteracy  of  the  voting  population  in  the 
United  States,  p.  789-818.  19.  Foreign  universities  and  other  foreign  institutions  of  higher 
education,  p.  819-836.  20.  Commercial  education  in  Switzerland,  p.837-855.  21.  Consular 
reports  on  education,  p.  857-885.  22.  Henry  Barnard — W.  T.  Harris:  Henry  Barnard’s 
services  to  education  in  Connecticut,  p.887-891.  A.  D.  Mayo:  Henry  Barnard  as  first  U.  S. 
Commissioner  of  education,  p.  891-901.  W.  T.  Harris:  Establishment  of  the  office  of  the 
Commissioner  of  education  of  the  United  States,  and  Henry  Barnard’s  relation  to  it,  p.  901- 
926.  23.  Length  of  the  college  course,  p.  927-948  (pub.  no.  297).  24.  Oxford  university— 
W.  T.  Harris:  Oxford  university  and  the  Rhodes  scholarships,  p.  949-959.  J.  W.  Hoyt: 
History  of  the  University  of  Oxford,  p.  960-990.  J.  B.  Firth:  The  Bodleian  tercentenary,  p. 
990-994.  Oxford  university  extension  lectures,  p.  994-999.  25.  Education  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  1902,  p.  1001-1068.  26.  Correspondence  schools,  p.  1069-1094.  27.  Child  study  in 
Chicago,  p.  1095-1138.  28.  E.  Kovalevsky:  Education  in  Russia,  p.  1139-1146.  29.  List  of 
educational  periodicals  in  the  United  States  in  1902,  p.  1147-1150.  30.  Educational  direc- 
tory, p.  1151-1176. 

Volume  2.  31.  Education  in  Porto  Rico,  p.  1177-1227.  *32.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Report  of 
education  in  Alaska,  p.  1229-1256  *33.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Twelfth  annual  report  on  the 

introduction  of  domestic  reindeer  into  Alaska,  p.  1257-1269.  34.  Statistics  of  city  school 
systems,  p.  1271-1346.  35.  Universities,  colleges,  and  technological  schools,  p.  1347-1497 
(pub.  no.  334).  36.  Professional  schools,  p.  1499-1549  (pub.  no.  335).  37.  Agricultural  and 
mechanical  colleges,  p.  1551-1579.  38.  Statistics  of  normal  schools,  p.  1581-1639.  39.  Statis- 
tics of  secondary  schools,  p.  1641-1957  (pub.  no.  336).  *40.  Manual  and  industrial  training, 
p.  1959-2002.  41.  Commercial  and  business  schools,  p.  2003-2041.  42.  Schools  for  nurses,  p. 
2043-2061  (pub.  no.  332).  43.  Education  of  the  colored  race,  p.  2063-2095.  44.  Statistics  of 
reform  schools,  p.  2097-2114.  *45.  Schools  for  defective  classes,  p.  2115-2141.  *46.  Report  of 
Committee  on  statistics  of  defective  sight  and  hearing  of  public  school  children,  p.  2143-2155. 
*47.  D.  F.  Lincoln:  The  education  of  the  feeble-minded  in  the  United  States,  p.  2157-2197. 
48.  W.  S.  Thomas:  Changes  in  the  age  of  college  graduation,  p.  2199-2208.  49.  Report  on 
school  statistics,  made  by  a committee  of  the  Department  of  superintendence  of  the  National 
educational  association  (W.  T.  Harris,  chairman)  p.  2209-2218.  50.  Education  in  the 
Philippines,  p.  2219-2271.  51.  Statistics  of  public  and  private  kindergartens,  p.  2273-2309 
(pub.  no.  338).  *52.  Illiteracy  in  the  United  States,  p.  2311-2346.  *53.  Current  topics,  p. 
2347-2422. 

[Especially  important  chapters  of  the  Report  for  1902,  still  offered  as  separates,  are  2,  4, 
10,  11,  22,  and  23.] 


* Not  separately  available. 
11133°— Bull.  17—11 3 


18 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


341.  1903  (Harris)  Washington,  1905.  V.  1,  cxii,  1216  p. 

342.  Same.  V.  2,  viii,  1217-2512  p. 

Contents.  Volume  1.  The  Commissioner’s  introduction  and  statistics  of  state  school 
systems,  p.  ix-cvii.  Chapters:  *1.  H.  S.  Curtis:  Vacation  schools,  playgrounds,  and  settle- 
ments, p.  2-38.  2.  General  laws  relating  to  agriculture  and  mechanical  land-grant  colleges, 
p.  39-226.  *3.  Education  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  1903,  p.  227-271.  4.  Education  in 
London  under  the  administration  of  the  London  school  board,  p.  273-292.  5.  C.  F.  Thwing: 
American  universities,  p.  293-317.  6.  Foster  Watson:  Notices  of  some  early  English  writers 
on  education,  1553-1574,  p.  319-350.  7.  Aaron  Gove:  The  public  school  systems  of  the  United 
States,  p.  351-358.  *8.  Wickliffe  Rose:  The  educational  movement  in  the  South,  p.  359-390. 
9.  A.  D.  Mayo:  The  final  establishment  of  the  American  common  school  system  in  West 
Virginia,  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  Delaware,  1863-1900,  p.  391-462.  *10.  W.  R.  Jackson: 
The  present  status  of  the  certification  of  teachers  in  the  United  States,  p.  463-519.  *11.  J. 
L.  M.  Curry  and  his  services  to  education  in  the  South,  p.521-552.  12.  E.E. Brown:  Secondary 
education,  p.  553-583  (reprinted  1909, pub.  no. 409).  13.  Education  in  France, p.585-622.  14. 
Consular  reports  on  education,  p.  623-667.  15.  Foreign  universities  and  other  foreign  insti- 
tutions of  higher  education  in  1903,  p.  669-687.  16.  Laura  Fisher:  The  kindergarten,  p.  689- 
719.  *17.  E.  M.  Hartwell:  On  physical  training,  p.721-757.  *18.  Public,  society,  and  school 
libraries,  p.  759-1017.  19.  C.  M.  Woodward:  Manual,  industrial,  and  technical  education  in 
the  United  States,  p.  1019-1046  (pub.  no.  353).  20.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Coeducation  in  the  schools 
and  colleges  of  the  United  States,  p.  1047-1078*  21.  M.  M.  Sheedy:  The  Catholic  parochial 
schools  of  the  United  States,  p.  1070-1101.  22.  E.  O.  Lyte:  The  state  normal  schools  of  the 
United  States,  p.  1103-1136.  23.  Exhibit  of  the  Bureau  of  education  at  the  Louisiana  pur- 
chase exposition,  p.  1137-1184.  24.  List  of  educational  periodicals  in  the  United  States  in 
1903,  p.  1185-1188.  25.  Educational  directory,  p.  1189-1216. 

Volume  2.  26.  Courses  of  study  in  German  schools,  p.  1217-1242.  27.  J.  V.  Noel:  Report 
on  the  Chilean  educational  congress  and  exhibit,  1902-03,  p.  1243-1274.  28.  Necrology,  p. 
1275-1301.  29.  John  Eaton:  Sketches  of  educational  benefactors  and  lives  devoted  to  educa- 
tion, p.  1303-1343.  *30.  Miscellaneous  educational  topics,  p.  1345-1372.  31.  Biographical 
notices,  p.  1373-1390.  32.  Statistics  of  city  school  systems,  p.  1391-1502.  33.  Universities, 
colleges,  and  technological  schools, p.  1503-1625  (reprinted  1905,  pub.  no.  349).  34.  Agricul- 
tural and  mechanical  colleges,  p.  1627-1672.  *35.  Professional  instruction,  p.  1673-1751. 
36.  Statistics  of  normal  schools,  p.  1753-1811.  37.  Statistics  of  secondary  schools,  p.  1813-2137 
(reprinted  1905,  pub.  no.  350).  38.  Manual  and  industrial  training,  p.  2139-2190.  39.  Com- 
mercial and  business  schools,  p.  2191-2227.  40.  Schools  for  nurses,  p.  2229-2251  (pub.  no.  345). 
41.  Schools  for  the  colored  race,  p.  2253-2285.  42.  Reform  schools,  p.  2287-2303.  43.  Schools 
for  the  defective  classes,  p.  2305-2332.  44.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Report  on  education  in  Alaska, 
p.  2333-2364.  45.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Thirteenth  annual  report  on  the  introduction  of  domestic 
reindeer  into  Alaska,  p.  2365-2384.  46.  Education  in  the  Philippines,  Hawaii,  and  Cuba, 
p.  2385-2395.  *47.  Current  topics,  p.  2397-2479. 

[Chapter  5 sketches  the  history  of  American  universities  and  discusses  their  functions,  while 
an  important  portion  of  Southern  educational  history  is  presented  in  chapter  9.  The  treat- 
ment of  the  kindergarten  in  chapter  16  is  both  historical  and  descriptive.  Chapter  29  con- 
tains interesting  and  useful  biographical  material.] 

356.  1904  (Harris)  Washington,  1906.  V.  1,  civ,  1176  p. 

357.  Same,  V.  2,  viii,  1177-2480  p. 

Contents.  Volume  1.  The  Commissioner’s  introduction  and  statistics  of  state  school 
systems,  p.  vii-civ.  Chapters:  1.  Education  in  Canada,  Australia,  and  New  Zealand, 
p.  1-23.  2.  Franz  Boas  and  Clark  Wissler:  Statistics  of  growth,  p.  25-132.  3.  Regulations 
relating  to  pensions  and  insurance  in  all  German  universities,  p.  133-247.  4.  Digest  of 
school  laws,  p.  249-518  (pub.  no.  364).  *5.  J.  W.  Hoyt:  The  University  of  Paris  during  the 
middle  ages,  p.  519-558.  *6.  The  work  and  influence  of  Hampton,  p.  559-579.  7.  Temper- 
ance instruction  in  public  schools  and  the  liquor  question,  p.  581-632.  8.  Foster  Watson: 
Notices  of  some  early  English  writers  on  education,  1578-1603,  p.  633-701.  9.  Edgar  Loening: 
Juvenile  criminality  in  Germany,  p.  703-713.  10.  W.  A.  Kelly  and  Frances  H.  Willard: 
Grammar  and  vocabulary  of  the  Hlinglt  language  of  southeastern  Alaska,  p.  715-766  (pub. 
no.  347).  11.  The  educational  system  of  Sweden,  p.  767-797.  12.  Education  in  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  1903,  p.  799-832.  13.  Higher  education  in  England  as  affected  by  the  law  of 
1902,  p.  833-861.  14-15.  G.  E.  Gay:  Education  at  the  St.  Louis  exposition— I.  Public 
schools  of  the  United  States,  p.  863-973;  II.  Technical  schools,  art  schools,  etc.,  p.  975-998. 
*16.  A.  D.  Mayo:  The  final  establishment  of  the  American  common  school  system  in  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia,  1863-1900,  p.  999-1090.  17.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Intro- 
duction of  reindeer  into  Alaska,  p.  1091-1128.  *18.  W.  T.  Harris:  (a)  A definition  of  civili- 


* Not  separately  available. 


ANNUAL  REPORTS, 


19 


zation,  p.  1129-1133.  (6)  Art  education  the  true  industrial  education,  p.  1133-1139..  (c) 
The  intellectual  -value  of  tool  work,  p.  1139-1144.  19.  List  of  educational  periodicals  in 
the  United  States  in  1904,  p.  1145-1148.  20.  Educational  directory,  p.  1149-1176. 

Volume  2.  21.  Education  at  the  St.  Louis  exposition— Universities  and  colleges  of  the 
United  States,  p.  1177-1209.  *22.  Education  at  the  St.  Louis  exposition— Foreign  countries, 
p.  1211-1275.  23.  Length  of  teachers’  service,  p.  1277-1301.  24.  Statistics  of  city  school- 
systems,  p.  1303-1415.  25.  Universities,  colleges,  and  technological  schools,  p.  1417-1543 
(reprinted  1906,  pub.  no.  358).  26.  Agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges,  p.  1545-1586. 
*27.  Professional  education,  p.  1587-1665.  28.  Statistics  of  normal  schools,  p.  1667-1725, 
29.  Statistics  of  secondary  schools,  p.  1727-2055  (pub.  no.  359).  30.  Manual  and  industrial 
training,  p.  2057-2108.  31.  Commercial  and  business  schools,  p.  2109-2145.  32.  Schools  for 
nurses,  p.  2147-2173.  33.  Schools  for  the  colored  race,  p.  2175-2207.  34.  Statistics  of  reform 
schools,  p.  2209-2225.  35.  Schools  for  the  defective  classes,  p.  2227-2256.  36.  Sheldon  Jack- 
son:  Report  on  education  in  Alaska,  p.  2257-2268.  *37.  Current  topics,  p.  2269-2371.  38. 
Foreign  universities  and  other  foreign  institutions  of  higher  education  in  1904,  p.  2373-2419. 
39.  Miscellaneous  educational  topics,  2421-2452. 

[Chapter  2, 1904,  presents  and  discusses  measurements  of  school  children,  taken  chiefly  in 
Worcester,  Massachusetts.  The  extensive  display  made  by  American  schools,  colleges,  and 
universities  at  the  St.  Louis  exposition  is  described  in  chapters  14,  15,  and  21.  Chapter  23 
is  on  Length  of  teachers’  service:  results  of  a special  inquiry  into  the  conditions  existing 
in  398  cities  and  towns  of  8,000  inhabitants  and  over.  A series  of  four  articles  by  Professor 
Foster  Watson,  of  University  college,  Aberystwyth,  Wales,  entitled  Notices  of  some  early 
English  writers  on  education,  extends  from  chapter  17,  1901,  through  chapters  10,  1902,  and 
6,  1903,  to  its  conclusion  in  chapter  8,  Report  for  1904.  Material  on  Temperance  instruction 
may  be  found  in  chapter  7, 1904,  also  in  chapters  9,  1900;  21, 1901,  and  6,  1902.] 

365.  1905.  (Brown)  Washington,  1907.  V.  1,  li,  655  p. 

366.  Same.  V.  2,  iv,  657-1400  p. 

Contents.  Volume  1.  The  Commissioner’s  introduction,  p.  vii-li.  Chapters:  1.  W.  T. 
Harris:  The  reports  of  the  Mosely  educational  commission,  p.  1-10.  2.  Extracts  from  the 
report  of  the  Mosely  educational  commission  to  the  United  States  of  America,  October- 
December,  1903,  p.  11-39.  3.  Statement  of  proceedings  instituted  to  execute  the  Rhodes 
scholarship  trust,  p.  41-55.  4.  Education  in  France,  p.  57-86.  *5.  The  teaching  of  agricul- 
ture in  the  schools  of  France  and  Belgium,  p.  87-96.  6.  J.  Jastrow:  Higher  education  for 
business  men  in  the  United  States  and  Germany,  p.  97-110.  7.  G.  W.  Ellis:  Education  in 
Liberia,  p.  111-129.  8.  C.  M.  Gayley:  An  account  of  the  proceedings  of  the  International 
congress  for  the  reproduction  of  manuscripts,  Li&ge,  August  21-23, 1905,  p.  131-142.  9.  A.  S. 
Draper:  The  New  York  secondary  school  system,  p.  143-154.  10.  H.  C.  Ives:  Art  education 
an  important  factor  in  industrial  development,  p.  155-183.  *11.  Current  topics,  p.  185-235. 
12.  Miscellaneous  educational  topics,  p.  237-266.  13.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Report  on  educa- 
tion in  Alaska,  p.  267-282.  14.  Sheldon  Jackson:  Reindeer  in  Alaska,  1905,  p.  283-291. 

15.  S.  M.  Lindsay:  Inauguration  of  the  American  school  system  in  Porto  Rico,  p.  293-344. 

16.  Education  in  the  Philippine  Islands,  p.  345-364.  17.  Educational  directory,  p.  365-396. 
18.  Statistics  of  state  school  systems,  p.  397-427.  19.  Statistics  of  city  school  systems,  p. 
429-535.  20.  Universities,  colleges,  and  technological  schools,  p.  537-655. 

Volume  2.  21.  Agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges,  p.  657-708.  22.  Professional  schools, 
p.  709-754  (pub.  no.  371).  23.  Statistics  of  normal  schools,  p.  755-811.  24.  Statistics  of  sec- 
ondary schools,  p.  813-1163.  25.  Manual  and  industrial  training,  p.  1165-1217.  26.  Com- 
mercial and  business  schools,  p.  1219-1255.  27.  Schools  for  nurses,  p.  1257-1292  (pub.  no. 
370).  28.  Schools  for  the  colored  race,  p.  1293-1327  . 29.  Statistics  of  reform  schools,  p. 
1329-1345.  30.  Schools  for  the  defective  classes,  p.  1347-1379. 

[Extracts  from  the  report  of  the  Mosely  educational  commission,  and  an  outline  of  its 
work,  are  given  in  chapters  1 and  2.  Chapter  9,  by  A.  S.  Draper,  on  The  New  York  second- 
ary school  system,  deserves  attention;  also  chapter  15,  Inauguration  of  the  American  school 
system  in  Porto  Rico.] 

374 . 1906.  (Brown)  Washington,  1907-08.  V.  1,  xlvii,  643  p.  (not  available  as  volume). 

375.  Same.  V.  2,  iv,  645-1308  p.  (not  available  as  volume). 

The  following  separates  are  available:  The  Commissioner’s  introduction,  p.  vii-xxxvi. 
Publications  of  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  education,  1867-1906,  p.  xxxvii-xlvii  (pub.  no.  372). 
Chapters:  1.  Education  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  1904-1906,  p.  1-17.  2.  Education  in 
France,  p.  19-34.  3.  The  new  Prussian  school  law  of  1906,  p.  35-72.  4.  W.  S.  Monroe:  Prog- 
ress of  education  in  Italy,  p.  73-90.  5.  Foreign  universities  and  other  foreign  institutions  of 
higher  education  in  1905,  p.  91-122.  6.  Public  education  in  British  India,  p.  123-140.  7.  Edu- 


*Not  separately  available. 


20 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION. 


cation  in  the  Philippines  and  in  Cuba,  p.  141-153.  8.  M.  Adelaide  Nutting:  The  education 
and  professional  position  of  nurses,  p.  155-205.  9.  Current  topics,  p.  207-235.  10.  Sheldon 
Jackson:  Report  on  education  in  Alaska  and  the  introduction  of  reindeer,  p.  237-255.  11.  Edu- 
cational periodicals,  p.. 257-261.  12.  Educational  directory,  p.  263-292.  13.  Statistics  of 
state  school  systems,  p.  293-323.  14.  Statistics  of  city  school  systems,  p.  325-444.  16.  Agri- 
cultural and  mechanical  colleges,  p.  565-592.  17.  Professional  schools,  p.  593-643.  18.  Sta- 
tistics of  normal  schools,  p.  645-693.  19.  Statistics  of  secondary  schools,  p.  695-1041  (pub.  no 
400).  20.  Manual  and  industrial  training,  p.  1043-1094.  21.  Commercial  and  business  schools, 
p.1095-1124.  23.  Schools  for  the  colored  race,  p.  1149-1173.  24.  Statistics  of  reform  schools, 
p.  1175-1192.  25.  Schools  for  the  defective  classes,  p.  1193-1227.  26.  Legislation  relating  to 
education  enacted  by  the  Fifty-ninth  Congress,  1905-1907,  p.  1229-1255.  27.  Summer  colonies 
for  city  people,  p.  1257-1262. 

383.  1907.  (Brown)  Washington,  1908.  V.  1,  vii,  522  p.  (not  available  as  volume). 

384.  Same.  V.  2,  vii,  523-1214  p. 

Contents.  Volume  1.  [The  following  separates  are  available:  The  Commissioner’s 
introduction,  p.  1-25,  including  List  of  references  on  county  and  rural  school  super- 
vision, p.  23-25.  Chapters:  1.  The  work  of  the  Bureau  of  Education,  p.  27-36.  2. 
H.  R.  Evans:  A list  of  the  writings  of  William  Torrey  Harris,  p.  37-72.  3.  Edu- 
cation in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  1906-1907,  p.  73-126.  4.  Education  in  France, 
p.  127-167.  5.  Education  in  Central  Europe,  p.  169-189.  6.  J.  H.  Arnold:  Educa- 

tional activity  in  Foochow,  China,  p.  191-220.  7.  Education  in  Canada,  p.  221-240. 
8.  Education  in  Mexico,  Uruguay,  and  Panama,  p.  241-255.  9.  Anna  T.  Smith:  Educa- 
tional exhibits  at  the  Jamestown  exposition,  p.  257-274.  13.  H.  S.  Curtis:  The 

school  playgrounds  of  America,  p.  341-358.  14.  Education  in  Hawaii,  Porto  Rico,  and 
Cuba,  p.  359-369.  15.  Harlan  Updegraff:  Report  on  the  Alaska  school  service  and  on  the 
Alaska  reindeer  service,  p.  371-411.  17.  Educational  periodicals,  p.  477-482.  18.  Educa- 
tional directory,  p.  483-522.] 

Volume  2.  19.  E.  L.  Thorndike:  Introduction  to  the  statistical  tables,  p.  523-541.  20.  Sta- 
tistics of  state  common  school  systems,  p.  543-574.  21.  Statistics  of  city  school  systems, 
p.575-736.  22.  Universities,  colleges,  and  technological  schools,  p.  737-867.  23.  Agricultural 
and  mechanical  colleges,  p.  869-924.  24.  Professional  schools,  p.  925-997  (pub.  no.  395). 
25.  Normal  schools,  p.  999-1041.  26.  Secondary  schools,  p.  1043-1078.  27.  Manual  and  in- 
dustrial training,  p.  1079-1115.  28.  Commercial  and  business  schools,  p.  *1117-1122.  29. 
Schools  for  the  training  of  professional  nurses,  p.  1123-1125.  30.  Schools  for  the  colored 
race,  p.  1127-1139.  31.  Reform  schools,  p.  1141-1163.  32.  Schools  for  the  defective  classes, 
p.  1165-1199. 

[Chapters  9 and  13  are  worthy  of  special  mention  for  purposes  of  distribution.] 

391.  1908.  (Brown)  Washington,  1908.  V.  1,  vi,  382  p.  (not  available  as  volume). 

392.  Same.  V.  2,  vii,  383-1090  p.  (not  available  as  volume). 

The  following  separates  are  available:  The  Commissioner’s  introduction,  p.  1-31  (Statis- 
tical summary,  p.  27-31).  Chapters:  2.  Recent  educational  legislation,  p.  109-133.  3.  Edu- 
cation in  Porto  Rico,  p.  135-137.  4.  Education  in  the  Philippines,  p.  139-144.  5.  The 
modern  aspect  of  higher  education  in  Spanish- American  countries,  p.  145-173.  6.  Education 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  1907-8,  p.  175-221.  7.  Education  in  France,  p.  223-245.  8.  Edu- 
cation in  Central  Europe,  p.  247-281.  9.  Current  topics — foreign,  p.  283-304.  10.  Foreign  uni- 
versities and  other  foreign  institutions  of  higher  education  in  1907,  p.  305-341.  11.  Educa- 
tional directory,  p.  343-382.  12.  Statistics  of  state  common  school  systems,  1906-7,  p.  383-407. 
13.  Statistics  of  city  school  systems,  p.  409-611.  14.  Universities,  colleges,  and  technological 
schools,  p.  613-735.  15.  Agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges,  p.  737-769.  16.  Professional 
schools,  p.  771-815  (reprinted  1909,  pub.  no.  401).  17.  Normal  schools,  p.  817-857.  18. 
Secondary  schools,  p.  859-891.  19.  Manual  and  industrial  training,  p.893-927.  20.  Com- 
mercial and  business  schools,  p.  929-938.  22.  Schools  for  the  colored  race,  p.  941-955. 
23.  Reform  schools,  p.  957-975.  24.  Schools  for  the  defective  classes,  p.977-1013.  25.  Foreign 
elementary  education,  p.  1015-1021.  27.  G.  D.  Strayer:  Summary  of  the  statistical  tables, 
p.  1057-1075. 

411.  1909.  (Brown)  Washington,  1909.  V.  1,  xi,  598  p.  (not  available  as  volume). 

412.  Same.  V.  2,  v,  599-1373  p.  (not  available  as  volume). 

The  following  separates  are  available:  The  Commissioner’s  introduction,  p.  1-32,  including 
List  of  references  on  moral  education,  p.  30-32  (pub.  no.  414).  Chapters:  3.  C.  S.  Foos:  State 
educational  associations,  p.  251-274  (pub.  no.  421).  7.  L.'S.  Rowe:  Educational  progress  in 
the  Argentine  Republic  and  Chile,  p.  323-349;  Appendixes,  p.  350-362,  including  C.  O.  Bunge: 
Historical  sketch  of  education  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  p.  3,50-357  (pub.  no.  416).  11. 
Evelyn  M.  Goldsmith:  Schools  for  crippled  children  abroad,  p.  503-511  (pub.  no.  417). 


CIRCULARS  OF  INFORMATION. 


21 


12.  John  Fryer:  The  educational  reform  in  China,  p.513-521  (pub.  no.  418).  15.  Educational 
directory,  p.  557-598  (pub.  no.  419).  16.  Statistics  of  state  common-school  systems,  p. 
599-622  (pub.  no.  424).  17.  Statistics  of  city  school  systems,  p.  623-858  (pub.  no.  425).  18. 
Universities,  colleges,  and  technological  schools,  p.  859-991  (pub.  no.  426).  19.  Agricultural 
and  mechanical  colleges,  p.  993-1027  (pub.  no.  427).  20.  Professional  schools,  p.  1029-1078 
(pub.  no.  428).  21.  Normal  schools,  p.  1079-1119  (pub.  no.  429).  22.  Secondary  schools, 
p.  1121-1160  (pub.no.  430).  23.  Manual  and  industrial  training,  p.  1161-1201  (pub.no.  431). 
25.  Schools  for  the  colored  race,  p.  1213-1227  (pub.  no.  432).  26.  Reform  schools,  p.  1229-1249 
(pub.  no.  433).  27.  Schools  for  the  blind  and  deaf,  p.  1251-1277  (pub.  no.  434).  28.  Schools 
for  the  feeble-minded,  p.  1279-1285  (pub.  no.  435). 

442.  1910.  (Brown)  Washington,  1910.  V.  1,  viii,  662  p. 

443.  Same.  V.  2,  xxvi,  663-1373  p. 

Contents:  Volume  1.  The  Commissioner’s  introduction,  p.  1-32,  including  references 
on  William  Torrey  Harris,  State  educational  administration,  and  Articulation  of  high  school 
and  college,  p.25-32.  Chapters:  1.  Current  topics,  p.  33-179.  *2.  Educational  legislation, 
p.181-222.  3.  Industrial  education  in  the  United  States, p.223-253.  4.  Agricultural  educa- 
tion, p.255-278.  *5.  Education  in  Porto  Rico,  p.279-290.  *6.  Education  in  the  Philippines, 
p.  291-300.  7.  The  Prussian  system  of  vocational  schools  from  1884  to  1909,  p.  301-343. 
*8.  Education  in  Canada,  p.  345-376.  *9.  Current  events  pertaining  to  education  in  the 
Latin  American  countries,  p.  377-393.  10.  Education  in  France,  p.  395-428.  *11.  Foreign 
current  events,  p.  429-458.  *12.  Education  in  Central  Europe,  p.  459-493.  *13.  Education 
in  England  and  Wales,  p.  495-519.  14.  A.  P.  Laurie:  Recent  educational  developments 
in  Scotland,  p.  521-550.  15.  Cloudesley  Brereton:  Education  in  Ireland,  p.  551-578.  16. 
Reports  on  international  congresses  by  American  delegates,  p.  579-601.  *17.  List  of  educa- 
tional periodicals  currently  received  by  the  libraries  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  p.  603-609. 
18.  Educational  directory,  p.  611-652. 

Volume  2.  G.  D.  Strayer:  Introductory  survey,  p.  vii-xxvi.  Chapters:  19.  Statistics 
of  state  common-school  systems,  1908-9,  p.  663-685.  20.  Statistics  of  city  school  systems, 
1909-10,  p.  087-842.  21.  Universities,  colleges,  and  technological  schools,  p.  843-977.  22. 
Agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges,  p.  979-1015.  23.  Professional  schools,  p.  1017-1074. 
24.  Normal  schools,  p.  1075-1125  . 25.  Secondary  schools,  p.  1127-1204.  26.  Manual  and 
industrial  training,  p.  1205-1247.  *27.  Commercial  and  business  schools,  p.  1249-1258.  28. 
Schools  for  the  colored  race,  p.  1259-1275.  29.  Reform  schools,  p.  1277-1295.  30.  Schools  for 
the  blind  and  deaf,  p.  1297-1323.  31.  Schools  for  the  feeble-minded,  p.  1325-1331.  *32. 
Foreign  elementary  education,  p.  1333-1341.  33.  Report  on  education  in  Alaska,  p.  1343-1370. 


III.  CIRCULARS  OF  INFORMATION — COLLECTED  ANNUAL 

VOLUMES. 

Circulars,  1873,  one  volume — 

32.  no.  1.  Historical  summary  and  reports  on  the  systems  of  public  instruction 

in £>pain,  Bolivia,  Uruguay,  and  Portugal.  Washington,  1873.  66  p. 

33.  no.  2.  Schools  in  British  India,  [by  Joseph  Warren].  Washington,  1873. 

30  p. 

34.  no.  3.  Account  of  college  commencements  for  the  summer  of  1873,  in  Maine, 

New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut, 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania.  Washington,  1873.  118  p. 

35.  no.  4.  List  of  publications  by  members  of  certain  college-faculties  and 

learned  societies  in  the  United  States,  1867-1872.  Washington,  1873.  72  p. 

36.  no.  5.  Account  of  college-commencements  during  1873  in  the  western  and 

southern  states.  Washington,  1873.  155  p. 

Circulars,  1874,  one  volume — 

37.  no.  1.  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  superintendence  of  the  National 

educational  association.  Washington,  1874.  77  p. 

38.  no.  2.  Drawing  in  public  schools.  The  present  relation  of  art  to  education 

in  the  United  States,  [by  I.  Edwards  Clarke].  Washington,  1874.  56  p. 

39.  no.  3.  History  of  secondary  instruction  in  Germany,  [compiled  by  Herman 

Jacobson].  Washington,  1874.  87  p. 


*Not  separately  available. 


22 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION. 


Circulars,  1875,  one  volume — 

40.  no.  1.  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  superintendence  of  the  National 

educational  association,  at  Washington,  D.  C.,  January  27  and  28,  1875. 
Washington,  1875.  114  p. 

41.  no.  2.  Education  in  Japan.  Washington,  1875.  64  p. 

42.  no.  3.  An  account  of  the  systems  of  public  instruction  in  Belgium,  Russia, 

Turkey,  Servia  and  Egypt.  Washington,  1875.  108  p. 

Contents:  Education  in  Belgium. — The  progress  of  education  in  Russia;  by  Emile  de 
Laveleye.— Education  in  Turkey;  by  M.  de  Salve. — Education  in  Servia.— Public  instruction 
in  Egypt. 

43.  no.  4.  Waste  of  labor  in  the  work  of  education,  by  P.  A.  Chadbourne. 

Washington,  1875.  16  p. 

44.  no.  5.  Suggestions  respecting  the  educational  exhibit  at  the  International 

centennial  exhibition,  1876.  Washington,  1875.  26  p. 

45.  no.  6.  Statements  relating  to  reformatory,  charitable,  and  industrial  schools 

for  the  young.  Washington,  1875.  208  p. 

46.  no.  7.  Constitutional  provisions  in  regard  to  education  in  the  several  states 

of  the  American  union,  [by  Franklin  Hough].  Washington,  1875.  130  p. 

47.  no.  8.  Schedule  for  the  preparation  of  students’  work  for  the  Centennial 

exhibition,  as  reported  by  the  committee  of  the  Department  of  superintend- 
ence of  the  National  educational  association,  appointed  at  Minneapolis  in 
1875.  Washington,  1875.  15  p. 

Circulars  and  bulletins,  1885,  one  volume — 

Circulars. 

87.  no.  1.  City  school  systems  in  the  United  States,  by  John  D.  Philbrick. 

Washington,  1885.  207  p. 

88.  no.  2.  Teachers’  institutes,  [compiled  by  James  H.  Smart].  Washington, 

1885.  206  p. 

89.  no.  3.  A review  of  the  reports  of  the  British  royal  commissioners  on  technical 

instruction,  with  notes,  by  Charles  O.  Thompson.  Washington,  1885.  55  p. 

90.  no.  4.  Education  in  Japan,  [prepared  and  translated  by  the  Japanese  depart- 

ment of  education].  Washington,  1885.  56  p. 

91.  no.  5.  Physical  training  in  American  colleges  and  universities,  by  Edward 

Mussey  Hartwell.  Washington,  1886.  183  p.  illus. 

Of  these  Circulars,  no.  3 only  Is  separately  available. 

Bulletins. 

140.  Statistics  regarding  national  aid  to  education.  Washington,  1885.  3 p. 

154.  Outlines  for  a museum  of  anatomy,  by  R.  W.  Shufeldt.  Washington,  1885. 
65  p.  illus. 

Circulars,  1888,  two  volumes  (vol.  1,  nos.  1-3;  vol.  2,  nos.  4-7) — 

97.  no.  1.  Thomas  Jefferson  and  the  University  of  Virginia,  by  Herbert  B. 

Adams,  with  authorized  sketches  of  Hampden-Sidney,  Randolph-Macon, 
Emory-Henry,  Roanoke,  and  Richmond  colleges,  Washington  and  Lee  uni- 
versity, and  Virginia  military  institute.  Washington,  1888.  308  p.  illus. 

(Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  no.  2.) 

98.  no.  2.  The  history  of  education  in  North  Carolina,  by  Charles  Lee  Smith. 

Washington,  1888.  180  p.  illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational 

history,  no.  3.) 

99.  no.  3.  History  of  higher  education  in  South  Carolina,  with  a sketch  of  the 

free  school  system,  by  Colyer  Meriwether.  Washington,  1889.  247  p. 
illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  no.  4.) 


CIRCULARS  OF  INFORMATION. 


23 


Circulars,  1888,  etc.,  two  volumes — Continued. 

100.  no.  4.  Education  in  Georgia,  by  Charles  Edgeworth  Jones.  Washington, 

1889.  154  p.  illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  no.  5.) 

101.  no.  5.  Industrial  education  in  the  South,  by  A.  D.  Mayo.  Washington, 

1888.  86  p.  illus. 

102.  no.  6.  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  superintendence  of  the  National 

educational  association  at  its  meeting  in  Washington,  February  14-16, 1888. 
Washington,  1888.  165  p. 

103.  no.  7.  History  of  education  in  Florida,  by  George  Gary  Bush.  Washington, 

1889.  54  p.  illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  no.  6.) 

A collection  of  special  interest  to  Southern  educators.  Circulars  nos.  2 and  5,  1888,  are 
not  available  as  separates. 


IV.  PUBLICATIONS  ON  SPECIAL  SUBJECTS. 

[For  additional  material  on  these  and  other  special  topics,  consult  the  index  to  this 
Bulletin.] 

1.  AGRICULTURAL  AND  MECHANICAL  COLLEGES. 

348.  General  laws  relating  to  agricultural  and  mechanical  land  grant  colleges.  Re- 
print of  chapter  1,  p.  1-90,  Report  for  1902,  and  chapter  2,  p.  39-226, 
Report  for  1903. 

Acts  of  Congress  and  state  laws  of  Alabama,  Arizona,  Arkansas,  California,  Colorado, 
Connecticut,  Delaware,  Florida,  Georgia,  Idaho,  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Kentucky, 
Louisiana,  Maine,  Maryland,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Mississippi,  Missouri, 
Montana,  Nebraska,  Nevada,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New  Mexico,  New  York,  North 
Carolina,  North  Dakota,  Ohio,  Oklahoma,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island,  South 
Carolina,  South  Dakota,  Tennessee,  Texas,  Utah,  Vermont,  Virginia,  Washington,  West 
Virginia,  Wisconsin,  Wyoming. 

2.  AGRICULTURAL  EDUCATION. 

380.  On  the  training  of  persons  to  teach  agriculture  in  the  public  schools,  by  Liberty 
Hyde  Bailey.  Washington,  1908.  53  p.  (Bulletin,  1908,  no.  1). 

Contents:  I.  The  nature  of  the  problem. — II.  The  means  of  training  the  teachers.— HI. 
The  general  outlook;  the  significance  of  normal  work  in  the  colleges  of  agriculture. — IV.  List 
of  references. 

447.  Opportunities  for  graduate  study  in  agriculture  in  the  United  States,  by  A.  C. 

Monahan.  Washington,  1911.  16  p.  (Bulletin,  1911,  no.  2.) 

3.  ALASKA  SCHOOL  AND  REINDEER  SERVICE. 

214.  Education  in  Alaska.  Reprint  of  chapter  28,  p.  873-892,  Report  for  1891-92. 
220.  Educational  affairs  in  Alaska.  Reprint  of  chapter  9,  p.  1705-1748,  Report  for 
1892-93,  part  III. 

236.  Education  in  Alaska.  Reprint  of  chapter  34,  p.  1435-1468,  Report  for  1895-96. 
279.  Education  and  reindeer  in  Alaska,  1899-1900.  Reprint  of  chapters  32-33,  p. 
1733-1785  (plates),  Report  for  1899-1900. 

291.  Education  and  reindeer  in  Alaska,  1901.  Reprint  of  chapters  31-32,  p.  1459- 
1498  (plates),  Report  for  1900-1901. 

346.  Education  and  reindeer  in  Alaska,  1903.  Reprint  of  chapters  44  and  45,  p. 
2333-2384,  Report  for  1903. 

448.  Education  of  the  natives  of  Alaska  and  the  reindeer  service.  Reprint  of  chapter 

33,  Report  for  1910,  with  an  appendix.  Washington,  1911.  1343-1370, 
lxii  p.  map. 

458.  Rules  and  regulations  regarding  the  Alaska  school  service  for  the  natives  of 
Alaska,  adopted  May  20,  1911.  Washington,  1911.  32  p. 


24 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION. 


4.  AMERICAN  EDUCATIONAL  HISTORY. 

a.  Series  of  Contributions. 

Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  ed.  by  Herbert  B.  Adams.  Volumes 
1 and  2 (bound  with  collective  title-pages). 

A collection  of  special  interest  to  Southern  educators. 

Contents:  Volume  1.— 1.  H.  B.  Adams:  The  College  of  William  and  Mary. — 2.  II.  B. 
Adams:  Thomas  Jefferson  and  the  University  of  Virginia. — 3.  C.  L.  Smith:  History  of 
education  in  North  Carolina.  (Circulars  of  information,  1887,  no.  1,  and  1888,  nos.  1 and  2.) 

Volume  2. — 4.  Colyer  Meriwether:  History  of  higher  education  in  South  Carolina,  with 
a sketch  of  the  free  school  system. — 5.  C.  E.  Jones:  Education  in  Georgia. — 6.  G.  G.  Bush: 
History  of  education  in  Florida.— 7.  W.  F.  Allen  and  D.  E.  Spencer:  Higher  education  in 
Wisconsin.  (Circulars  of  information,  1888,  nos.  3,  4,  7;  1889,  no.  1.) 

94.  The  College  of  William  and  Mary,  a contribution  to  the  history  of  higher  edu- 
cation, with  suggestions  for  its  national  promotion;  by  Herbert  B.  Adams. 
Washington,  1887.  89  p.  illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational 
history,  no.  1 — Circulars  of  information,  1887,  no.  1.) 

97.  Thomas  Jefferson  and  the  University  of  Virginia,  by  Herbert  B.  Adams,  with 
authorized  sketches  of  Hampden-Sidney,  Randolph-Macon,  Emory- 
Henry,  Roanoke,  and  Richmond  colleges,  Washington  and  Lee  university, 
and  Virginia  military  institute.  Washington,  1888.  308  p.  illus.  (Con- 
tributions to  American  educational  history,  no.  2 — Circulars  of  informa- 
tion, 1888,  no.  1.) 

99.  History  of  higher  education  in  South  Carolina,  with  a sketch  of  the  free  school 
system,  by  Colyer  Meriwether.  Washington,  1889.  247  p.  illus.  (Con- 

tributions to  American  educational  history,  no.  4 — Circulars  of  informa- 
tion, 1888,  no.  3.) 

100.  Education  in  Georgia,  by  Charles  Edgeworth  Jones.  Washington,  1899.  154  p. 

illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  no.  5 — Circulars 
of  information,  1888,  no.  4.) 

103.  History  of  education  in  Florida,  by  George  Gary  Bush.  Washington,  1889. 

54  p.  illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  no.  6 — 
Circulars  of  information,  1888,  no.  7.) 

157.  Higher  education  in  Wisconsin,  by  William  F.  Allen  and  David  E.  Spencer. 

Washington,  1889.  68  p.  illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educa- 

tional history,  no.  7 — Circulars  of  information,  1889,  no.  1.) 

170.  Higher  education  in  Indiana,  by  James  Albert  Woodburn.  Washington,  1891. 

200  p.  illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  no.  10 — 
Circulars  of  information,  1891,  no.  1.) 

174.  History  of  higher  education  in  Michigan,  by  Andrew  C.  McLaughlin.  Wash- 

ington, 1891.  179  p.  illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational  his- 

tory, no.  11 — Circulars  of  information,  1891,  no.  4.) 

175.  The  history  of  higher  education  in  Ohio,  by  George  W.  Knight  and  John  R. 

Commons.  Washington,  1891.  258  p.  illus.  (Contributions  to  American 
educational  history,  no.  12 — Circulars  of  information,  1891,  no.  5.) 

193.  The  history  of  education  in  Connecticut,  by  Bernard  C.  Steiner.  Washington, 

1893.  300  p.  illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  no. 

14 — Circulars  of  information,  1893,  no.  2.) 

194.  The  history  of  education  in  Delaware,  by  Lyman  P.  Powell.  Washington,  1893. 

186  p.  illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  no.  15 — 
Circulars  of  information,  1893,  no.  3.) 

196.  Higher  education  in  Tennessee,  by  Lucius  Salisbury  Merriam.  Washington, 
1893.  287  p.  illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  no. 
16 — Circulars  of  information,  1893,  no.  5.) 


PUBLICATIONS  ON  SPECIAL  SUBJECTS. 


25 


197.  Higher  education  in  Iowa,  by  Leonard  F.  Parker.  Washington,  1893.  190  p. 

illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  no.  17 — Circulars 
of  information,  1893,  no.  6.) 

209.  History  of  higher  education  in  Rhode  Island,  by  William  Howe  Tolman.  Wash- 

ington, 1894.  210  p.  illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational  his- 

tory, no.  18 — Circulars  of  information,  1894,  no.  1.) 

210.  History  of  education  in  Maryland,  by  Bernard  C.  Steiner.  Washington,  1894. 

331  p.  illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  no.  19 — 
Circulars  of  information,  1894,  no.  2.) 

243.  Higher  education  in  Missouri,  by  Marshall  S.  Snow.  Washington,  1898.  164  p. 

(Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  no.  21 — Circulars  of  infor- 
mation, 1898,  no.  2.) 

244.  History  of  education  in  New  Hampshire,  by  George  Gary  Bush.  Washington, 

1898.  170  p.  (Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  no.  22 — 
Circulars  of  information,  1898,  no.  3.) 

252.  History  of  education  in  New  Jersey,  by  David  Murray.  Washington,  1899. 

344  p.  illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  no.  23 — 
Circulars  of  information,  1899,  no.  1.) 

256.  History  of  higher  education  in  Kentucky,  by  Alvin  Fayette  Lewis.  Washing- 
ton, 1899.  350  p.  illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational  history, 
no.  25 — Circulars  of  information,  1899,  no.  3.) 

264.  The  University  of  the  State  of  New  York:  history  of  higher  education  in  the 
State  of  New  York,  by  Sidney  Sherwood.  Washington,  1900.  538  p. 
illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  no.  28 — Circulars 
of  information,  1900,  no.  3.) 

292.  History  of  higher  education  in  Colorado,  by  James  Edward  Le  Rossignol.  Wash- 
ington, 1903.  67  p.  illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational  his- 
tory, no.  34 — Circulars  of  information,  1903,  no.  1.) 

294.  History  of  higher  education  in  Maine,  by  Edward  W.  Hall.  Washington,  1903. 

241  p.  illus.  (Contributions  to  American  educational  history,  no.  36 — 
Circulars  of  information,  1903,  no.  3.) 

b.  Miscellaneous. 

56.  American  education  as  described  by  the  French  commission  to  the  International 
exhibition  of  1876,  [by  Ferdinand  Buisson  and  others].  Washington,  1879. 
37  p.  (Circulars  of  information,  1879,  no.  5.) 

140.  Statistics  regarding  national  aid  to  education.  Washington,  1885.  3 p. 

Contains  tables  in  which  the  whole  amount  proposed  for  distribution  by  the  Blair  bill 
($77,000,000)  is  apportioned  to  every  state  and  organized  territory  according  to  the  total 
illiterate  population,  the  minor  illiterate  population,  the  total  constitutional  population,  and 
the  wealth  of  each,  as  reported  by  the  Tenth  census. 

146.  Historical  sketch  of  Mount  Holyoke  seminary,  by  Mary  O.  Nutting.  Washing- 
ton, 1876.  24  p. 

206.  Education  in  southwestern  Virginia,  by  A.  D.  Mayo.  Reprint  of  chapter  24, 
p.  881-921,  Report  for  1890-91. 

271.  Notes  on  the  history  of  American  text-books  on  arithmetic,  by  J.  M.  Greenwood 
and  Artemas  Martin.  Reprint  of  chapter  17,  p.  789-868,  Report  for  1897-98, 
and  chapter  15,  p.  781-837,  Report  for  1898-99. 

5.  ASSOCIATIONS  AND  CONGRESSES. 

66.  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  superintendence  of  the  National  educational 
association  at  its  meeting  at  New  York,  February  8-10,  1881.  Washington, 
1881.  79  p.  (Circulars  of  information,  1881,  no.  3.) 

Contains:  Andrew  McMillan:  Uniformity  of  school  statistics. — J.  P.  Wickersham:  Weak 
places  in  our  systems  of  public  instruction. — C.  O.  Thompson:  The  conservation  of  peda- 
gogic energy.— F.  B.  Hough:  Our  schools  and  our  forests.— John  Eaton:  Museums  illustra- 
tive of  education.— J.  W.  Patterson:  Education  and  the  state. 


26 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION. 


71.  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  superintendence  of  the  National  educational 
association  at  its  meeting  at  Washington,  March  21-23,  1882.  Washington, 
1882.  Ill  p.  (Circulars  of  information,  1882,  no.  2.) 

Contains:  J.  S.  Billings:  Information  necessary  to  determine  the  merits  of  the  heating 
and  ventilation  of  a school  building.— H.  S.  Jones:  Obstacles  in  the  way  of  better  primary 
education.— G.  Stanley  Hall:  Chairs  of  pedagogy  in  our  higher  institutions  of  learning.— 
A.  D.  Mayo:  Remarks  on  national  aid  to  education. — D.  A.  Hawkins:  National  aid  to  edu- 
cation from  a northern  standpoint. — J.  L.  M.  Curry:  Remarks  on  national  aid  to  educa- 
tion.— Sheldon  Jackson:  Education  in  Alaska. — J.  M.  Gregory:  Some  fundamental  inquiries 
concerning  the  common  school  studies. — W.  T.  Harris:  How  to  improve  the  qualifications 
of  teachers. 

93.  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  superintendence  of  the  National  educational 
association  at  its  meeting  at  Washington,  February  23-26,  1886.  Washing- 
ton, 1886.  169  p.  (Circulars  of  information,  1886,  no.  2.) 

Contains:  M.  A.  Newell:  School  superintendence  a profession.— D.  L.  Kiehle:  Duties  of 
county  superintendents. — C.  S.  Young:  Co-education  of  the  races. — J.  A.  B.  Lovett:  National 
aid  to  education. — S.  M.  Finger:  Educational  and  religious  interests  of  the  colored  people 
in  the  South. — Warren  Higley:  Forestry  in  education. — N.  C.  Dougherty:  Language  work. — 
H.  M.  Skinner:  Growth  and  benefits  of  reading  circles.— J.  W.  Akers:  City  superintendents. 

102.  Proceedings  of  the  Department  of  superintendence  of  the  National  educational 
association  at  its  meeting  in  Washington,  February  14-16,  1888.  Wash- 
ington, 1888.  165  p.  (Circulars  of  information,  1888,  no.  6.) 

Contains:  C.  H.  Ham:  How  and  to  what  extent  can  manual  training  be  ingrafted  on  our 
system  of  public  schools? — J.  B.  Thayer:  Purpose  of  county  institutes,  and  how  best 
secured. — Martha  Fleming:  Elocution:  its  place  in  education. — A.  S.  Draper:  How  shall 
the  qualifications  of  teachers  be  determined? — J.  P.  Wickersham:  Are  existing  state  normal 
schools  adequate  to  accomplish  their  work? — W.T.  Harris:  Moral  education  in  the  common 
schools. — C.  W.  Eliot:  Can  school  programmes  be  shortened  and  enriched? — N.  H.  R.  Daw- 
son: Alaska. — J.  E.  Bradley:  The  superintendent  and  the  teacher. — A.  E.  Winship:  Relation 
of  the  superintendent  and  teacher  to  the  school. — J.  A.  B.  Lovett,  A.  P.  Marble,  and  Alex- 
ander Hogg:  National  aid  to  education.  (Discussion  follows  individual  topics.) 

129.  National  pedagogic  congress  of  Spain.  Washington,  1882.  4 p. 

An  account  of  the  congress  held  in  Madrid  in  May,  1882,  under  the  presidency  of  the  King, 
with  his  address. 

421.  State  educational  associations,  by  C.  S.  Foos.  Reprint  of  chapter  3,  p.  251-274, 
Report  for  1909. 

Reports  on  international  congresses  by  American  delegates.  Advance  sheets  of 
chapter  16,  p.  579-601,  of  Report  for  1910. 

1.  Report  of  the  third  International  congress  on  home  education,  Brussels,  August  21-25, 
1910,  by  W.  S.  Monroe.  2.  Report  of  the  third  International  congress  on  school  hygiene, 
Paris,  August  2-7, 1910,  by  T.  F.  Harrington.  3.  Report  of  the  third  International  congress 
on  the  physical  education  of  the  young,  Brussels,  August  10-13,  1910. 

6.  BARNARD’S  AMERICAN  JOURNAL  OF  EDUCATION. 

187.  Analytical  index  to  Barnard’s  American  journal  of  education.  31  v.,  1855-1881. 
Washington,  1892.  128  p. 

Every  owner  and  user  of  a set  of  “that  monumental  cyclopedia  of  pedagogical  literature,” 
Barnard’s  American  journal,  will  find  this  index  very  useful. 

7.  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  EDUCATION. 

386.  Bibliography  of  education  for  1907,  compiled  by  James  Ingersoll  Wyer,  jr.,  and 
Martha  L.  Phelps.  Washington,  1908.  65  p.  (Bulletin,  1908,  no.  3.) 

408.  A teacher’s  professional  library : classified  list  of  one  himdred  titles.  Washington, 
1909.  14  p.  (Bulletin,  1909,  no.  8.) 

410.  Bibliography  of  education  for  1908-9.  Washington,  1909.  134  p.  (Bulletin, 

1909,  no.  9.) 


PUBLICATIONS  ON  SPECIAL  SUBJECTS. 


27 


446.  Bibliography  of  science  teaching,  compiled  by  a committee  of  the  American 
federation  of  teachers  of  the  mathematical  and  the  natural  sciences.  Wash- 
ington, 1911.  27  p.  (Bulletin,  1911,  no.  1.) 

456.  Bibliography  of  education  for  1909-10.  Washington,  1911.  166  p.  (Bulletin, 

1911,  no.  10.) 

457.  Bibliography  of  child  study  for  the  years  1908-1909,  by  Louis  N.  Wilson.  Wash- 

ington, 1911.  84  p.  (Bulletin,  1911,  no.  11.) 

8.  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION:  PUBLICATIONS  AND  WORK. 

308.  An  address  on  the  needs  of  the  Bureau  of  Education,  by  Hon.  John  Eaton, 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education.  Delivered  before  the  Depart- 
ment of  superintendence  of  the  National  education  association,  at  the 
meeting  of  1879.  Washington,  1879.  7 p.  (Reprinted  from  Circular  of 

information,  no.  2,  1879.) 

372.  Publications  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  1867-1906.  Reprint 
from  Report  for  1906.  Washington,  1907.  xxxvii-xlvii  p. 

385.  List  of  publications  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  1867-1907.  Wash- 
ington, 1908.  69  p.  (Bulletin,  1908,  no.  2.) 

407.  Index  to  the  reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education,  1867-1907.  Washington, 
1909.  103  p.  (Bulletin,  1909,  no.  7.) 

439.  List  of  publications  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  1867-1910.  Wash- 
ington, 1910.  55  p.  (Bulletin,  1910,  no.  3.) 

9.  DEFECTIVES:  EDUCATION. 

376.  The  auxiliary  schools  of  Germany;  six  lectures,  by  B.  Maennel.  Tr.  by  Fletcher 
Bascom  Dresslar.  Washington,  1907.  137  p.  (Bulletin,  1907,  no.  3.) 

Contents:  I.  Historical  sketch. — II.  Reasons  for  the  establishment  of  auxiliary  schools.— 
III.  Admission  procedure. — IV.  The  parents  and  the  whole  environment  of  auxiliary  school 
pupils  before  and  during  the  school  period. — V.  Health  conditions  of  auxiliary  school  pupils.— 
VI.  The  pupils  of  the  auxiliary  school  and  their  characterization. — VII.  The  building  for 
the  auxiliary  school. — VUj.  Classification  of  pupils  in  an  auxiliary  sqhool,  and  the  number 
in  each  class. — IX.  The  daily  programme. — X.  The  curriculum. — XI.  Methods  of  instruc- 
tion.— XII.  Discipline  in  the  auxiliary  school. — XIII.  Preparation  of  auxiliary  school  pupils 
for  confirmation. — XIV.  The  community  and  the  State  in  their  relations,  to  the  auxiliary 
school. — XV.  The  teachers  and  the  principal  of  the  auxiliary  school. — XVL  The  pedagogical 
significance  of  the  auxiliary  school. — XVII.  Appendix. — XVIII.  Bibliography. 

417.  Schools  for  crippled  children  abroad,  by  Evelyn  M.  Goldsmith.  Reprint  of 
chapter  11,  p.  503-511,  Report  for  1909. 

10.  EDUCATION  AND  CRIME. 

171.  The  fourth  International  prison  congress,  St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  by  C.  D.  Ran- 
dall. Washington,  1891.  253  p.  illus.  (Circulars  of  information,  1891, 
no.  2.) 

Contains  as  introduction  a summary  of  the  three  previous  congresses.  See  also  The  fifth 
International  prison  congress,  Report  for  1895-96,  chapter  13,  p.  669-700. 

274.  Education  and  crime.  Reprint  of  chapter  28,  p.  1249-1343,  Report  for  1899. 

Contents:  Horace  Mann:  The  power  of  common  schools  to  redeem  the  state  from  social 
vices  and  crimes. — E.  D.  Mansfield:  The  relation  between  crime  and  education. — Richard 
Grant  White:  The  public-school  failure.— B.  F.  Tweed:  Reply  to  Richard  Grant  White.— 
W.  T.  Harris:  Compuslory  education  in  relation  to  crime  and  social  morals.— Benjamin  Reece: 
Public  schools  as  affecting  vice  and  crime.— D.  C.  Torrey:  Is  crime  increasing  in  Massachu- 
setts?— A.  W.  Gould:  Education  and  crime. — W.  T.  Harris:  School  statistics  and  morals.— 
Rebecca  Harding  Davis:  The  curse  in  education. — W.  T.  Harris:  Erroneous  interpretation 
of  prison  statistics;  Influence  of  the  schools  in  France. — Statistics. 


28 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION. 


11.  EDUCATIONAL  EXHIBITIONS. 

47.  Schedule  for  the  preparation  of  students’  work  for  the  Centennial  exhibition, 
as  reported  by  the  committee  of  the  Department  of  superintendence  of  the 
National  educational  association,  appointed  at  Minneapolis  in  1875.  Wash- 
ington, 1875.  15  p.  (Circulars  of  information,  1875,  no.  8.) 

84.  Suggestions  respecting  the  educational  exhibit  at  the  World’s  industrial  and 
cotton  centennial  exposition.  Washington,  1884.  28  p.  (Circulars  of 

information,  1884,  no.  5.) 

223.  Education  at  the  World’s  Columbian  exposition,  including  reports  and  com- 
ments by  American  and  foreign  educators  and  delegates.  Reprint  of  chap- 
ters 1-8,  Report  for  1892-93,  part  II.  Washington,  1896.  423-690  p. 

Contents:  1.  Programme  of  the  International  congress  of  education  and  addresses  of 
welcome.  2.  American  views  and  comments  on  the  educational  exhibits.  3.  German 
criticism  on  American  education  and  the  educational  exhibits.  4.  Views  of  the  French 
commissioners.  5.  Medical  education  in  the  United  States,  as  presented  by  French  special- 
ists. 6.  Notes  and  observations  made  by  the  Italian,  Swedish,  Danish,  and  Russian  delegates. 
7.  Report  on  American  technological  schools.  8.  Higher  education  of  women  in  Russia. 

225.  Notes  on  education  at  the  Columbian  exposition,  by  Hon.  John  Eaton.  Reprint 
of  chapter  10,  Report  for  1892-93,  part  II.  Washington,  1896.  1015- 

1224  p. 

12.  EDUCATIONAL  VALUES. 

250.  Educational  values,  by  W.  T.  Harris.  Reprint  of  chapter  15,  Report  for  1893-94, 
part  1.  Washington,  1904.  617-638  p. 

A discussion  of  the  educative  value  of  the  several  studies  in  elementary  and  secondary 
schools,  and  in  colleges  and  universities. 

13.  FOREIGN  SCHOOL  SYSTEMS. 

33.  Schools  in  British  India,  [by  Joseph  Warren].  Washington,  1873.  30  p. 
(Circulars  of  information,  1873,  no.  2.) 

41.  Education  in  Japan.  Washington,  1875.  64  p.  (Circulars  of  information,  1875, 

no.  2.) 

51.  Elementary  education  in  London,  [with  address  of  Sir  Charles  Reed].  Washing- 
ton, 1878.  24  p.  (Circulars  of  information,  1878,  no.  2.) 

360.  The  Education  bill  of  1906  for  England  and  Wales  as  it  passed  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, by  Anna  Tolman  Smith.  2d  ed.  Washington,  1907.  48  p.  (Bul- 
letin, 1906,  no.  1.) 

388.  Education  in  Formosa,  by  Julean  H.  Arnold.  Washington,  1908.  70  p.  (Bulle- 
tin, 1908,  no.  5.) 

Contents:  I.  Education  under  the  Dutch  (1624-1661).— II.  Education  under  the  Chinese 
(1661-1683  and  1683-1895.)— III.  Education  under  the  Japanese  (from  1895). — IV.  Appendix: 
Missionary  schools. 

416.  Educational  progress  in  the  Argentine  Republic  and  Chile,  by  L.  S.  Rowe. 
Reprint  of  chapter  7,  p.  323-362,  Report  for  1909. 

418.  Educational  reform  in  China,  by  John  Fryer.  Reprint  of  chapter  12,  p.  513-521, 
Report  for  1909. 

423.  The  movement  for  reform  in  the  teaching  of  religion  in  the  public  schools  of 
Saxony,  by  Arley  Barthlow  Show.  Washington,  1910.  45  p.  (Bulletin, 
1910,  no.  1.) 

Contents:  I.  Rise  and  progress  of  the  controversy.— II.  The  questions  at  issue. 


PUBLICATIONS  ON  SPECIAL  SUBJECTS. 


29 


14.  HIGHER  EDUCATION. 

[See  also  Research,  Universities  and  colleges.] 

03.  The  study  of  history  in  American  colleges  and  universities,  by  Herbert  B.  Adams. 
Washington,  1887.  299  p.  illus.  (Circulars  of  information,  1887,  no.  2.) 

Treats  the  subject  from  a historical  point  of  view,  and  forms  a substantial  contribution 
to  the  history  of  higher  education  in  the  United  States. 

179.  Biological  teaching  in  the  colleges  of  the  United  States,  by  John  P.  Campbell. 
Washington,  1891.  183  p.  (Circulars  of  information,  1891,  no.  9.) 

Designed  to  be  of  value  to  all  teachers  of  science,  whether  in  colleges  or  secondary  schools. 

297.  Length  of  the  college  course.  Reprint  of  chapter  23,  p.  927-948,  Report  for 
1902. 

Action  taken  by  certain  institutions  toward  reducing  the  time  requirements  for  the 
bachelor’s  degree,  especially  with  reference  to  professional  courses,  together  with  a reprint 
of  some  of  the  discussions  and  a comparative  statement  showing  the  advance  in  admission 
requirements  at  Harvard  university  from  1642  to  the  present  time. 

399.  Admission  of  Chinese  students  to  American  colleges,  by  John  Fryer.  Washing- 
ton, 1909.  221  p.  (Bulletin,  1909,  no.  2.) 

Contents:  I.  The  American  college  system.— II.  College  entrance  requirements. — 
HI.  Expenses.— IV.  The  organization  of  Chinese  students  in  the  United  States.— V.  Sug- 
gestions and  advice. — VI.  Tables  of  universities  and  colleges,  showing  provision  for  Chinese 
students.— VII.  References. 

15.  INDIAN  SCHOOLS. 

114.  The  Indian  school  at  Carlisle  Barracks,  by  Charles  Warren.  Washington, 
1880.  5 p. 

An  interesting  report  of  a visit  to  this  school  during  the  first  year  of  its  existence. 

16.  INDUSTRIAL  AND  TECHNICAL  EDUCATION. 

89.  A review  of  the  reports  of  the  British  royal  commissioners  on  technical  instruc- 
tion, with  notes,  by  Charles  O.  Thompson.  Washington,  1885.  55  p. 
(Circulars  of  information,  1885,  no.  3.) 

A valuable  contribution  to  the  literature  of  technical  instruction  in  Europe. 

216.  Art  and  industry.  Education  in  the  industrial  and  fine  arts  in  the  United 
States,  by  Isaac  Edwards  Clarke.  Part  II.  Industrial  and  manual  training 
in  public  schools.  Washington,  1892.  cxlviii,  1338  p. 

A historical  and  descriptive  treatment  of  the  subject,  unanimously  approved  by  the 
National  education  association  as  follows:  “This  encyclopedic  volume  relating  to  industrial 
and  manual  training  in  public  schools,  is  a storehouse  of  valuable  information  concerning 
those  topics,  and  is  a most  timely  contribut  ion  to  the  movement  of  the  new  education.” 

253.  Art  and  industry.  Education  in  the  industrial  and  fine  arts  in  the  United 

States,  by  Isaac  Edwards  Clarke.  Part  III.  Industrial  and  technical 
training  in  voluntary  associations  and  endowed  institutions.  Washington, 
1897.  liii,  1145  p. 

This  volume  is  largely  given  to  the  history  of  the  mechanics  institutes  and  similar  asso- 
ciations in  the  cities  of  the  United  States,  and  also  includes  accounts  of  modem  institutes 
founded  by  individual  citizens. 

254.  Art  and  industry.  Education  in  the  industrial  and  fine  arts  in  the  United 

States,  by  Isaac  Edwards  Clarke.  Part  IV.  Industrial  and  technical 
training  in  schools  of  technology  and  in  U.  S.  land  grant  colleges.  Wash- 
ington, 1898.  lvi,  1020  p. 

Contains  accounts  of  the  typical  manual  training  schools,  of  five  leading  technical  mechan- 
ical schools,  of  some  trade  schools,  of  an  educational  experiment  undertaken  by  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio  railroad  in  1885-87,  and  of  the  schools  of  science  and  engineering  of  the  land  grant 
colleges  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts. 


30 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION. 


270.  Educational  training  for  railway  service,  by  J.  Shirley  Eaton.  Reprint  of 
chapter  17,  p.  871-955,  Report  for  1899. 

353.  Manual,  industrial,  and  technical  education  in  the  United  States,  by  Calvin  M. 

Woodward.  Reprint  of  chapter  19,  p.  1019-1046,  Report  for  1903.  illus. 

361.  German  views  of  American  education,  with  particular  reference  to  industrial 
development,  collated  from  the  reports  of  the  Royal  Prussian  industrial 
commission  of  1904,  by  William  N.  Hailmann.  2d  ed.  Washington,  1907. 
55  p.  (Bulletin,  1906,  no.  2.) 

Contents:  General  considerations. — The  kindergarten.— Elementary  schools. — Middle 
schools— Normal  instruction.— Drawing  and  art  instruction.— Industrial  art  schools.— 
Technical  colleges  and  other  advanced  technical  institutions. — Apprenticeship  and  trade 
schools. — Contents  of  the  “ Reiseberichte.” 

389.  The  apprenticeship  system  in  its  relation  to  industrial  education,  by  Carroll  D. 
Wright.  Washington,  1908.  116  p.  (Bulletin,  1908,  no.  6.) 

Contents:  I.  A combination  of  apprenticeship  and  academic  education  needed.— II. 
Description  of  the  systems  which  have  developed. — III.  Origin  of  the  modern  apprenticeship 
system.— IV.  Extent  of  the  apprenticeship  system.— V.  Statutory  regulations  relating  to 
apprentices— VI.  The  attitude  of  trade  unions  to  the  apprenticeship  system  and  to  indus- 
trial education. — VII.  Types  of  systems. — VIII.  General  considerations  and  conclusions. — 
IX.  List  of  references  relating  to  the  education  of  apprentices. — X.  Appendix:  Digest  of 
apprentice  laws  in  the  United  States. 

406.  Instruction  in  the  fine  and  manual  arts  in  the  United  States:  a statistical  mono- 
graph, by  Henry  Turner  Bailey.  Washington,  1909.  184  p.  (Bulletin, 
1909,  no.  6.) 

Contents:  1 Introduction.— II.  The  federal  government.— III.  The  States.— IV.  Munic- 
ipalities.— V.  Private  high  schools  and  academies. — VI.  Universities,  colleges,  and  techno- 
logical schools. — VII.  Colleges  for  women. — VIII.  Private  art  schools,  etc. — IX.  Summer 
schools. — X.  Art  museums  and  societies. — XI.  Publications. — XII.  Summary. — XIII.  Sta- 
tistical tables. — XIV.  Bibliography. 

420.  Education  for  efficiency  in  railroad  service,  by  J.  Shirley  Eaton.  Washington, 
1909.  159  p.  (Bulletin,  1909,  no.  10.) 

Contents:  I.  Preparation  and  efficiency.— II.  Efficiency  and  compensation. — III.  Edu- 
cation en  masse.— IV.  Bearing  the  expense  of  specialized  railroad  education.— V.  Appren- 
ticeship.— VI.  Special  apprentices. — VII.  The  school— its  functions  and  methods. — VIII. 
Vocational  railroad  schools.— IX.  High  schools.— X.  The  correspondence  school. — XI. 
Higher  education  for  railroad  careers. — XII.  Schools  of  railroad  engineering  and  adminis- 
tration.— XIII.  Schools  of  railroad  administration. — XIV.  Summary.— XV.  Appendixes: 
A.  Statistics  of  railway  apprenticeship.  B.  Educational  and  welfare  work  on  Europoan 
railroads. 

17.  LIBRARIES. 

143.  Statistics  of  public  libraries  in  the  United  States,  1884-85.  Reprint  of  p. 
ccxxix-ccxxx,  691-782,  Report  for  1884-85. 

148.  Public  libraries  in  the  United  States  of  America,  their  history,  condition  and 
management.  Special  report.  Part  I.  ed.  by  S.  R.  Warren  and  S.  M. 
Clark.  Part  II.  Rules  for  a dictionary  catalogue,  by  C.  A.  Cutter. 
Washington,  1876.  2 v. 

“ A valuable  encyclopedia  of  library  science  and  practice  of  some  1,200  pages,  which  is  not 
yet  superseded  in  the  English  speaking  world  by  any  comprehensive  treatise,  and  retains 
all  of  its  interest  and  much  of  its  authority.” 

200.  Catalogue  of  “A.  L.  A.”  library;  5,000  volumes  for  a popular  library,  selected 
by  the  American  library  association  and  shown  at  the  World’s  Columbian 
exposition.  Washington,  1893.  592  p. 

232.  Public,  society,  and  school  libraries  in  the  United  States,  with  library  statistics 
and  legislation  of  the  various  states.  Chapters  from  Report  for  1895-96: 
chapter  8,  Statistics  for  1896,  by  Alexander  Summers;  chapter  9,  Library 
legislation  in  the  United  States,  by  Henderson  Presnell.  Washington, 
1897.  339-599  p. 


PUBLICATIONS  ON  SPECIAL  SUBJECTS. 


31 


278.  Public,  society,  and  school  libraries.  Reprint  of  chapter  17,  Report  for  1899- 
1900.  Washington,  1901.  923-1165  p. 

Contents  : Summaries  of  statistics  of  libraries  in  1900;  libraries  of  300  volumes  and  over 
in  1875,  1885,  and  1896;  libraries  of  1,000  volumes  and  over  in  1891  and  1896. — Statistics  of 
public,  society,  and  school  libraries  of  1,000  volumes  and  over  in  1900. 

295.  Public,  society,  and  school  libraries  in  the  United  States,  with  library  statistics 
and  legislation  of  the  various  states.  Reprint  of  chapter  9,  Report  for 
1895-96,  and  of  chapter  17,  Report  for  1899-1900.  Washington,  1903. 
523-599,  923-1165  p. 

405.  Statistics  of  public,  society,  and  school  libraries  having  5,000  volumes  and  over 
in  1908.  Washington,  1909.  215  p.  (Bulletin,  1909,  no.  5.) 

18.  MATHEMATICAL  INSTRUCTION. 

453.  Undergraduate  work  in  mathematics  in  colleges  of  liberal  arts  and  universities. 

International  commission  on  the  teaching  of  mathematics.  The  Ameri- 
can report.  Committee  no.  X.  Washington,  1911.  30  p.  (Bulletin, 

1911,  no.  7.) 

459.  Training  of  teachers  of  elementary  and  secondary  mathematics.  International 
commission  on  the  teaching  of  mathematics.  The  American  report.  Com- 
mittee no.  V.  Washington,  1911.  23  p.  (Bulletin,  1911,  no.  12.) 

19.  MUSEUMS. 

154.  Outlines  for  a museum  of  anatomy,  by  R.  W.  Shufeldt.  Washington,  1885.  65  p. 

309.  An  address  on  museums  illustrative  of  education,  by  Hon.  John  Eaton,  United 
States  Commissioner  of  Education.  Delivered  before  the  Department  of 
superintendence  of  the  National  education  association  at  the  meeting  of 
1881.  Washington,  Government  printing  office,  1881.  12  p.  8°.  (Re- 

printed from  Circular  of  information,  no.  3,  1881.) 

20.  MUSIC  EDUCATION. 

387.  Music  education  in  the  United  States:  schools  and  departments  of  music,  by 
Arthur  L.  Manchester.  Washington,  1908.  85  p.  (Bulletin,  1908,  no.  4.) 

Contents:  I.  Historical  development. — II.  Results  of  the  inquiry.— III.  Statistical 
tables.— IV.  Past  and  present  tendencies.— V.  Conclusion.— VI.  References  to  works  on 
musical  education. 

21.  PROFESSIONAL  EDUCATION. 

145.  Contributions  to  the  annals  of  medical  progress  and  medical  education  in  the 
United  States  before  and  during  the  War  of  independence,  by  Joseph  M. 
Toner.  Washington,  1874.  118  p. 

149.  Contributions  to  the  history  of  medical  education  and  medical  institutions  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  1776-1876,  by  N.  S.  Davis.  Washington,  1877. 

60  p. 

Supplements  the  work  by  J.  M.  Toner  (pub.  no.  145). 

190.  Report  on  legal  education,  prepared  by  a committee  of  the  American  bar  asso- 
ciation and  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  education.  Washington,  1893.  207  p. 
Advance  sheets  of  chapters  13-16,  p.  376-578,  Report  of  Commissioner  for 
1890-91. 


This  document  describes  legal  education  in  North  and  South  America,  Europe,  Australia, 
China  and  Japan.  A bibliography  is  appended. 


32 


PUBLICATIONS  OF  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


22.  PROMOTION  OF  PUPILS. 

177.  Promotions  and  examinations  in  graded  schools,  by  Emerson  E.  White.  Wash- 
ington, 1891.  64  p.  (Circulars  of  information,  1891,  no.  7.) 

355.  Classification  and  promotion  of  pupils.  Reprint  of  chapter  7,  p.  303-356,  Report 
for  1898-99. 

Contents:  The  St.  Louis  system,  as  set  forth  in  the  St.  Louis  school  reports,  1869-1874. — 
The  Elizabeth  (N.  J.)  plan  of  grading,  by  Supt.  William  J.  Shearer. — The  Seattle  plan  of 
promotion  and  classification,  by  Supt.  Frank  J.  Barnard.— Plan  of  the  North-side  schools  of 
Denver,  by  Supt.  J.  H.  Van  Sickle. — Promotion  in  the  grammar  schools  of  Cambridge  (Mass.) , 
by  Supt.  Francis  Cogswell. — Report  on  the  grading  and  promotion  of  pupils,  by  John  T. 
Prince,  agent  of  the  Massachusetts  state  Board  of  education. 

451.  Age  and  grade  census  of  schools  and  colleges,  a study  of  retardation  and  elimina- 
tion, by  George  Drayton  Strayer.  Washington,  Government  printing 
office,  1911.  144  p.  (Bulletin,  1911,  no.  5.) 

23.  RESEARCH. 

398.  Facilities  for  study  and  research  in  the  offices  of  the  U.  S.  Government  at  Wash- 
ington, by  Arthur  Twining  Hadley.  Washington,  1909.  73  p.  (Bulletin, 

1909,  no.  1.) 

Contents:  I.  Brief  history. — II.  Administration  versus  education. — III.  Existing  facilities 
for  study  and  research. — IV.  Obstacles  to  student  research. — V.  Conclusions. — VI.  Appendix. 

440.  The  biological  stations  of  Europe,  by  Charles  Atwood  Kofoid.  Washington,  1910 . 
360  p.  illus.,  plates.  (Bulletin,  1910,  no.  4) 

Contents:  I.  The  functions  of  biological  stations. — II.  Italy. — III.  France  and 
Monaco.— IV.  Great  Britain. — V.  Germany. — VI.  Austria-Hungary. — VII.  Scandinavia. — 
VIII.  Other  European  countries  (Holland,  Belgium,  Spain,  Finland,  Russia,  Bulgaria). — 
Bibliography. 

24.  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION  (STATE  AND  CITY). 

363.  State  school  systems:  legislation  and  judicial  decisions  relating  to  public  educa- 

tion, October  1, 1904,  to  October  1,  1906;  by  Edward  C.  Elliott.  2d  ed.  rev. 
Washington,  1907.  156  p.  (Bulletin,  1906,  no.  3.) 

Contents:  Legislation  relating  to  public  education:  A.  Administrative  control  and  super- 
vision of  elementary  and  secondary  education;  B.  State  finance  and  support;  C.  Local  finance 
and  support;  D.  Buildings  and  sites;  E.  Teachers  in  elementary  and  secondary  schools;  F. 
Teachers:  employment,  etc.;  G.  Teachers:  professional  training  and  education;  II.  School 
population  and  attendance;  I.  School  discipline;  J.  Health  regulations;  K.  Text-books  and 
supplies;  L.  Subject-matter  of  instruction;  M.  Special  types  of  school;  N.  Secondary  education: 
high  schools  and  academies;  O.  Higher  educational  institutions;  P.  Professional  and  higher 
technical  education;  Q.  Private  and  endowed  higher  institutions;  R.  Libraries;  S.  Education 
of  defectives  and  delinquents. 

Recent  decisions  of  state  supreme  courts. 

364.  Digest  of  school  laws.  Reprint  of  chapter  4,  Report  for  1904.  Washington,  1907. 

249-518  p. 

This  digest  summarizes  the  school  laws  of  the  various  states  and  territories,  except  Florida, 
Hawaii,  Idaho,  New  Mexico,  Utah,  and  Wyoming,  under  the  heads  of  Organization  of  the 
system,  Teachers,  Schools,  and  Finances. 

396.  State  school  systems:  II.  Legislation  and  judicial  decisions  relating  to  public 
education,  October  1,  1906,  to  October  1,  1908;  by  Edward  C.  Elliott. 
Washington,  1909.  364  p.  (Bulletin,  1908,  no.  7.) 

Contents:  I.  General  explanations.— II.  Table  of  legislative  sessions.— III.  Plan  of  classi- 
fication.— IV.  Bibliography.— V.  Legislation  relating  to  public  education.— VI.  Recent  de- 
cisions of  federal  and  state  supreme  courts. 


PUBLICATIONS  ON  SPECIAL  SUBJECTS. 


33 


438.  State  school  systems:  III.  Legislation  and  judicial  decisions  relating  to  public 
education,  October  1,  1908,  to  October  1,  1909;  by  Edward  C.  Elliott. 
Washington,  1910.  305  p.  (Bulletin,  1910,  no.  2.) 

Contents:  I.  General  explanations.— II.  Table  of  legislative  sessions.— III.  Plan  of  classifi- 
cation.— IV.  Bibliography. — V.  Legislation  relating  to  public  education. — VI.  Recent  deci- 
sions of  state  supreme  courts. 

450.  Report  of  the  Commission  appointed  to  study  the  system  of  education  in  the  pub- 
lic schools  of  Baltimore.  Washington,  1911.  112  p.  (Bulletin,  1911,  no.  4.) 

The  Commission  consisted  of  Elmer  Ellsworth  Brown,  Ellwood  P.  Cubberley,  and  Calvin 
N.  Kendall,  assisted  by  Milo  B.  Hillegas  and  Harlan  Updegraff. 

465.  Teachers’  certificates  issued  under  general  state  laws  and  regulations,  by  Harlan 
Updegraff.  Washington,  1911.  269  p.  (Bulletin,  1911,  no.  18.) 

The  fundamental  purpose  of  this  study  is  to  answer  the  question,  What  is  the  exact 
status  of  the  legal  provisions  relating  to  certification  of  teachers  in  the  various  states  at  the 
present  time? 

25.  SCHOOL  ARCHITECTURE  AND  SANITATION. 

104.  Report  on  school  architecture  and  plans  for  graded  schools  by  the  Commis- 
sioner of  Education.  Washington,  1870.  513-648  p.  (Official  circular 
no.  11.  Reprint  from  Report  for  1867-68.) 

Profusely  illustrated  with  views  and  plans  of  buildings,  and  useful  for  the  history  of  Ameri- 
can school  architecture. 

173.  Sanitary  conditions  for  schoolhouses,  by  Albert  P.  Marble.  Washington,  1891. 
123  p.  illus.  (Circulars  of  information,  1891,  no.  3.) 

A publication  which  has  been  widely  useful  in  furthering  improvement  in  schoolhouse 
construction,  and  is  in  demand  to  the  present  day. 

444.  American  schoolhouses,  by  Fletcher  B.  Dresslar.  Washington,  1911.  133  p. 
plates,  plans.  (Bulletin,  1910,  no.  5.) 

Contents:  Location  of  the  schoolhouse. — Foundations. — Basements. — The  classroom. — 
Special  rooms;  laboratories,  etc. — Floors  of  school  buildings. — Blackboards. — Doors. — 
Cloakrooms. — Halls. — Stairways. — Latrines  and  urinals. — Baths. — Lighting  and  heating  of 
schoolrooms. — Ventilation. — School  architecture  and  school  improvement. — References  on 
school  architecture  and  sanitation. 

26.  SCHOOL  HYGIENE. 

68.  Causes  of  deafness  among  school  children  and  its  influences  on  education,  with 
remarks  on  the  instruction  of  pupils  with  impaired  hearing  and  on  aural 
hygiene  in  the  schools,  by  Samuel  Sexton.  Washington,  1881.  47  p. 
illus.  (Circulars  of  information,  1881,  no.  5.) 

116.  Vacation  colonies  for  sickly  school  children.  Washington,  1880.  4 p. 

An  account  of  colonies  in  Switzerland  and  Germany. 

403.  The  daily  meals  of  school  children,  by  Caroline  L.  Hunt.  Washington,  1909. 
G2  p.  (Bulletin,  1909,  no.  3.) 

Contents:  I.  Introduction.— II.  The  serving  of  food  in  schools.— III.  Food  for  children.— 
IV.  The  underfed  child.— V.  Bibliography. 

27.  SECONDARY  EDUCATION. 

400.  Statistics  of  secondary  schools.  Reprint  of  chapter  19,  p.  695-1041,  Report  for 
1906. 

Contains:  Statistics  of  students  pursuing  certain  studies  in  1905-06  (latest  published). 
Lists  of  public  high  schools  and  private  secondary  schools,  with  statistics. 


34  PUBLICATIONS  OF  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION. 

404.  The  teaching  staff  of  secondary  schools  in  the  United  States,  amount  of  education, 
length  of  experience,  salaries;  by  Edward  L.  Thorndike.  60  p.  (Bulletin, 
1909,  no.  4) 

Contents:  I.  The  nature  of  the  data  and  sources  of  error. —II.  The  teaching  staff  of  public 
secondary  schools. — III.  The  teaching  staff  of  private  secondary  schools.— IV.  Men  teachers 
and  women  teachers  compared. — V.  Tabular  summary. — VI.  Public  and  private  secondary 
school  teachers  compared. — VII.  The  influence  of  length  of  experience  upon  efficiency  in 
teaching.— VIII.  The  relation  of  length  of  experience  to  amount  of  salary  in  certain  com- 
munity groups.—  IX.  Therelation  of  lengthof  experience  and  of  length  of  education  to  amount 
of  salary  in  Ohio,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Georgia,  Texas,  and  California.— X.  List  of  references 
on  teachers’  salaries. 

409.  Secondary  education,  by  Elmer  Ellsworth  Brown.  Reprint  of  chapter  12, 
Report  for  1903.  Washington,  1909.  553-583  p. 

Contents:  The  colonial  period.— From  the  Revolution  to  the  Civil  war. — The  high  school 
movement.— Current  movements  and  problems. 

28.  SOUTHERN  STATES:  EDUCATION. 

290.  The  public  school  problem  in  the  South,  by  C.  W.  Dabney.  Reprint  of  chapter 
20,  p.  1009-1026,  Report  for  1900-1901. 

29.  SPELLING  REFORM. 

202.  The  spelling  reform,  by  Francis  A.  March.  A revision  and  enlargement  of  the 
author’s  pamphlet  published  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  education  in  1881. 
Washington,  1893.  86  p.  (Circulars  of  information,  1893,  no.  8) 

30.  SUNDAY  SCHOOLS. 

241.  Sunday  schools,  by  James  H.  Blodgett.  Reprint  of  chapter  9,  p.  349-425, 
Report  for  1896-97. 

31.  TRAINING  OF  TEACHERS. 

118.  Educational  tours  in  France,  [by  Jules  Ferry].  Washington,  1880.  4 p. 

A translation  of  a letter  of  the  French  minister  of  public  instruction,  explaining  an  inter- 
esting method  designed  to  improve  the  qualifications  of  teachers  in  France,  namely,  the 
provision  of  holiday  tours  of  observation  for  normal  students  receiving  complete  certificates. 

150.  Sketch  of  the  Philadelphia  normal  school  for  girls.  Washington,  1882.  39  p. 

178.  Rise  and  growth  of  the  normal-school  idea  in  the  United  States,  by  J.  P.  Gordy. 
Washington,  1891.  145  p.  (Circulars  of  information,  1891,  no.  8.) 

Traces  the  development  of  the  normal  idea  in  this  country  from  1789  until  the  founding  of 
the  New  York  college  for  the  training  of  teachers,  including  a chapter  on  chairs  of  pedagogy 
in  universities. 

449.  Agencies  for  the  improvement  of  teachers  in  service,  by  William  Carl  Ruediger. 
Washington,  1911.  157  p.  (Bulletin,  1911,  no.  3.) 

Contents:  Official  teachers’  gatherings. — Teachers’  institutes. — Summer  schools.— 
Extension  teaching— Correspondence' study.— Local  teachers’  meetings— Visiting  days.— 
County  superintendents’  conferences.— Teachers’  associations.— Teachers’  reading  circles. — 
Pupils’  reading  circles.— Certification  of  teachers— Sabbatical  years.— Special  funds  for 
improvement  of  teachers.— The  merit  system  of  promotion.— Promotional  examinations  — 
Classroom  efficiency  and  success  grades.— Measuring  teachers’  efficiency.— Participation  of 
teachers  in  the  determination  of  educational  policies. 


PUBLICATIONS  ON  SPECIAL  SUBJECTS. 


35 


32.  UNIVERSITIES  AND  COLLEGES:  STATISTICS. 

[See  also  Higher  education.] 

334.  Universities,  colleges,  and  technological  schools.  Reprint  of  chapter  35,  p. 
1347-1497,  Report  for  1902. 

Contains:  Governing  boards  of  state  institutions,  p.  1354-60.— Appointment  and  admis- 
sion of  cadets  to  the  U.  S.  military  academy,  West  Point;  Course  of  study,  p.  1360-73. — 
Admission  of  candidates  to  the  U.  S.  naval  academy,  Annapolis;  Course  of  study,  p.  1374- 
85.— General  statistics. 

397.  Statistics  of  state  universities  and  other  institutions  of  higher  education  partially 
supported  by  the  state,  1907-8.  Washington,  1909.  15  p.  (Bulletin, 

1908,  no.  8.) 

422.  Statistics  of  state  universities  and  other  institutions  of  higher  education  partially 
supported  by  the  state,  1908-9.  Washington,  1909.  15  p.  (Bulletin, 

1909,  no.  11.) 

445.  Statistics  of  state  universities  and  other  institutions  of  higher  education  partially 
supported  by  the  state,  1909-10.  Washington,  1911.  29  p.  (Bulletin, 

1910,  no.  6.) 


INDEX 


[The  various  groups  of  publications  are  denoted  by  Roman  numerals  as  follows:  I.  Annual  statements 
(not  indexed).  II.  Annual  reports.  III.  Circulars  of  information — collected  annual  volumes.  IV. 
Classified  publications  on  special  subjects.  References  under  II  are  to  year  and  to  section  or  chapter 
number,  as  listed  in  table  of  contents  of  each  report;  under  III  to  year  and  to  number  of  circular;  under 
IV  to  number  of  class  and  to  publication  number.  Consult  also  the  Index  to  the  reports  of  the  Commis- 
sioner of  education:  1867-1907,  Bulletin  1909,  no.  7.] 


Abnormal  children  (Krohn)  II,  ’98/99, 10. 

Adams,  H.  B.,  College  of  William  and  Mary,  IV,  4a, 
94;  Educational  extension  in  the  U.  S.,  II,  ’99/00, 
5;  Promotion  of  higher  political  education,  II, 
’85/86,  11;  Study  of  history  in  American  colleges, 
IV,  14,  95;  Summer  schools  in  England,  Scot- 
land, France,  and  Switzerland,  II,  ’97/98,  2; 
Thomas  Jefferson  and  the  University  of  Virginia, 

III,  ’88,  1,  IV,  4a,  97;  University  extension  in 
England,  II,  ’85/86,  12;  University  extension  in 
Gt.  Brit.,  II,  ’98/99, 18. 

Addis,  Wellford,  Agricultural  and  mechanical  col- 
leges, II,  ’96/97,  37,  ’97/98,  44;  Bertillon  system  as 
a means  of  suppressing  the  business  of  living  by 
crime,  II,  ’95/96,  28;  Bibliography  of  legal  educa- 
tion, II,  ’90/91, 16;  Colleges  endowed  by  Congress 
for  the  benefit  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic 
arts,  II,  ’95/96,  27;  Curricula  of  professional 
schools,  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  2)  10;  Curriculum  of  the 
land-grant  colleges,  II,  ’96/97,  10;  Digest  of  state 
school  laws,  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  2)  9;  Federal  and  state 
aid  to  establish  higher  education,  II,  ’96/97,  23; 
Legal  rights  of  children,  II,  ’96/97, 12;  Manual  and 
industrial  training,  II,  ’88/89,  16;  Methods  em- 
ployed in  the  reformation  of  juvenile  offenders, 
II,  ’89/90  (pt.  2)  12;  Recent  efforts  in  Europe  for 
the  advancement  and  improvement  of  agricul- 
ture, II,  ’95/96, 26;  Social  unit  in  the  public  school 
systems  of  the  U.  S.,  II,  ’94/95,  34;  Some  recent 
contributions  of  biology,  sociology,  and  metal- 
lurgy to  the  curriculum  of  colleges  ...  of  agri- 
culture and  the  mechanic  arts,  II,  ’96/97,  20;  Sta- 
tistics of  professional  education,  1880-90,  II, 
’89/90  (pt.  2)  9;  Technological  instruction  in  the 
land-grant  colleges,  II,  ’94/95,  26. 

Agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges  (Alvey)  II, 
’90/91,  17;  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  2)  1;  (Addis)  II,  ’94/95, 
26,  ’95/96, 27,  ’96/97,  37,  ’97/98,  44;  II,  ’02, 1,  ’03,  2; 

IV,  1;  curriculum  (Addis)  II,  ’96/97,  10,  20. 

Agricultural  education,  IV,  2.  Seealso  Agriculture, 

teaching. 

Agriculture,  Europe  (Addis)  II,  ’95/96,  26;  graduate 
study  (Monahan)  IV,  2,  447;  teachers,  training 
(Bailey)  IV,  2, 380;  teaching,  II,  ’10,  4;  teaching, 
Belgium,  II,  ’05,  5;  teaching,  France,  II,  ’95/96, 
24,  ’05,  5;  teaching,  Prussia,  II,  ’95/96,  24. 

Aid  to  schools.  See  State  aid  to  schools. 

Aid  to  students,  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  3)  5. 

Akibah,  Rabbi  (Amber)  II,  ’95/96,  14. 


Alaska,  education,  II,  ’87/88,  6,  ’10,  33;  IV,  3,  214, 
220,  236,  291, 346,  448,  458-;  (Jackson)  II,  ’88/89,  24, 
’89/90  (pt.  2)  17,  ’90/91, 25,  ’91/92, 28,  ’92/93  (pt.  3)  9, 
’93/94  (pt.  2)  12,  ’94/95,  33,  ’95/96,  34,  ’96/97,  35, 
’98/99, 31,  ’99/00, 32,  ’00/01, 31,  ’02, 32,  ’03,  44,  ’04, 36, 
’05,  13;  (Updegraff)  II,  ’07,  15;  Hlingft  language 
(Kelly  and  Willard)  II,  ’04,  10;  reindeer.  See 
Reindeer,  Alaska;  schools,  II,  ’85/86,  13. 

Alaska  school  and  reindeer  service,  IV,  3.  See  also 
Alaska,  education;  Reindeer,  Alaska. 

Allen,  W.  F.,  Higher  education  in  Wisconsin,  IV, 
4a,  157. 

Alvey,  R.  H.,  Colleges  of  agriculture  and  the  me- 
chanic arts,  II,  ’90/91, 17. 

American  library  association,  catalogue,  IV,  17,  200. 

Anderson,  M.  B.,  Suggestions  respecting  art-train- 
ing in  American  colleges,  II,  ’72, 11. 

Annapolis  naval  academy.  See  U.  S.  Naval  acad- 
emy, Annapolis. 

Apprenticeship  system  (Wright)  IV,  16,  389. 

Argentine  Republic,  education  (Hilder)  II,  ’97/98, 
22;  (Rowe)  II,  ’09,  7,  IV,  13,  416. 

Arithmetic,  recitations  (Greenwood)  II,  ’93/94  (pt. 
1)  14;  text-books  (Greenwood)  II,  ’97/98,  17; 
(Greenwood  and  Martin)  II,  '98/99, 15,  IV,  4b,  271. 

Arnold,  J.  H.,  Education  in  Formosa,  IV,  13,  388; 
Educational  activity  in  Foochow,  China,  II,  ’07, 6. 

Aronstein,  P.  II.,  Development  of  English  second- 
ary schools  for  boys,  II,  ’99/00,  2. 

Art,  colleges  (Anderson)  II,  ’72,  11;  education 
(Thompson)  II,  ’73,  5;  II,  ’95/96,  29;  (Harris)  II, 
’98/99, 12,  ’04, 18;  (Ives)  II,  ’05,  10;  (Turner)  IV, 
16,  406. 

Artisans.  See  Working  classes. 

Association  of  Catholic  colleges,  3d  conference,  II, 
’00/01, 18. 

Associations,  educational,  II,  ’79,  2,  IV,  5;  state 
(Foos)  II,  ’09,  3,  IV,  5,  421.  See  also  Congresses, 
educational;  Conventions,  educational;  Exhibi- 
tions, educational;  International  association  for 
the  advancement  of  science,  arts,  and  education; 
National  education  association. 

Astronomy,  teaching  (Holden)  II,  ’97/98, 18. 

Atherton,  G.  W.,  Legislative  career  of  Justin  S. 
Morrill,  II,  ’99/00,  24. 

Atkinson,  F.  W.,  Present  educational  movement  m 
the  Philippine  Islands,  II,  ’00/01,  29. 

Atlanta,  Ga.  Cotton  states  and  international  expo- 
sition, 1895.  See  Exhibitions,  educational. 

37 


38 


INDEX, 


Attendance,  compulsory.  See  Compulsory  educa- 
tion. 

Australasia,  II,  ’98/99,  2. 

Australia,  education  (Smith)  II,  ’97/98,  5;  II,  ’04, 1. 

Austria,  education,  II,  ’88/89,  5;  (Klemm)  II,  ’89/90 
(pt.  1)  13. 

Austria-Hungary,  education  (Klemm)  II,  ’89/90, 
(pt.  1)  11. 

Auxiliary  schools,  Germany  (Maennel)  IV,  9,  376. 

Baccelli  bill  (Oldrini)  II,  ’02, 17. 

Backward  children.  See  Abnormal  children;  De- 
linquent children. 

Bailey,  H.  T.,  Instruction  in  the  fine  and  manual 
arts  in  the  U.  S.,  IV,  16,  406. 

Bailey,  L.  H.,  Training  of  persons  to  teach  agricul- 
ture in  the  public  schools,  IV,  2,  380. 

Baldwin,  S.  E.,  Readjustment  of  the  collegiate  to 
the  professional  course,  II,  ’99/00, 10. 

Baltimore,  public  schools,  IV,  24,  450. 

Barnard,  F.  J.,  Seattle  plan  of  promotion  and  clas- 
sification, II,  ’98/99,  7. 

Barnard,  Henry  (Mayo)  II,  ’96/97,  16,  ’02,  22;  (Har- 
ris) II,  ’02,  22. 

Barnard’s  American  journal  of  education,  index, 
IV,  6, 187, 

Baudouin,  Marcel,  Medical  schools  of  the  U.  S.,  II, 
’94/95,  29. 

Bavaria,  education  (Reiser)  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  1)  8. 

Belgium,  education  (Smith)  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  1)3;  II, 
’98/99,  3,  III,  ’75,  3. 

Bell  system.  See  Monitorial  system. 

Bertillon  system  (Addis)  II,  ’95/96,  28. 

Biological  stations,  Europe  (Kofoid)  IV,  23,  440. 

Biology,  teaching,  colleges  (Campbell)  IV,  14, 179. 

Blind,  education,  II,  ’71,  5,  ’72,  5. 

Blodgett,  J.  H.,  Parochial  schools,  II,  ’94/95,  40; 
Sunday  schools,  II,  ’96/97,  9,  IV,  30,  241. 

Boas,  Franz,  Growth  of  Toronto  children,  II,  ’96/97; 
Statistics  of  growth,  II,  ’04,  2. 

Bodio,  Luigi,  Protection  of  Italian  emigrants  in 
America,  II,  ’94/95,  45. 

Bodleian  tercentenary  (Firth)  II,  ’02,  24. 

Bolivia,  education,  III,  ’73, 1. 

Boykin,  J.  C.,  City  school  systems,  II,  ’91/92,  17; 
Class  intervals  in  city  public  schools,  II,  ’90/91, 
27;  Cotton  states  and  international  exposition, 
held  in  Atlanta,  Ga.,  1895,  II,  ’94/95,  43;  Laws 
relating  to  city  school  boards,  II,  ’95/96, 1;  Phys- 
ical training,  II,  ’91/92,  13;  Tennessee  centennial 
and  international  exposition,  Nashville,  1897,  II, 
’96/97, 21;  Typical  institutions  offering  manual  or 
industrial  training,  II,  ’95/96,  21. 

Brazil,  education,  II,  ’88/89, 9;  (Iiilder)  II,  ’97/98, 22. 

Brereton,  Cloudesley,  Education  in  Ireland,  II,  ’10, 
15. 

British  India.  See  India. 

British  South  Africa.  See  South  Africa. 

Brooks,  C.  B.,  Report  on  the  European  textile 
schools,  II,  ’97/98,  8. 

Brown,  E.  E.,  Secondary  education,  II,  ’03, 12,  IV, 
27,  409. 

Buisson,  F.,  Education  of  the  will,  II,  ’02, 16. 

Burgerstein,  Leo,  Medical  inspection  of  schools 
abroad,  II,  ’02, 11. 

Burk,  Frederic,  From  fundamental  to  accessory  in 
the  development  of  the  nervous  system  and  of 
movements,  II,  ’00/01,  8. 


Bush,  G.  G.,  First  common  schools  of  New  Eng- 
land, II,  ’96/97,  24;  History  of  education  in  Flor- 
ida, III,  ’88,  7,  IV,  4a,  103;  History  of  education 
in  New  Hampshire,  IV,  4a,  244. 

Business  education.  See  Commercial  education. 

Butler,  N.  M.,  What  knowledge  is  of  most  worth,* 
II,  ’95/96,  29. 

Campbell,  F.  J.,  (Eaton)  II,  ’98/99,  9. 

Campbell,  J.  P.,  Biological  teaching  in  the  colleges 
of  the  U.  S.,  IV,  14, 179. 

Canada,  education  (Smith)  II,  ’97/98,  4;  II,  ’98/99, 
29,  ’02,  8,  ’04,  1,  ’07,  7,  ’10,  8. 

Carlisle,  Pa.,  Indian  industrial  school  (Warren)  IV, 
15, 114. 

Carnegie  institution,  Washington,  D.  C.,  II,  ’00/01, 
23. 

Catalogue,  dictionary,  rules  (Cutter)  IV,  17,  148. 

Catholic  colleges,  Association,  3d  conference,  II, 
’00/01, 18. 

Catholic  parochial  schools.  See  Parochial  schools. 

Central  America,  education  (Hilder)  II,  ’95/96, 12. 

Central  Europe.  See  Europe. 

Centralization  of  schools.  See  Rural  schools,  cen- 
tralization. 

Chadbourne,  P.  A.,  Waste  of  labor  in  the  work  of 
education,  III,  ’75,  4. 

Chicago.  World’s  Columbian  exposition,  1894. 
See  Exhibitions,  educational. 

Child  study,  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  1)  10,  ’00/01, 15;  bibliog- 
raphy (Wilson)  IV,  7,  457;  Chicago,  II,  ’02,  27. 

Children,  legal  rights  (Addis)  II,  ’96/97,  12. 

Chile,  education  (Rowe)  II,  ’09,  7,  IV,  13, 416. 

Chilean  educational  congress  and  exhibit.  See  Ex- 
hibitions, educational. 

China,  education  (Fryer)  II,  ’09,  12,  IV,  13,  418. 
See  also  Foochow. 

Chinese  students,  U.  S.  (Fryer)  IV,  14, 399. 

City  school  systems  (Boykin)  II,  ’91/92,  17,  (Phil- 
brick)  III,  ’85,  1;  IV,  24;  boards  (Boykin)  II, 
’95/96,  1;  II, ’88/89,  20. 

Civics.  See  Political  science. 

Civil  service,  requirements,  Prussia  (Willoughby) 
II,  ’91/92, 11;  schools,  France  (Willoughby)  II, 
’91/92, 11. 

Clark,  Hannah  B.,  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  2)  10. 

Clarke,  I.  E.,  Drawing  in  public  schools,  III, ’74,2; 
Report  on  art  and  industry,  IV,  16,  216,  253,  254. 

Class  intervals.  See  Graded  system. 

Classification  of  pupils,  II,  ’98/99,  7,  IV,  22,  355. 

Co-education  (Voss)  II,  ’88/89,  17  A;  (Smith)  II, 
’91/92,  26;  II,  ’96/97,  33,  ’00/01,  28;  (Smith)  II, 
’03,  20. 

Cogswell,  Francis,  Promotions  in  the  grammar 
schools  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  II,  ’98/99,  7. 

Colleges  and  universities.  See  Universities  and  col- 
leges. 

Columbian  exposition.  See  Exhibitions,  educa- 
tional. 

Commercial  education,  Europe  (James),  II,  ’95/96, 
15;  II,  ’96/97,  6;  Germany  (Jastrow),  II,  ’05,  6; 
Switzerland,  II,  ’02, 20;  U.  S.,  (Jastrow)  II,  ’05,6. 

Committee  of  fifteen,  city  school  systems,  II,  ’93/94 
(pt.  1),  13;  correlation  of  studies,  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  1) 
12;  report  on  training  of  teachers,  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  1) 
11. 

Committee  of  ten,  report  on  secondary  school 
studies,  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  3)  2. 


INDEX. 


39 


Committee  of  twelve,  report  on  rural  schools,  II, 
’96/97, 17. 

Commons,  J.  R.,  History  of  higher  education  in 
Ohio,  IV,  4a,  175. 

Compayr6,  Gabriel,  Higher  and  secondary  educa- 
tion in  the  U.  S.,  II,  ’95/96, 22. 

Compulsory  education,  II,  ’88/89,  18;  ’96/97,  33. 

Congresses,  educational,  Madrid,  1882,  IV,  5,  129; 
Paris,  1889  (Widgery)  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  2;  (Dreyfus- 
Brisac)  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  3;  Santiago,  Chilean 
educational  congress  (Noel)  II,  ’03,  27;  school 
hygiene,  2d,  II,  ’07,  10.  See  also  Associations, 
educational;  Conventions,  educational;  Exhibi- 
tions, educational. 

Congresses,  international,  Liege,  1905,  for  the  re- 
production of  manuscripts  (Gayley)  II,  ’05,  8; 
prison,  4th,  IV,  10,  171,  5th  (Randall)  II,  ’95/96, 
13;  reports,  II,  ’10, 16,  IV,  5 (1910). 

Congresses,  psychological,  criminologioal,  and  de- 
mographical,  Europe  (Macdonald)  II,  ’93/94  (pt. 
2)  15. 

Connecticut,  education  (Steiner)  IV,  4a,  193. 

Conrad,  J.,  Statistical  review  of  the  German  uni- 
versities, II,  ’91/92, 10. 

Consolidation  of  schools.  See  Rural  schools,  cen- 
tralization. 

Conventions,  eduoational,  II,  ’71,  3,  ’72,  3,  ’73,  4, 
’74,  3,  ’75,  3,  ’78,  2,  ’81,  2,  ’82/83,  2,  ’83/84,  2 ’84/85, 
2,  ’86/87,  17.  See  also  Associations,  educational; 
Congresses,  eduoational;  Exhibitions,  educa- 
tional. 

Cooper  union  (Townley)  II,  ’71, 11. 

Corbett,  H.  R.,  Free  high  schools  for  rural  pupils, 
II,  ’99/00, 12. 

Correspondence  schools,  II,  ’02,  26. 

Course  of  study,  (Eliot)  II,  ’86/87,  21;  correlation, 
II,  93/94  (pt.  1)  12;  correlation  (White)  (Howison) 
II,  ’95/96,  18;  elementary  schools,  II,  ’88/89, 15. 

Crime  and  education.  See  Education  and  crime. 

Crime  and  society,  II,  ’70, 17. 

Criminology,  (Macdonald)  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  2)  14. 

Cripples,  education  (Goldsmith)  II,  ’09,  11;  IV,  9, 
417. 

Cuba,  education,  II,  ’99/00,  29;  II,  ’03,  46,  II,  ’06,  7, 
II,  ’07, 14. 

Curry,  J.  L.  M.,  II,  ’03, 11. 

Curtis,  H.  S.,  Inhibition,  II,  ’00/01,  9;  School  play- 
grounds of  America,  II,  ’07, 13;  Vacation  schools, 
playgrounds,  and  settlements,  II,  ’03, 1. 

Cutter,  C.  A.,  Rules  for  a dictionary  catalogue,  IV, 
17, 148. 

Dabney,  C.  W.,  Illiteracy  of  the  voting  population 
in  the  U.  S.,  II,  ’02, 18;  Publio  school  problem  in 
the  South,  II,  ’00/01,  20,  IV,  28,  290. 

Davis,  N.  S.,  History  of  medioal  education  and 
medical  institutions  in  the  United  States,  IV,  21, 
149. 

Deaf-mutes,  education,  II,  ’71,  6,  ’72,  4;  (Gallaudet) 
II,  ’73,  6. 

Deafness,  sohool  children  (Sexton)  IV,  26,  68. 

Defective  children.  See  Abnormal  children,  Delin- 
quent children. 

Degrees  conferred,  II,  ’86/87, 11,  ’87/88, 13. 

Delaware,  education  (Mayo)  II,  ’03, 9;  (Powell)  IV, 
4a,  194. 

Delinquent  children  (Seaver)  II,  ’91/92,  25. 


Denmark,  education  (French)  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  15, 
’96/97,  3. 

DeRiemer,  W.  E.,  Education  in  India,  II,  ’97/98, 

10. 

Dewey,  Melvil,  Libraries  as  related  to  the  educa- 
tional work  of  the  state,  II,  ’87/88, 20;  Papers  pre- 
pared for  the  World’s  library  congress,  II,  ’92/93 
(pt.  2)  9. 

District  of  Columbia,  education  (Wilson)  II,  ’94/95, 
41. 

Domestio  economy,  Germany  (Myers)  II,  ’73,  7. 

Domestio  education  (Sohoberle)  II,  ’91/92,  8. 

Drawing,  teaohing,  U.  S.,  (Clarke)  III,  ’74,  2. 

Dresslar,  F.  B.,  American  school-houses,  IV,  25, 444. 

Dreyfus-Brisac,  Edmond,  International  oongress  of 
secondary  and  superior  education  held  at  Paris, 
1889,  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  3. 

Eaton,  J.  S.,  Education  for  efficiency  in  railway 
service,  IV,  16,  420;  Educational  training  for 
railway  service,  II,  ’98/99, 17,  IV,  16,  270. 

Eaton,  John,  Address  on  museums  illustrative  of 
education,  IV,  19, 309;  Address  on  the  needs  of  the 
Bureau  of  education,  IV,  8,  308;  Education  in 
Hawaii,  II,  ’90/91,  12;  ’96/97,  32;  Education  in 
Porto  Rico,  II,  ’99/00,  4;  Notes  on  education  at 
the  Columbian  exposition,  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  2)  10; 
Royal  normal  college  for  the  blind,  London  and 
incidents  in  the  life  of  F.  J.  Camphell,  II,  ’98/99, 
9;  Sketches  of  educational  benefactors  and  lives 

^ devoted  to  education,  II,  ’03,  29. 

Ecoles  gardiennes,  Europe,  (Hailmann)  II,  ’90/91. 
19. 

Education,  bibliography,  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  2)  16;  III, 
’73,  4;  IV,  7;  comparative  study  (Levasseur)  II, 
’95/96, 10. 

Education  and  crime  (Fiske)  II,  ’71, 16;  (Mansfield) 
II,  ’72,  9;  II,  ’98/99,  28,  IV,  10. 

Education  and  insanity;  II,  '71, 15. 

Education  and  labor  (Hinton)  II,  ’70, 21;  II,  ’70, 
22;  (Jarvis)  II,  ’72,  8. 

Education  and  libraries  (Dewey)  II,  ’87/88,  20. 

Education  and  pauperism  (Mansfield)  II,  ’72, 10. 

Education  and  sociology,  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  18. 

Education  and  the  press  (Noah)  II,  ’71, 17. 

Education  and  the  state  (Walcott)  II,  ’00/01, 22. 

Educational  extension,  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  2)  8;  U.  S. 
(Adams)  II,  ’99/00,  5.  See  also  University  exten- 
sion. 

Educational  psychology.  See  Psychology,  eduoa- 
tional. 

Educational  values  (Harris)  IV,  12,  250. 

Educators,  English  (Watson)  II,  ’00/01, 17;  ’02, 10; 
’03,  6;  ’04, 8;  (Eaton)  II,  ’03,  29. 

Egypt,  education,  III,  ’75,  3. 

Elementary  education,  correlation  of  studies  (Howi- 
son) II,  ’95/96, 18;  Great  Britain  (Smith)  II,  ’91/92, 
4;  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  1)  4;  Ireland  (Smith)  II,  ’91/92, 
4;  London,  IV,  13,  51  (Smith)  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  8; 
Paris  (Smith)  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  8. 

Elimination  and  retardation  (Strayer)  IV,  22,  451. 

Eliot,  C.  W.,  Can  school  programs  be  shortened 
and  enriched?  II,  ’86/87,  21. 

Elliott,  E.  C.,  State  school  systems,  legislative  and 
judicial  decisions,  IV,  24,  363,  396,  438. 

Ellis,  G.  W.,  Education  in  Liberia,  II,  ’05,  7. 

Engineering  colleges,  entrance  requirements,  II, 
'96/97, 18. 


40 


INDEX 


England,  education,  II,  ’88/89,  3;  (Smith)  II,  ’89/90 
(pt.  1)  6,  ’90/91,  4.  See  also  Great  Britain. 

English  language,  recitations  (Greenwood)  II,  ’93/94 
(pt.  1)  14. 

Entrance  requirements.  See  Engineering  colleges, 
Technical  schools,  Universities  and  colleges. 

Eskimo  language  (Wells  and  Kelly)  II,  ’96/97, 26. 

Europe,  education,  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  1),  7,  ’94/95,  10; 
’95/96,  4;  ’96/97,  5;  ’98/99,  4;  ’99/00,  14;  ’00/01,  1; 
’07,  5;  ’08,  8;  TO,  12. 

Evans,  H.  R.,  List  of  writings  of  William  Torrey 
Harris,  II,  ’07,  2. 

Exhibitions,  educational,  II,  ’91/92,  9;  IV,  11;  At- 
lanta, 1895  (Boykin)  II,  ’94/95  , 43;  Chicago,  1894, 
II,  ’92/93,  (pt.  2);  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  2),  19;  IV,  11,  223, 
225;  Jamestown,  1907  (Smith)  II,  ’07,  9;  Milan, 
1894  (Parks)  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  2)  17;  Nashville,  1897, 
(Boykin)  II,  ’96/97, 21;  New  Orleans,  1884-85,  IV, 
11,  84;  Paris,  1900  (Ward)  II,  ’99/00,  28,  30;  Phila- 
delphia, 1876,  III,  ’75,  5;  IV,  11,  47;  St.  Louis, 
1904,  II,  ’03,  23,  ’04,  21-22;  (Gay)  II,  ’04,  14^15; 
Santiago,  Chile,  1902-3,  (Noel)  II,  ’03,  27. 

Experimental  psychology.  See  Psychology,  phys- 
iological. 

Eyesight,  school  children,  II,  ’02,  46. 

Federal  aid  to  schools.  See  State  aid  to  schools. 

Feeble-minded,  education  (Lincoln)  II,  ’02, 47. 

Fellowships,  colleges  and  universities,  II,  ’88/89, 
21  B. 

Ferry,  Jules,  Educational  tours  in  France,  IV,  31, 
118. 

Fine  arts.  See  Art,  teaching. 

Finland,  education,  II,  ’88/89,  7;  (French)  II, 
’93/94  (pt.  1)  9. 

Firth,  J.  B.,  Bodleian  tercentenary,  II,  ’02,  24. 

Fisher,  Laura,  Kindergarten,  II,  ’03, 16. 

Fiske,  A.  S.,  Relation  of  education  to  crime,  II,  ’71, 
16.  . 

Florida,  education  (Bush)  III,  ’88,  7,  IV,  4a,  103. 

Foochow,  China,  education  (Arnold)  II,  ’07,  6. 

Foos,  C.  S.,  State  educational  associations,  II,  ’09, 
3;  IV,  5,  421. 

Foreign  missions.  See  Missions. 

Forestry  education  (Parks)  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  2),  2. 

Formosa,  education  (Arnold)  IV,  13, 388. 

France,  comparison  of  schools  of,  Germany  and 
the  United  States,  II,  ’88/89,  2;  education,  II, 
’88/89,  4;  (Smith)  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  7,  ’90/91,  3,  ’91/92, 
3,  ’92/93  (pt.  1)  5,  ’93/94  (pt.  1)  6,  *95/96,  11,  ’96/97, 
2,  ’97/98,  16;  II,  ’98/99,  21,  ’99/00,  31,  ’00/01,  24,  ’02, 
15, ’03, 13,  ’05,  4,  ’06, 2,  ’07, 4,  ’08, 7,  TO,  10;  teachers’ 
tours  (Ferry)  IV,  31, 118. 

Franklin,  Benjamin  (Thorpe)  II,  ’02,  2. 

French,  Frances  G.,  Education  in  Denmark,  II, 
’96/97,3;  Education  in  Norway,  II, ’96/97, 4;  Edu- 
cation in  Russia,  II,  ’90/91,  8;  Education  in  Rus- 
sia and  Finland,  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  1)9;  Education  in 
Sweden,  II,  ’91/92,  12;  Education  in  Sweden  and 
Iceland,  II,  ’95/96,  20;  Education  in  Uruguay,  II, 
’92/93  (pt.  1)  9;  Educational  system  of  Denmark, 
II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  15;  Educational  system  of  Japan, 
II,  ’90/91,  9;  Educational  system  of  Norway,  II, 
’89/90  (pt.  1)  14. 

Fryer,  John,  Admission  of  Chinese  students  to 
American  universities,  IV,  14,  399;  Educational 
reform  in  China,  II,  ’09, 12,  IV,  13, 418. 


Fulcomer,  Daniel,  Instruction  in  sociology  in  insti- 
tutions of  learning  II,  ’94/95,  27. 

Gallaudet,  E.  M.,  On  the  instruction  of  deaf-mutes, 
II,  ’73,  6. 

Gang,  E.,  School  gardens,  II,  ’98/99,  20. 

Gay,  G.  E.,  Education  at  the  St.  Louis  exposition, 
II,  ’04, 14-15. 

Gayley,  C.  M.,  Account  of  the  proceedings  of  the 
International  congress  for  the  reproduction  of 
manuscripts,  1905,  II,  ’05,  8. 

Geddes,  Patrick,  International  association  for  the 
advancement  of  science,  arts,  and  education,  II, 
’00/01,  6. 

Geography,  economic,  II,  ’98/99,  25;  teaching,  II, 
’96/97,  30;  teaching,  Europe,  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  1)  6. 

Geology,  teaching,  colleges,  U.  S.,  (Hopkins),  II, 
’93/94  (pt.  2)  3. 

Georgia,  education  (Johnston)  II,  ’94/95,  42,  ’95/96, 
16;  II,  ’04, 16;  (Jones)  III,  ’88,  4,  IV,  4a,  100. 

German  language,  teaching,  U.  S.  (Viereck)  II, 
’00/01, 14. 

Germany,  auxiliary  schools  (Maennel)  IV,  9,  376; 
comparison  of  schools  of  France  and  the  United 
States,  II,  ’88/89,  2;  domestic  economy  (Meyers) 
II,  ’73,  7;  education  (Klemm)  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  9; 
(Meyers)  II,  ’71,  9;  industrial  training,  girls 
(Meyers)  II,  ’73,  7;  schools,  II,  ’88/89,  5;  courses 
of  study,  II,  ’03,  26;  universities  (Lexis)  II,  ’91/92, 
10. 

Gilman,  D.  C.,  National  schools  of  science,  II,  ’71,  4. 

Goldsmith,  Evelyn  M.,  Schools  for  crippled  chil- 
dren, II,  ’09, 11,  IV,  9,  417. 

Gordy,  J.  P.,  Rise  and  growth  of  the  normal-school 
idea,  IV,  31, 178. 

Gove,  Aaron,  Public-school  systems  of  the  U.  S., 
II,  ’03,  7. 

Graded  system  (Boykin)  II,  ’90/91,  27;  (Harris)  II, 
’91/92,  15;  (White)  II,  ’96/97,  32;  II,  ’98/99,  "; 
(White)  IV,  22,  177. 

Grants  to  schools.  See  State  aid  to  schools. 

Great  Britain,  education  (Smith)  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  1) 
5,  ’95/96,  3,  ’96/97,  1,  ’97/98,  3;  II,  ’98/99,  1,  ’99/00, 
18,  ’00/01,  19,  ’02,  25,  ’03,  3,  ’04,  12,  ’06,  1,  ’07,  3, 
’08,  6,  TO,  13. 

Great  Britain.  Royal  commission  on  technical 
instruction,  report,  review  (Thompson)  III,  ’85,3, 
IV,  16,  89. 

Greece,  education  (Quinn)  II,  ’96/97,  8;  language 
(Quinn)  II,  ’99/00,  23. 

Greenwood,  J.  M.,  Notes  on  the  history  of  American 
textbooks  on  arithmetic,  II,  ’97/98, 17,  ’98/99, 15, 
IV,  4b,  271;  Verbatim  reports  of  recitations  in 
arithmetic  and  language  work  in  the  schools  of 
Kansas  City,  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  1)  14. 

Hadley,  A.  T.,  Facilities  for  study  and  research  in 
the  offices  of  the  U.  S.  government,  IV,  23,  398. 

Hailmann,  W.  N.,  German  views  of  American  edu- 
cation, IV,  16,  361;  History  and  status  of  public 
kindergartens  and  6coles  gardiennes  in  several 
European  countries,  II,  ’90/91, 19. 

Hall,  E.  W.,  History  of  higher  education  in  Maine, 
IV,  4a,  294. 

Hampton  normal  and  agricultural  institute,  II, 
’04,  6. 

Harper,  W.  R.,  Educational  progress  of  the  year, 
II,  ’02, 14;  Ideals  of  educational  work,  IT,  ’95/96, 29. 


INDEX 


41 


Harris,  W.  T.,  Age  of  withdrawal  from  the  public 
schools,  II,  ’91/92, 14;  Art  education  the  true  in- 
dustrial education,  II,  ’04, 18;  Bird’s-eye  view  of 
the  St.  Louis  public-school  system,  H,  ’98/99,  19; 
Classification  in  graded  schools,  II,  ’91/92, 15;  Def- 
inition of  civilization,  II,  ’04, 18;  Development  of 
the  short-interval  system  in  St.  Louis,  II,  ’98/99, 
7;  Educational  values,  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  1)  15,  IV,  12, 
250;  Henry  Barnard,  H,  ’02, 22;  Horace  Mann,  II, 
’95/96, 17;  Intellectual  value  of  tool  work,  II,  ’04, 
18;  Oxford  university  and  the  Rhodes  scholar- 
ships, II,  ’02,  24;  Place  of  university  extension  in 
American  education,  H,  ’91/92,  21;  Reports  of  the 
Mosely  educational  commission,  II,  ’05, 1;  Study 
of  art  and  literature  in  schools,  II,  ’98/99, 12. 

Harris,  W.  T.,  bibliography  (Evans)  II,  ’07,  2. 

Hartwell,  E.  M.,  On  physical  training,  II,  ’03, 17; 
Physical  training  in  American  colleges  and  uni- 
versities, III,  ’85,  5. 

Hawaii,  education  (Lyons)  II,  ’72,  7;  (Eaton)  II, 
’90/91,  12,  ’96/97,  32;  II,  ’99/00,  29,  II,  ’03,  46,  II, 
’07, 14. 

Hearing,  school  children,  II,  ’02,  46;  (Sexton)  IV, 
26,  68. 

Herbartianism,  bibliography,  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  1),  11. 

Highschools (Holcombe)  II,  ’86/87, 21;  (Stewart)  II, 
’86/87,  21;  (Morgan)  II,  ’99/00,  11.  See  also  Sec- 
ondary education. 

Higher  education  (Moulton)  II,  ’88/89,  21 A;  (Wal- 
cott) II,  ’00/01,  22;  IV,  14;  Colorado  (Le  Rossig- 
nol)  IV,  4a,  292;  England,  II,  ’04,  13;  Indiana 
(Woodbum)  IV,  4a,  170;  Iowa  (Parker)  IV,  4a, 
197;  Italy  (Oldrini)  II,  ’02, 17;  Kentucky  (Lewis) 
IV,  4a,  256;  Maine  (Hall)  IV,  4a,  294;  Michigan 
(McLaughlin)  IV,  4a,  174;  Missouri  (Snow)  TV, 
4a,  243;  New  York  (Sherwood)  IV,  4a,  264; 
Northwest  territory  (Knight)  II,  ’87/88,  20;  Ohio 
(Knight  and  Commons)  IV,  4a,  175;  Rhode  Island 
(Tolman)  IV, 4a,  209;  South  Carolina  (Meriwether) 

III,  ’88, 3,  IV,  4a,  99;  Spanish-American countries, 
II,  ’08,  5;  Tennessee  (Merriam)  IV,  4a,  196;  U.  S. 
(Compayrfi)  II,  ’95/96,  22;  Wisconsin  (Allen  and 
Spencer)  IV,  4a,  157.  See  also  Universities  and 
colleges. 

Hilder,  F.  F.,  Education  in  Mexico  and  Central 
America,  II,  ’95/96, 12. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A.,  Documents  illustrative  of  Ameri- 
can educational  history,  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  3)  1;  Notes 
on  the  history  of  foreign  influence  upon  education 
in  the  United  States,  II,  ’97/98,  13;  Public  in- 
struction in  Italy,  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  1)  8;  Western 
literary  institute,  II,  ’98/99, 13. 

Hinsdale,  Mary  L.,  Legislative  history  of  the  public 
school  system  of  Ohio,  II,  ’00/01,  2;  Western  liter- 
ary institute,  II,  ’98/99, 13. 

Hinton,  L.  J.,  Education  of  artisans,  II,  ’71, 12. 

History,  American,  English  methods  of  teaching 
(Plimsoll)  II,  ’94/95,  44;  study,  colleges  (Adams) 

IV,  14,  95. 

Hlinglt  language,  Alaska  (Kelly  and  Willard)  II, 
’04, 10. 

Holcombe,  J.  W.,  The  high-school  question,  II, 
’86/87, 21. 

Holden,  E.  S.,  Teaching  of  astronomy  in  primary 
and  secondary  schools  and  in  the  university,  II, 
’97/98, 18;  United  States  military  academy  at  West 
Point,  II,  ’91/92, 24;  United  States  naval  academy 
at  Annapolis,  II,  ’98/99, 14. 


Hopkins,  T.  C.,  Geology  in  the  colleges  and  univer- 
sities of  the  U.  S.,  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  2)  3. 

Hopkins  grammar  school,  New  Haven,  Conn. 
(Willard)  II,  ’99/00,  22. 

Hough,  Franklin,  Constitutional  provisions  in  re- 
gard to  education  in  the  several  states  of  the 
American  union,  III,  ’75,  46. 

Hough,  Theodore,  Review  of  Swedish  gymnastics, 
II,  ’98/99,  26. 

Howison,  G.  H.,  On  the  correlation  of  elementary 
studies,  II,  ’95/96, 18. 

Hoyt,  J.  A.,  History  of  the  University  of  Oxford, 
II,  ’02,  24;  University  of  Paris  during  the  middle 
ages,  II,  ’04,  5. 

Hungary,  schools,  II,  ’88/89,  5. 

Hunt,  Caroline  L.,  Daily  meals  for  school  children, 
IV,  26,  403. 

Hunt,  Mary  H.,  Temperance  physiology,  II,  ’99/00, 

21. 

Iceland,  education  (French)  II,  ’95/96,  20. 

Illiteracy  (Summers)  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  1)  2;  (Dabney) 
II,  ’02,  18;  II,  ’02,  52. 

Imber,  N.  H.,  Education  and  the  Talmud,  II, 
’94/95,  46;  Letters  of  Rabbi  Akibah,  or  the  Jewish 
primer  as  it  was  used  two  thousand  years  ago,  II, 
’95/96,  14. 

Imitation  (Smith)  II,  ’96/97, 13. 

Immigrants,  protection  (Bodio)  II,  ’94/95,  45. 

Incorrigibles.  See  Delinquent  children. 

India,  education,  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  1)  6;  (De  Riemer) 
II,  ’97/98,  10;  II,  ’99/00,  1,  ’06,  6;  (Warren)  IH, 
’73,  2;  IV,  13,  33. 

Indians,  education,  II,  ’75, 2,  ’74, 2,  ’73,  2,  ’72, 2,  ’71, 
2;  (Warren)  IV,  15, 114. 

Industrial  education  (Boykin)  II,  ’95/96,  21;  IV,  16; 
apprenticeship  system  (Wright)  IV,  16, 389;  Aus- 
tria, II, ’95/96, 25;  Europe,  II,  ’90/91,7;  Germany, 
II,  ’95/96,  25;  Germany,  girls  (Myers)  II,  ’73,  7; 
Southern  states  (Mayo)  III,  ’88,  5;  Switzerland, 
II,  ’95/96,  25;  U.  S.,'  II,  ’00/01,  4;  (Woodward) 
II,  ’03,  19;  II,  ’10,  3.  See  also  Manual  training, 
Technical  education. 

Industrial  schools,  III,  ’75,  6. 

Inhibition  (Curtis)  II,  ’00/01,  9. 

Institutes,  teachers’,  II,  ’71,  3;  (Smart)  III,  ’85,  2. 
See  also  Conventions,  educational,  Western  Liter- 
ary institute. 

International  association  for  the  advancement  of 
science,  arts,  and  education  (Geddes)  II,  ’00/01, 6. 

International  congress  for  the  reproduction  of  manu- 
scripts, Liegfc,  1905  (Gayley)  II,  ’05,  8. 

International  prison  congress,  4th,  IV,  10,  171;  5th, 
(Randall)  II,  ’95/96, 13. 

Ireland,  education  (Smith)  II,  ’90/91,  6,  ’93/94 
(pt.  1)  5,  ’95/96,  3,  ’96/97,  1,  ’97/98,  3;  II,  ’98/99,  1, 
’99/00,  18,  ’00/01,  19,  ’02,  25,  ’03,  3,  04,  12,  ’06,  1, 
’07,  3,  ’08,  6;  (Brereton)  II,  ’10, 15. 

Italy,  education,  II,  ’88/89,  6;  (Oldrini)  II,  ’90/91, 
10;  (Hinsdale)  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  1)  8;  (Oldrini)  II, 
’98/99,16;  (Suzzara-Verdi)  II,  ’02, 17;  (Monroe)  II, 
’06,  4. 

Ives,  H.  C.,  Art  education  an  important  factor  in 
industrial  development,  II  ’05, 10. 

Jackson,  Sheldon,  Education  in  Alaska,  II,  ’89/90 
(pt.  2)  17,  ’90/91, 25,  ’91/92, 28,  ’92/93  (pt.  3)  9,  ’93/94 
(pt.  2)  12,  ’94/95,  33,  ’95/96, 34,  ’96/97, 35,  ’98/99,  31, 
’99/00,  32,  ’00/01,  31,  ’02,  32,  ’03,  44,  ’04,  36,  ’05,  13, 
’06, 10.  Reindeer  in  Alaska,  II,  ’97/98,  41,  ’98/99, 
32,  ’99/00,  33,  ’00/01,  32,  ’02,  33,  ’03,  45,  ’04,  17  ’05, 
14,  ’06,  10. 


42 


INDEX 


Jackson,  W.  R.,  Present  status  of  certification  of 
teachers  in  the  U.  S.,  II,  ’03, 10. 

Jacobson,  Herman,  History  of  secondary  education 
in  Germany,  III,  ’74, 3. 

James,  E.  J.,  Commercial  education  in  Europe,  II, 
’95/96,  15. 

Jamestown  exposition,  1907.  See  Exhibitions,  edu- 
cational. 

Japan,  education,  (French)  II,  ’90/91, 9;  (Lewis)  II, 
’98/99;  6;  III,  ’75,  2,  ’85,  4,  IV,  12,  41. 

Japan.  Dept,  of  education.  Education  in  Japan,  III, 
’85,  4. 

Jarvis,  Edward,  Value  of  common-school  education 
to  common  labor,  II,  ’72, 8. 

Jastrow,  J.,  Higher  education  for  business  men  in 
the  U.  S.  and  Germany,  II,  ’05,  6. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  (Adams)  III,  ’88, 1,  IV,  4a,  97. 

Jewish  primer,  (Imber)  II,  ’95/96, 14. 

Johnston,  R.  M.,  Early  educational  life  in  middle 
Georgia,  II,  ’94/95,  42,  95/96,  16. 

Johnston,  W.  P.,  (Mayo)  II,  ’98/99,  30. 

Jones,  C.  E.,  Education  in  Georgia,  III,  ’88,  4,  IV, 
4a,  100. 

Joynes,  E.  S.,  Letter  concerning  the  establishment 
of  a normal  school  for  the  women  of  Virginia,  II, 
’00/01, 12. 

Juvenile  delinquency  (Addis)  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  2)  12; 
Germany,  (Loening)  II,  ’04,  9. 

Kelly,  J.  W.,  Eskimo  vocabularies,  II,  ’96/97,  26. 

Kelly,  W.  A.,  Grammar  and  vocabulary  of  the 
Hlingft  language  of  southeastern  Alaska,  II, ’04, 10. 

Kindergarten  (Peabody)  II,  ’71, 13;  (Fisher)  II,  ’03, 
16;  Europe  (Hailmann)  II,  ’90/91,  19;  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  II,  ’96/97,  19. 

Klemm,  L.  R.,  Brief  statement  of  the  school  system 
of  Austria,  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1),  13;  Brief  statement  of 
the  school  system  of  Prussia,  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  12; 
Education  in  Austria-Hungary,  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1) 
11;  Education  in  Europe  and  America,  II,  ’89/90 
(pt.  1)  16;  Education  in  Germany,  II,  ’89/90  (pt. 
1)  9;  Swiss  school  system,  II,  ’91/92,  7;  Training  of 
teachers  in  Germany,  Austria,  and  Switzerland, 

II,  ’91/92,  6. 

Knight,  G.  W.,  Higher  education  in  the  Northwest 
territory,  II,  ’87/88,  20;  History  of  higher  educa- 
tion in  Ohio,  IV,  4a,  175. 

Kofoid,  C.  A.,  Biological  stations  of  Europe,  IV,  23, 
440. 

Korea,  education  (Soh)  II,  ’90/91, 11. 

Kovalevsky,  E.,  Education  in  Russia,  II,  ’02,  28. 

Krohn,  W.  O.,  Facilities  in  experimental  psychol- 
ogy in  the  colleges  of  the  U.  S.,  II,  ’90/91, 31;  Minor 
mental  abnormalities  in  children,  II,  ’98/99,  10. 

Labor  and  education  (Jarvis)  II,  ’72,  8. 

Lancaster  system.  See  Monitorial  system. 

Land  grant  colleges.  See  Agricultural  and  mechan- 
ical colleges. 

Latin  American  countries,  education,  II,  ’10,  9. 

Laurie,  A.  P.,  Recent  educational  developments  in 
Scotland,  II,  ’10, 14. 

Laveleye,  Emile  de,  Progress  of  education  in  Russia, 

III,  ’75, 3. 

Law,  education,  IV,  21, 190;  Australia,  II,  ’90/91, 15. 
bibliography  (Addis)  II,  ’90/91,  16;  Canada,  II, 
’90/91, 15;  China,  II,  ’90/91, 15;  Europe,  II,  ’90/91, 
13;  Japan,  II,  ’90/91,  15;  Spanish  America,  II, 
’90/91, 15. 


Le  Rossignol,  J.  E.,  History  of  higher  education  in 
Colorado,  IV,  4a,  292. 

Levasseur,  E.,  Comparative  study  of  popular  educa- 
tion among  civilized  nations,  II,  ’95/96, 10. 

Lewis,  A.  F.,  History  of  higher  education  in  Ken- 
tucky, IV,  4a,  256. 

Lewis,  R.  E.,  State  education  in  Japan,  II,  ’98/99, 6. 

Lexis,  W.,  German  universities,  II,  ’91/92, 10. 

Liberia,  education  (Ellis)  II,  ’05,  7. 

Libraries,  (Summers)  II,  ’95/96,  8;  ’99/00, 17;  ’03,18; 
IV,  17;  educational,  II,  ’91/92,  9;  legislation, 
U.  S.  (Presnell)  II,  ’95/96,  9;  U.  S.,  II,  ’86/87,  18. 

Libraries  and  education  (Dewey)  II,  ’87/88,  20. 

Libraries  and  schools,  II,  ’99/00, 13. 

Lincoln,  D.  F.,  Education  of  the  feeble-minded  in 
the  U.  S.,  II,  ’02,  47. 

Lindsay,  S.  McC.,  Inauguration  of  the  American 
school  system  in  Porto  Rico,  II,  ’05, 15. 

Ling  gymnastics.  See  Swedish  gymnastics. 

Liquor  question.  See  Temperance  instruction. 

Literature,  study  (Harris)  II,  ’98/99, 12. 

Loening,  Edgar,  Juvenile  criminality  in  Germany, 
II,  ’04,  9. 

London,  education,  II,  ’03,  4. 

London.  Royal  normal  college  for  the  blind 
(Eaton)  II,  ’98/99,  9. 

Lyons,  C.  J.,  Education  in  the  Hawaiian  islands,  II, 
’72,  7. 

Lyons.  Universal  exposition,  1894  (Parks)  II, 
’93/94  (pt.  2)  18. 

Lyte,  E.  O.,  State  normal  schools  of  the  U.  S.,  II, 
’03,  22. 

MacDonald,  Arthur,  Criminological  studies,  II, 
’93/94  (pt.  2)  14;  Psychological,  criminological,  and 
demographical  congresses  in  Europe,  II,  ’93/94  (pt. 
2)  15. 

McLaughlin,  A.  C.,  History  of  higher  education  in 
Michigan,  IV,  4a,  174. 

Madrid.  National  pedagogic  congress  of  Spain,  1882. 
See  Congresses,  educational. 

Maennel,  B.,  Auxiliary  schools  of  Germany,  TV,  9, 
376. 

Manchester,  Arthur  L.,  Music  education  in  the 
U.  S.,  IV,  20,  387. 

Mann,  Horace,  (Harris)  II,  ’95/96,  17;  II,  ’96/97,  15. 

Mansfield,  E.  D.,  Relation  between  crime  and  edu- 
cation, II,  ’72, 9;  Relation  between  education  and 
pauperism,  II,  ’72, 10. 

Manual  training  (Addis)  II,  ’88/89, 16;  (Woodward) 
II,  ’93/94  (pt.  2)  5;  (Boykin)  II,  ’95/96, 21;  II,  ’95/96, 
29;  (Harris)  II,  ’04,  18;  U.  S.,  (Woodward)  II, 
’03,  19.  See  also  Industrial  education,  Technical 
education. 

Marble,  A.  P.  Sanitary  conditions  for  school  houses, 
IV,  25,  173. 

March,  F.  A.,  Spelling  reform,  IV,  29,  202. 

Martin,  Alexander,  Notes  on  the  history  of  Ameri- 
can text-books  on  arithmetic,  II,  ’98/99,  15,  IV, 
4b,  271. 

Maryland,  education  (Mayo)  II,  ’03, 9;  (Steiner)  IV, 
4a,  210. 

Mathematics,  teachers,  training,  IV,  18,  459. 

Mayo,  A.  D.,  American  common  school  in  New 
England  from  1790  to  1840,  II,  ’94/95,  39;  Amer- 
ican common  school  in  New  York,  New  Jer- 
sey and  Pennsylvania  during  the  first  half  cen- 
tury of  the  Republic,  II,  ’95/96*  6;  Common 


INDEX 


43 


Mayo,  A.  D.— Continued, 
school  in  the  Southern  states  beyond  the  Mis- 
sissippi, II;  ’00/01 , 10;  Development  of  the  com- 
mon school  in  the  Western  States,  II,  ’98/99,  8; 
Education  in  southwestern  Virginia,  II,  ’90/91, 
24,  IV,  4b,  206;  Education  in  the  Northwest  dur- 
ing the  first  half  century  of  the  Republic,  II,  ’94/95, 
38;  First  establishment  of  the  American  common 
school  system  in  West  Virginia,  Maryland,  Vir- 
ginia and  Delaware,  II,  ’03,  9;  Henry  Barnard, 
II,  ’96/97,  16,  ’02, 22;  Horace  Mann  and  the  great 
revival  of  the  American  common  school,  II, 
’96/97,  15;  Industrial  education  in  the  South,  III, 
’88,  5;  Organization  and  development  of  the 
American  common  school  in  . . . the  South,  II, 
’99/00, 7;  Organization  and  reconstruction  of  state 
systems  of  common  school  education  in  the  North 
Atlantic  states  from  1830  to  1865,  II,  ’97/98,  11; 
Original  establishment  of  state  school  funds,  II, 
’94/95,  37;  Public  schools  during  the  Colonial  and 
Revolutionary  period,  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  1)  16;  Robert 
Charles  Winthrop  and  the  Peabody  education 
fund, II, ’93/94  (pt.  1)  17;  William  Preston  John- 
ston’s work  for  a new  South,  II,  ’98/99,  30;  Work 
of  certain  Northern  churches  in  the  education  of 
the  freedmen,  II,  ’02,  5. 

Mead,  E.  D.,  Old  South  work,  II,  ’99/00,  16. 

Meals  for  school  children  (Hunt)  IV,  26,  403. 

Medical  colleges.  See  Medicine,  colleges. 

Medical  inspection,  schools  (Burgerstein  and  Neto- 
litzky)  II,  ’02, 11. 

Medicine,  education  (Warren)  II,  ’86/87, 21;  (Miller) 

II,  ’92/93  (pt.  3),  7;  U.  S.,  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  2),  5;  (Bau- 
douin)  II,  ’94/95,  29;  teaching,  U.  S.  (Toner)  IV, 
21, 145;  (Davis)  IV,  21, 149. 

Mental  fatigue,  II,  ’95/96,  23. 

Meriwether,  Colyer,  History  of  higher  education  in 
South  Carolina,  with  sketch  of  free  school  system, 

III,  ’88,  3,  IV,  4a,  99. 

Merriam,  L.  S.,  Higher  education  in  Tennessee,  TV, 
4a,  196. 

Mexico,  education  (Hilder),  II,  ’95/96,  12;  II,  ’07,  8. 

Meyers,  J.  F.,  Educational  methods  in  Germany, 
II,  ’71,  9;  Industrial  training  for  girls,  with  prac- 
tical lessons  in  household  economics,  as  taught  in 
Germany,  II,  ’73,  7. 

Milan.  International  exposition,  1894.  See  Exhibi- 
tions, educational. 

Miller,  A.  E.,  Medical  education,  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  3), 
7;  Professional  education,  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  2),  7, 
’94/95,  28. 

Miller,  Kelly,  Education  of  the  negro,  II,  ’00/01, 16. 

Missions,  educational  work,  II,  ’73,  3,  ’75,  4. 

Monahan,  A.  C.,  Opportunities  for  graduate  work 
in  agriculture  in  the  United  States,  IV,  2,  447. 

Monitorial  system  (Morrison),  II,  ’94/95,  23. 

Monroe,  W.  S.,  Progress  of  education  in  Italy,  II, 
’06,  4. 

Moral  education,  bibliography,  II,  ’09,  p.  30-32. 

Morgan,  H.  H.,  Justification  of  the  public  high 
school,  II,  ’99/00, 11. 

Morrill,  J.  S.,  (Atherton)  II,  ’99/00,  24. 

Morrison,  G.  B.,  Bell  and  Lancaster  system,  II, 
’94/95,  23. 

Mosely  educational  commission  (Harris)  II,  ’05,  1; 
extracts  from  report,  II,  ’05, 2. 

Moulton,  R.  G.,  The  university  of  the  future,  II 
’88/89,  21 A. 


Mount  Holyoke  seminary  (Nutting),  TV,  4b,  146. 

Murray,  David,  History  of  education  in  New  Jer- 
sey, IV,  4a,  252. 

Museums,  IV,  19;  school,  II,  ’91/92,  9. 

Music,  in  schools  (Tourjee)  II,  ’71,  14;  Germany, 
II,  ’95/96,  5;  teaching  (Manchester),  IV,  20,  387. 

Nashville.  Tennessee  centennial  and  international 
exposition,  1897.  See  Exhibitions,  educational. 

National  aid  to  education.  See  State  aid  to  schools. 

National  education  association,  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  3)  3i 
committee  of  fifteen,  city  school  systems,  II, 
’93/94  (pt.  1)  13,  correlation  of  studies,  II,  ’93/94 
(pt.  1)  12,  training  of  teachers,  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  1)  11; 
committee  of  ten,  secondary  school  studies,  II, 
’92/93  (pt.  3)  2;  committee  of  twelve,  rural  schools, 
II,  ’96/97,  17;  committee  on  relations  of  public 
libraries  to  public  schools,  II,  ’99/00, 13;  commit- 
tee on  school  statistics,  II,  ’90/91,  28;  Department 
of  superintendence,  proceedings,  II,  ’99/00;  8,  III, 
’74,  1,  ’75, 1,  ’88,  6;  IV,  5,  66,  71,  93,  102;  schedule 
for  Centennial  exposition,  III,  ’75,  8. 

National  pedagogic  congress  of  Spain,  Madrid,  1882. 
See  Congresses,  educational. 

Necrologies,  II,  ’86/87, 16,  ’87/88,  22,  ’88/89,  34,  ’89/90 
(pt.  2)  18,  ’92/93  (pt.  3)  10,  ’93/94  (pt.  2)  20,  ’95/96, 
35,  ’98/99,  49,  ’02,  7,  ’03,  28. 

Negroes,  education,  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  2)  13,  ’90/91,  26, 
’91/92,  27,  ’92/93  (pt.  3)  4,  ’94/95,  31;  ’94/95,  32, 
’95/96, 42;  (Mayo)  II,  ’98/99,  27;  (Miller)  II,  ’00/01, 
16;  (Mayo)  II,  ’02,  5;  higher  education,  II,  ’00/01, 
3;  industrial  education,  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  2)  8. 

Nervous  system  (Burk)  II,  ’00/01,  8. 

Netherlands,  education  (Nussbaum)  II,  ’94/95, 

11. 

Netolitzky,  August,  Medical  inspection  of  schools 
abroad,  II,  ’02, 11. 

New  England,  education  (Mayo)  II,  ’94/95,  39; 
(Bush)  II,  ’96/97,  24. 

New  Hampshire,  education  (Bush)  IV,  4a,  244. 

New  Jersey,  education  (Murray)  IV,  4a,  252; 
(Mayo)  II,  ’95/96,  6. 

New  York,  education  (Mayo),  II,  ’95/96,  6. 

New  York.  State  university  (Sherwood),  IV,  4a, 
264. 

New  Zealand,  education,  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  1)6;  (Smith) 
II,  ’97/98,  5;  II,  ’04, 1. 

Newell,  M.  A.,  Contributions  to  the  history  of  nor- 
mal schools  in  the  U.  S.,  II,  ’98/99,  48. 

Noah,  J.  J.,  The  press  as  an  educator,  II,  ’71, 17. 

Noel,  J.  V.,  Report  on  the  Chilean  educational  con- 
gress and  exhibit,  II,  ’03,  27. 

Normal  schools,  II,  ’70, 14,  ’88/89, 13;  (Gordy)  IV, 
31, 178;  curriculum,  II,  ’88/89, 11;  U.  S.  (Lyte)  II, 
’03,  22;  U.  S.,  history  (Newell),  II,  ’98/99,  48;  Vir- 
ginia (Joynes),  II,  ’00/01, 12. 

North  Carolina,  education  (Weeks),  II,  ’96/97,  29; 
(Mayo)  II,  ’04, 16;  (Smith)  III,  ’88, 2. 

Norway,  education  (French),  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  14, 
’96/97,  4. 

Nurses,  training,  II,  ’86/87,  13;  (Nutting)  II,  ’06, 8. 

Nussbaum,  Sophia,  Education  in  the  Netherlands, 
II,  ’94/95, 11. 

Nutting,  M.  Adelaide,  Education  and  professional 
position  of  nurses,  II,  ’06, 8. 

Nutting,  Mary  O.,  Historical  sketch  of  Mount  Hol- 
yoke seminary,  IV,  4b,  146. 

Obituaries.  See  Necrologies. 

Old  South  work  (Mead),  II,  ’99/00, 16. 


44 


INDEX, 


Oldrini,  Alexander,  Baccelli  bill  for  the  reform  of 
superior  education  in  Italy,  II,  ’02, 17;  Education 
in  Italy,  II,  ’90/91, 10;  Public  education  in  Italy, 
II,  ’98/99, 16. 

Olympic  games,  1896,  II,  ’95/96, 29. 

Ontario,  education,  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  1)  6. 

Over-pressure  in  schools,  II,  ’95/96,  23. 

Oxford  University,  II,  ’02,  24. 

Panama,  education,  II,  ’07, 8. 

Paris.  International  congress  of  secondary  and 
superior  education,  1889.  See  Congresses,  educa- 
tional. 

Paris.  International  exposition,  1900.  See  Exhibi- 
tions, educational. 

Paris.  University,  history  (Hoyt),  II,  ’04,  5. 

Parker,  F.  IF.,  II,  ’02,  4. 

Parker,  L.  F.,  Higher  education  in  Iowa,  IV,  4a,  197. 

Parks,  C.  W.,  Forestry  education,  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  2) 
2;  International  exposition  of  1894  in  Milan,  II, 
’93/94  (pt.  2)  17;  Lyons  universal  exposition  of 
1894,  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  2)  18. 

Parochial  schools  (Blodgett)  II,  ’94/95, 40;  (Sheedy) 
II,  ’03,  21. 

Paulsen,  Friedrich,  Character  and  historical  devel- 
opment of  the  German  universities,  II,  ’91/92, 10. 

Pauperism  and  education  (Mansfield),  II,  ’72, 10. 

Peabody,  Elizabeth  P.,  The  objects  of  the  kinder- 
garten, II,  ’71, 13. 

Peabody  education  fund,  II,  ’88/89,  14;  (Mayo)  II, 
’93/94  (pt.  1)  17. 

Pennsylvania,  education,  history  (Mayo),  II, 
’95/96,  6. 

Periodicals,  educational,  II,  ’87/88,  18;  ’86/87;  19, 
’98/99,23;  ’99/00,19;  ’00/01,26;  ’02,29;  ’03, 24; ’04, 
18;  ’06,11;  ’07,18;  ’10,17. 

Phelps,  Martha  L.,  Bibliography  of  education,  IV, 
5,  386. 

Philadelphia.  International  centennial  exhibition, 
1876.  See  Exhibitions,  educational. 

Philadelphia  normal  school  for  girls,  IV,  31, 150. 

Philbrick,  J.  D.,  City  school  systems,  III,  ’85, 1. 

Philippine  Islands,  education,  II,  ’99/00, 29;  (Atkin- 
son) II,  ’00/01,  29;  II,  ’02,  50;  ’03,  46;  ’05,  16;  ’06, 
7;  ’08,  4;  ’10,  6. 

Physical  training  (Hartwell),  II,  ’03, 17;  III,  ’85, 5; 
(Boykin)  II,  ’91/92, 13. 

Physiology  (Burk),  II,  ’00/01, 8;  (Curtis)  II,  ’00/01, 9. 

Playgrounds,  II,  ’99/00, 15;  (Curtis)  II,  ’03, 1,  ’07, 13. 

Plimsoll,  Samuel,  English  methods  of  teaching 
American  history,  II,  ’94/95,  44. 

Political  science,  promotion  of  study  (Adams),  II, 
’85/86, 11;  teaching,  England,  II,  ’96/97, 7;  France, 
II,  ’96/97,  7;  Switzerland,  II,  ’96/97,  7. 

Porto  Rico,  education  (Eaton),  II,  ’99/00,  4;  II, 
’99/00,  29;  ’02,  31;  (Lindsay)  II,  ’05, 15;  II,  ’07, 14; 
’08,  3;  ’10, 5. 

Portugal,  education,  III,  ’73, 1. 

Powell,  L.  P.,  History  of  education  in  Delaware, 
IV,  4a,  194. 

Presnell,  Henderson,  Library  legislation  in  the 
U.  S.,  II,  ’95/96,  9. 

Press,  as  educator  (Noah),  II,  ’71, 17. 

Prison  congress.  See  International  prison  congress. 

Professional  education  (Addis),  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  2)  9; 
(Addis)  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  2)  10;  (Miller),  II,  ’93/94 
(pt.  2>  7;  ’94/95,28;  (Addis),  II  ’96/97,25;  (Bald- 
win) II,  ’99/00,  10;  IV,  21. 


Promotion  of  pupils,  II,  ’98/99,  7;  IV,  22. 

Prussia,  school  conference,  1890,  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  10; 
school  system  (Klemm),  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  12. 

Psychology  (Smith),  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  1)  10;  ’96/97, 13; 
educational  (Buisson),  II,  ’02,  16;  physiological 
(Krohn),  II,  ’90/91,31. 

Putnam,  G.  P.,  Swedish  or  Ling  gymnastics,  II, 
’89/90  (pt.  2)  14. 

Quinn,  Daniel,  Education  in  Greece,  II,  ’96/97,  8; 
Language  question  in  Greece,  II,  ’99/00, 23. 

Railway  service,  training  (Eaton),  II,  ’98/99,  17;  II, 
’00/01,  7;  (Eaton)  IV,  16,  270,  420. 

Randall,  C.  D.,  Fifth  international  prison  congress, 
II,  ’95/96, 13. 

Reform  schools,  III,  ’75,  6. 

Reindeer,  Alaska  (Jackson),  II,  ’97/98,  41;  ’98/99, 
32;  ’99/00,  33;  ’00/01,  32;  ’02,  33;  ’03,  45;  ’04, 17;  ’05, 
14;  (Upedegralf)  II,  ’07, 15;  IV,  3,  291,  346,  448. 

Reiser,  Lorenz,  Common-school  system  of  Bavaria, 
II,  ’92/93  (pt.  1)  8. 

Religious  education,  public  schools,  II,  ’88/89,  17; 
Saxony  (Show),  IV,  13,  423. 

Rensselaer  polytechnio  institute  (Ricketts),  II, 
’91/92,  23. 

Research  (Walcott),  II,  ’00/01,  22;  IV,  23. 

Retardation  and  elimination  (Strayer),  IV,  22, 451. 

Rhodes  scholarships  (Harris),  II,  ’02, 24;  II,  ’05, 3. 

Ricketts,  P.  C.,  Rensselaer  polytechnio  institute, 
II,  ’91/92,  23. 

Riedler,  A.,  American  technological  schools,  II, 
’92/93  (pt.  2)  7. 

Rose,  Wickliffe,  Educational  movement  in  the 
South,  II,  ’03,  8. 

Rowe,  L.  S.,  Educational  progress  in  the  Argentine 
Republic  and  Chile,  II,  ’09,  7;  IV,  13,  416. 

Royal  normal  college  for  the  blind,  London  (Eaton), 
II,  ’98/99,  9. 

Ruediger,  W.  C.,  Agencies  for  the  improvement  of 
teachers  in  service,  IV,  31,  449. 

Rural  schools  (Corbett),  II,  ’99/100,  12;  (committee 
of  twelve)  II,  ’96/97,  17;  centralization,  II,  ’00/01, 
3;  transportation  of  pupils,  II,  ’94/95,35;  ’00/01,3. 

Russia,  education  (French),  II, ’90/91,8;  ’93/94  (pt. 
1)  9;  (Kovalevsky),  II,  ’02,  28;  (Laveleye)  III, 
’75, 3. 

St.  Louis,  Mo.,  education  (Harris),  II,  ’98/99, 19. 

St.  Louis.  Louisiana  purchase  exposition.  See 
Exhibitions,  educational. 

Salve,  de,  Education  in  Turkey,  III,  ’75, 3. 

Samoa,  education,  II,  ’99/00, 29. 

Santiago.  Chilean  educational  congress  and  ex- 
hibit, 1902-03.  See  Exhibitions,  educational. 

Savings  banks,  school  (Thiry)  II,  ’88/89, 21C. 

Sohoberle,  Franz,  Results  of  home  training  and 
influence,  II,  ’91/92,  8. 

School  administration  (state  and  city),  IV,  24. 
See  also  name  of  State. 

School  architecture.  See  Schoolhouses. 

School  attendance,  duration  (Harris),  II,  ’91/92, 14; 
(Woodward)  II,  ’94/95,  24. 

School  children,  II,  ’02,  46;  London  (Warner)  II, 
’90/91,  30;  Toronto  (Boas),  II,  ’96/97,  34. 

School  districts  (Addis),  II,  ’94/95,  34. 

School  funds,  state  (Mayo),  II,  ’94/95,  37. 

School  gardens  (Gang),  II,  ’98/99,  20. 

Schoolhouses,  IV,  25;  portable,  II,  ’98/99,  50. 

School  hygiene  (Clark)  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  2)  10;  IV,  26. 


INDEX. 


45 


School  law,  II,  ’85/86,  1;  England,  1896,  (Smith) 
II,  ’95/96,  2;  England,  1902,  II,  ’04,  13;  Gt.  Brit., 
1906  (Smith)  IV,  13,  360;  Ohio  (Hinsdale)  II, 
’00/01,  2;  Prussia,  1906,  II,  ’06,  3;  U.  S.,  (Addis) 
II,  ’93/94  (pt.  2),  9;  II,  ’08,  2,  ’10,  2,  IV,  24,  364; 
agricultural  colleges,  IV,  1,  348;  digest,  II,  ’04,  4; 
digest  (Elliott)  IV,  29,  363,  396,  438;  sanitary 
(Clark)  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  2)  10. 

School  rooms,  deooration,  (Weeks)  II,  ’95/96,31. 

School  sanitation,  IV,  25.  See  also  School  hygiene. 

School  savings  banks,  (Thiry)  II,  ’88/89,  21c. 

Science,  national  schools,  (Gilman)  II,  ’71, 4;  teach- 
ing, (Addis)  II,  ’96/97,  20;  bibliography,  IV,  7, 
446. 

Scotland,  education,  II,  ’89/90,  (pt.  1)  5;  (Smith)  II, 
’89/90,  (pt.  1)  4,  ’90/91, 4;  (Laurie)  II,  ’10,14. 

Seaver,  E.  P.,  care  of  truants  and  incorrigibles,  II, 
’91/92,  25. 

Secondary  education  (Brown)  II,  ’03,  12;  IV,  27; 
college  certificates,  II,  ’02,  12;  curriculum,  II, 
’92/93  (pt.  3)  2;  England,  II,  ’94/95, 13;  (Aronstein) 
II,  ’99/00,  2;  Germany  (Jacobson)  III,  '74,  3; 
Gt.  Brit.  (Smith)  II,  ’90/91,  5;  New  York  state, 
(Draper)  II,  ’05,  9;  New  Zealand  (Stout)  II, 
’90/91,  2;  Prussia  (Thurber)  II,  ’89/90,  (pt.  1)  10; 
U.  S.  (Compayre)  II,  ’95/96,  22;  IV,  26,  409.  See 
also  High  schools. 

Servia,  education,  III,  ’75,  3. 

Settlements  (Curtis)  II,  ’03, 1. 

Sexton,  Samuel,  Causes  of  deafness  among  school 
children,  IV,  26,  68. 

Shearer,  W.  J.,  Elizabeth  plan,  II,  ’98/99,  7. 

Sheedy,  M.  M.,  Catholic  parochial  schools  of  the 
U.  S.,  II,  ’03,  21. 

Sherwood,  Sidney,  University  of  the  state  of  New 
York,  history  of  higher  education  in  New  York, 
IV,  4a,  264. 

Show,  A.  B.,  Movement  for  reform  in  teaching  of 
religion  in  Saxony,  IV,  13, 423. 

Shufeldt,  R.  W.,  Outlines  for  a museum  of  anat- 
omy, IV,  19,  154. 

Slater  fund,  II,  ’94/95,  32. 

Sluys,  A.,  R61e  of  the  school-teacher  in  the  struggle 
against  alcoholism,  II,  ’99/00,  9. 

Smart,  J.  H.,  Teachers’  institutes,  III,  ’85,  2. 

Smith,  Anna  T.,  Brief  view  of  the  educational  sys- 
tems of  England  and  Scotland,  II,  ’90/91,  4;  Co- 
education in  the  schools  and  colleges  of  the  U.  S., 
II,  ’03,  20,  ’91/92,  26;  Education  bill  of  1906  for 
England  and  Wales,  IV,  13,  360;  Education  in 
France,  II,  ’90/91,  3,  ’91/92,  3,  ’92/93  (pt.  1)  5,  ’93/94 
(pt.  1)  6j  ’95/96, 11,  ’96/97,  2,  ’97/98,  16;  Education 
in  Gt.  Brit,  and  Ireland,  II,  ’95/96,  3, ’96/97, 1, 
’97/98,  3;  Educational  exhibits  at  the  Jamestown 
exposition,  IL,  ’07,  9;  Educational  system  for 
England,  1889-90,  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  6;  Educational 
system  in  Ireland,  II,  ’90/91,  6;  Educational  sys- 
tem of  France,  1888-89,  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  7;  Educa- 
tional system  of  Scotland,  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  4; 
Elementary  education  in  Gt.  Brit,  and  Ireland, 
II,  ’91/92,  4;  Elementary  education  in  London 
and  Paris,  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  8;  English  edu- 
cation bill,  1896,  II,  ’95/96,  2;  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland,  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  1)5;  Historical  survey  of 
education  in  Scotland,  II,  '89/90  (pt.  1)5;  Progress 
of  education  for  women,  II,  ’71,  10;  Provision  for 
secondary  and  for  technical  instruction  in  Gt. 


Smith,  Anna  T.— Continued. 

Brit.,  II,  ’90/91, 5;  Psychological  revival,  II,  ’93/94 
(pt.  1)  10;  Psychological  tendencies;  the  study  of 
imitation,  II,  ’96/97,  13;  System  of  public  educa- 
tion in  Belgium,  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  1)  3;  Systems  of 
public  education  in  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and 
Tasmania,  II,  ’97/98,  5;  Technical  instruction  in 
Gt.  Brit.,  II,  ’91/92,  5. 

Smith,  C.  L.,  History  of  education  in  North  Caro- 
lina, III,  ’88, 2. 

Snow,  M.  S.,  Higher  education  in  Missouri,  IV,  4a, 
243. 

Social  pathology  and  education,  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  18, 
’00/01,  5. 

Societies,  educational,  (Weeks)  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  2)  13. 

Society  and  crime,  II,  ’70, 17. 

Sociology  (Ward)  II,  ’99/00,  28;  teaching  (Ful- 
comer)  II,  ’94/95, 27. 

Soh,  P.  K.,  Education  in  Korea,  II,  ’90/91, 11. 

South  Africa,  II,  ’02,  9. 

South  America,  education,  II,  ’10,  9. 

South  Carolina,  education,  II,  ’04, 16;  II,  ’99/00,  6; 
(Meriwether)  III,  ’88,  3,  IV,  4a,  99. 

Southern  states,  (Mayo)  II,  ’98/99,  30;  (Mayo)  II, 
’95/96, 7;  (Weeks)  11,  ’96/97,  29;  ’99/00, 7;  II,  ’00/01, 
10, 11, 13;  (Dabney)  II,  ’00/01, 20;  (Rose)  II,  ’03, 8; 
’03,11;  (Dickerman)  II,  ’07,  11;  (Dabney)  IV,  28, 
290. 

Spain,  education,  II,  '88/89,  8,  III,  ’73, 1. 

Spelling  reform  (March)  IV,  29,  202. 

Spencer,  D.  E.,  Higher  education  in  Wisconsin,  IV, 
4a,  157. 

State  aid  to  schools,  TV7,  4b,  140;  higher  education 
(Addis)  II,  ’96/97,  23. 

Steiner,  B.  C.,  History  of  education  in  Connecticut 
IV,  4a,  193;  History  of  education  in  Maryland, 
IV,  4a,  210. 

Stout,  Sir  Robert,  Secondary  education  in  New 
Zealand,  II,  ’90/91,  2. 

Strayer,  G . D.,  Age  and  grade  census  of  schools  and 
colleges,  IV,  22,  451;  Summary  of  the  statistical 
tables,  II,  ’08,  27. 

Students,  pecuniary  aid,  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  3)  5. 

Summer  colonies.  See  Vacation  colonies. 

Summer  schools,  (Willoughby)  II,  ’91/92,  29; 
(Weeks)  II,  ’94/95,  36;  Europe  (Adams)  II, 
’97/98,  2. 

Summers,  Alexander,  Illiteracy  in  the  U.  S.,  II, 
’92/93  (pt.  1)  2;  Public,  society  and  school  libra- 
ries, II,  ’95/96,  8. 

Sunday-schools,  II,  '73,  3;  ’75,  4;  (Blodgett)  II, 
’96/97,  9,  IV,  30,  241. 

Supervision,  II,  ’70, 19. 

Suzzara-Verdi,  Tullio  de,  Progress  of  public  educa- 
tion in  Italy,  II,  ’02, 17. 

Sweden,  education,  II,  ’88/89,  7,  ’91/92,  12,  ’95/96, 
20;  ’98/99,  5,  ’04,  11. 

Swedish  gymnastics  (Putnam)  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  2)  14; 
(Hough)  II,  ’98/99,  26. 

Switzerland,  education  (Klemm)  II,  ’91/92,  7; 
schools,  II,  ’88/89,  5. 

Talmud  (Imber)  II,  ’94/95,  46. 

Tasmania,  education  (Smith)  II,  ’97/98,  5. 

Teachers,  certification,  U.  S.,  (Jackson)  II,  ’03,  10, 
(Updegraff)  IV,  24,  465;  efficiency  (Ruediger)  IV, 
31,  449;  insurance,  Germany,  II,  ’04,  3;  length  of 
service,  II,  ’04,  23;  New  England,  II,  ’88/89,  12; 


46 


INDEX. 


Teachers,  certification,  etc. — Continned. 
pensions,  II,  ’96/97, 33;  pensions,  Germany,  II,  ’04, 
3;  secondary  schools,  U.  S.  (Thorndike)  IV,  27, 
404;  tours,  France  (Ferry)  IV,  31,  118;  training, 
II,  ’93/94  (pt.  1)  11;  IV,  31;  training,  Austria 
(Klemm)II,’91/92,6;  training,  Germany  (Klemm) 
II,  ’91/92,  6;  training,  Switzerland  (Klemm)  II, 
’91/92,  6. 

Technical  education  (Thompson)  III,  ’85,  3;  IV,  16; 
America  (Riedler)  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  2)  7;  Europe,  II, 
’90/91,  7;  U.  S.  (Woodward)  II,  ’03,  19;  Gt.  Brit. 
(Smith)  II,  ’90/91,  5;  ’91/92,  5. 

Technical  schools,  entrance  requirements,  II, 
’96/97,  11. 

Temperance,  instruction,  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  2)  3; 
(Plumb)  II,  ’94/95,  48;  II,  ’96/97,  33;  (Sluys)  II, 
’99/00,  9;  (Hunt)  II,  ’99/00,  21;  II,  ’00/01,  21,  ’02,  6. 
’04,  7. 

Tennessee  centennial  and  international  exposition, 
1897.  See  Exhibitions,  educational. 

Text  books,  Confederate  (Weeks)  II,  ’98/99,  22; 
state  laws,  II,  ’88/89, 19. 

Textile  schools,  Europe  (Brooks)  II,  ’97/98,  8.  See 
also  Industrial  education. 

Thiry,  J.  H.,  II,  ’88/89,  21c. 

Thomas,  W.  S.,  Changes  in  the  age  of  college  grad- 
uates, II,  ’02,  48. 

Thompson,  C.  O.,  Art  education,  II,  ’73,  5;  Review 
of  the  British  royal  commission  on  technical 
instruction,  III,  ’85,  3. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.,  Introduction  to  the  statistical 
tables,  II,  ’07,  19;  Teaching  staff  of  secondary 
schools  in  the  U.  S.,  IV,  26,  404. 

Thorpe,  F.  N.,  Franklin’s  influence  in  American 
education,  II,  ’00/01,  2. 

Thurber,  C.  H.,  The  higher  schools  of  Prussia  and 
the  school  conference  of  1890,  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  10. 

Thwing,  C.  F.,  American  universities,  II,  ’03,  5. 

Tolman,  W.  H.,  History  of  higher  education  in 
Rhode  Island,  IV,  4a,  209. 

Toner,  J.  M.,  Medical  progress  and  medical  educa- 
tion in  the  U.  S.,  IV,  21, 145. 

Tourjee,  E.  F.,  Musical  education  in  common 
schools,  II,  ’71, 14. 

Townley,  D.  O’C.,  Cooper  union,  II,  ’71, 11. 

Transportation  of  pupils.  See  Rural  schools,  trans- 
portation of  pupils. 

Truant  schools,  II,  ’99/00,  3. 

Truants.  See  Delinquent  children. 

Turkey,  education  (Salve)  III,  ’75,  3. 

United  States,  comparison  of  schools  of,  Germany 
and  France,  II,  ’88/89,  2;  education  (Mayo)  II, 
’94/95,  38,  ’97/98,  11,  ’98/99,  8;  (Gay)  II,  ’04, 14-15; 
(Gove)  II,  ’03,  7;  (Hough)  III,  ’75,  7;  IV,  4b; 
(Hailmann)  IV,  16,  361;  foreign  influence  (Hins- 
dale) II,  ’97/98, 13;  education,  history  (Mayo)  II, 
’93/94  (pt.  1)  16,  ’96/97,  15,  '95/96,6,7;  (Hinsdale) 
II,  ’92/93  (pt.  3)  1;  IV,  42;  government  oflices 
(Hadley)  IV,  23,  398.  See  also  New  England, 
Southern  States. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  education,  II,  ’07, 1;  IV,  8;  index, 
publications  (1867-1890),  II,  ’88/89, 35;  index,  pub. 
lications  (1868-1887),  II,  ’86/87,  22;  index,  reports, 
IV,  8,  407;  publications,  1867-1895,  II,  94/95,  47; 
1867-1906,  II,  ’06,  p.  vii-xlviii;  IV,  8,  372,  385, 
439. 


U.  S.  Military  academy,  West  Point,  (Holden)  II, 
’91/92,  24. 

U.  S.  Naval  academy,  Annapolis,  (Holden)  II, 
’98/99,  14. 

Universities  and  colleges,  admission  by  certificate, 
II,  ’94/95,  25,  ’02,  12;  age  of  graduates  (Thomas), 
II,  ’02,  48;  curriculum,  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  2)  6,  ’99/00, 
10;  entrance  requirements,  II,  ’96/97,  11;  foreign, 

II,  ’89/90  (pt.  1)  17,  ’95/96,  32,  ’96/97,  28;  Germany 
(Lexis)  II,  ’91/92,  10;  graduate  departments,  II, 
’89/90  (pt.  2)  7;  length  of  course,  II,  ’02,  23,  IV, 
14,  297;  statistics,  IV,  32;  state,  IV,  32,  397,  422, 
445;  United  States,  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  2)  5,  ’91/92,  22, 
(Thwing)  II,  ’03,  5;  II,  ’04,  21;  Chinese  students, 
(Fryer)  IV,  14,  399;  commencements,  III,  ’73,  3, 
’73,5;  faculties,  bibliography,  III,  ’73,  4;  physical 
training,  (Hartwell)  III,  ’85,5;  Virginia  (Adams) 

III,  ’88,  1.  See  also  Higher  education. 

University  extension  (Harris)  II,  ’91/92,  21;  Eng- 
land (Adams)  II,  ’85/86,  12;  Gt.  Brit.  (Adams)  II, 
’98/99,  18;  Oxford,  II,  ’02,  24. 

Updegraff,  Harlan,  Report  on  Alaska  school  service 
and  Alaska  reindeer  service,  II,  ’07, 15;  Teachers’ 
certificates  issued  under  general  state  laws  and 
regulations,  IV,  24,  465. 

Uruguay,  education,  III,  ’73,  1;  (French)  II,  ’92/93 
(pt.  1)  9;  II,  ’07,  8. 

Vacation  colonies,  II,  ’06,27,  IV,  26, 116. 

Vacation  schools,  II,  ’99/00, 15;  (Curtis)  II,  ’03,  1. 

Van  Sickle,  J.  H.,  Plan  of  the  north-side  schools  of 
Denver,  II,  ’98/99,  7. 

Viereck,  L.,  German  instruction  in  American 
schools,  II,  ’00/01, 14. 

Virginia,  education  (Mayo)  II,  ’90/91,  24,  ’03,  7,  IV, 
4b,  206;  education,  history,  II,  ’99/00,  6. 

Virginia.  University  (Adams)  III,  ’88,  1,  IV,  4a, 
97. 

Vocational  training,  Prussia,  II,  ’10,  7. 

Voss,  P.,  Co-education  of  the  sexes,  II,  ’88/89,  17A. 

Walcott,  C.  D.,  Relations  of  the  National  Govern- 
ment to  higher  education  and  research,  II,  ’00/01, 
22. 

Wales.  See  Great  Britain. 

Walker,  F.  A.,  Educational  topics,  II,  ’96/97,  14. 

Walker,  F,  A.,  II,  ’96/97,  14. 

Ward,  L.  F.,  Sociology  at  the  Paris  exposition  of 
1900,  II,  ’99/00,  28. 

Warner,  Francis,  Report  to  the  British  medical  as- 
sociation ...  on  the  physical  and  mental  condition 
of ...  children  in  schools  of  London,  II,  ’90/91,  30. 

Warren,  Charles,  Indian  school  at  Carlisle  Barracks, 

IV,  15, 114;  Medical  colleges  and  the  medical  pro- 
fession, II,  ’86/87,  21. 

Warren,  Joseph,  Schools  in  British  India,  III, 
’73, 2 

Washington,  D.  C.  See  District  of  Columbia. 

Watson,  Foster,  Notices  of  some  early  English 
writers  on  education,  II,  ’00/01,  17,  ’02,  10,  ’03,  6, 
’04,  8. 

Weeks,  S.  B.,  Art  decoration  in  school  rooms,  II, 
’95/96,  31;  Beginnings  of  the  common-school  sys- 
tem in  the  South,  II,  ’96/97, 29;  Check  list  of  Amer- 
ican summer  schools,  II,  ’94/95,  36;  Confederate 
text-books,  II,  ’98/99, 22;  Preliminary  list  of  Amer- 
ican learned  and  educational  societies,  II,  '93/94 
(pt.  2)  13. 


INDEX, 


47 


Wells,  Roger,  jr.,  Eskimo  vocabularies,  II,  ’96/97, 
26. 

West  Point  Military  Academy.  See  U.  S.  Military 
Academy,  West  Point. 

West  Virginia,  education  (Mayo)  II,  ’03,  9. 

Western  literary  institute  and  college  of  profes- 
sional teachers,  (Hinsdale)  II,  ’98/99,  13. 

Western  States,  education,  (Mayo)  II,  ’98/99,  8. 

White,  E.  E.,  Isolation  and  unification  as  basis  of 
courses  of  study,  II,  ’95/96,  18;  Promotions  and 
examinations  in  graded  schools,  IV,  22,  177;  Sev- 
eral problems  in  graded  school  management,  II, 
’96/97,  32. 

Widgery,  W.  H.,  Report  on  the  educational  con- 
gresses and  exhibitions  held  in  Paris  in  1889,  II, 
’89/90  (pt.  1)  2. 

Wiley,  C.  H.,  (Weeks)  II,  ’96/97,  29. 

Willard,  Frances  H.,  Grammar  and  vocabulary  of 
the  Hlinglt  language  of  southeastern  Alaska,  II, 
’04, 10. 

Willard,  H.  R.,  Contributions  to  the  history  of  the 
Hopkins  grammar  School,  New  Haven,  Conn., 
II,  ’99/00,  22. 

William  and  Mary  College  (Adams)  IV,  4a,  94. 

Willoughby,  W.  F.,  and  Willoughby,  W.  W., 
Schools  for  recruiting  the  civil  service  in  France 
and  ...  the  civil-service  requirements  in  Prussia, 
II,  ’91/92, 11. 


Willoughby,  W.  W.,  History  of  summer  schools  in 
the  U.  S.,  II,  ’91/92,  29.  See  also  W.  F.  Wil- 
loughby. 

Wilson,  J.  O.,  Eighty  years  of  the  public  schools  of 
Washington,  II,  ’94/95,  41. 

Wilson,  L.  N.,  Bibliography  of  child  study,  IV,  7, 457. 

Winthrop,  R.  C.,  (Mayo)  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  1)  17. 

Wissler,  Clark,  Statistics  of  growth,  II,  ’04,  2. 

Wolkonsky,  Serge,  Higher  education  of  women  in 
Russia,  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  2)  8. 

Women,  educational  progress,  (Smith)  II,  ’71,  10; 
higher  education,  II,  ’89/90  (pt.  2)  4;  Russia 
(Wolkonsky)  II,  ’92/93  (pt.  2)  8. 

Woodbum,  J.  A.,  Higher  education  in  Indiana,  XV, 
4a,  170. 

Woodward,  C.  M.,  At  what  age  do  pupils  withdraw 
from  the  public  schools?  II,  ’94/95,  24;  Manual, 
industrial,  and  technical  education  in  the  U.  S., 
II,  ’03,  19,  IV,  16,  353;  Rise  and  progress  of  man- 
ual training,  II,  ’93/94  (pt.  2)  5. 

Working  classes,  education,  II,  ’71, 12. 

World’s  industrial  and  cotton  centennial  exposi- 
tion, New  Orleans,  1884-85.  See  Exhibitions,  ed- 
ucational. 

Wright,  C.  D.,  Apprenticeship  system  in  its  relation 
to  industrial  education,  IV,  16,  389. 

Wyer,  J.  I.,  jr.,  Bibliography  of  education,  IV,  7, 
386. 


o 


' 


UNITED  STATES  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 

BULLETIN,  1911,  NO.  18 WHOLE  NUMBER  465 


TEACHERS’  CERTIFICATES  ISSUED 
UNDER  GENERAL  STATE  LAWS 
AND  REGULATIONS 

By  HARLAN  UPDEGRAFF 

SPECIALIST  IN  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 
BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1911 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 

Letter  of  transmittal 5 

Introduction 7 

Principal  features  of  teachers’  certificates 10 

Number  of  certificates 136 

Names  of  certificates 137 

Agencies  that  issue  certificates 138 

Preparation  of  questions  and  examination  of  papers 143 

Provisions  of  certificates 145 

Territory  covered  by  certificate 154 

Validity  of  certificates — Schools  or  positions 156 

Duration  of  certificates 159 

Scholarship  and  experience  requirements 163 

Certificates  based  primarily  on  graduation  from  college 164 

Certificates  based  primarily  on  completion  of  courses  in  normal  schools 174 

Certificates  based  primarily  upon  graduation  from  high  schools 182 

Certificates  based  primarily  upon  examination 187 

First,  second,  and  third  grade  county  certificates  and  their  equivalents 187 

First  or  highest  grade  of  county  certificates 191 

Experience  requirements  for  county  certificates  and  their  equivalents 196 

Certificates  next  higher  in  rank  than  first-grade  county  certificates 197 

Highest  certificates  based  upon  examination 200 

Primary,  kindergarten,  and  special  certificates 206 

Supervisors’  certificates 209 

Some  commendable  features  in  scholarship  and  experience  requirements 209 

Persistence  of  certificates 217 

Transfer  of  grades  from  lower  to  higher  certificates 223 

Minimum  age  requirements 226 

Fees.- 228 

Suspension  and  revocation  of  certificates 231 

Recognition  of  diplomas  and  certificates  of  educational  institutions  granted  in 

other  States  and  of  teachers’  certificates  issued  in  other  States 244 

A digest  of  the  laws  and  regulations  bearing  upon  the  recognition  of  diplomas 

and  certificates  in  each  of  the  States 245 

Appendix:  Acts  of  various  legislatures  passed  during  the  winter  of  1911 257 

Bibliography  of  teachers’  certificates 262 

Index 267 


3 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


Department  of  The  Interior, 

Bureau  of  Education, 
Washington , D.  C. , October  3,  1911. 

Sir:  The  teacher  is  the  most  important  factor  in  the  school;  the  selec- 
tion of  teachers  the  most  important  and  difficult  duty  of  school  officers. 
Public  funds  and  children  must  be  guarded  against  incompetent 
teachers.  To  do  this,  all  the  States  of  the  Union  have  by  law  pro- 
vided for  the  examination  of  applicants  and  for  some  form  of  license 
or  certification  for  those  who  pass  the  examination  in  such  way  as  to 
indicate  their  fitness  to  teach  and  their  ability  to  manage  schools. 
Since  each  State  controls  its  own  school  system,  a certificate  issued  in 
one  State  has  no  inherent  value  in  another.  Teachers,  therefore, 
moving  from  one  State  to  another  find  it  necessary  to  obtain  a new 
license  or  certificate  at  the  expense  of  another  examination,  unless 
there  is  some  law  in  that  State  by  which  certificates  or  licenses 
granted  in  the  former  State  may  be  recognized.  Since  many  thou- 
sands of  teachers  move  from  one  State  to  another  every  year  and  the 
numbers  who  do  so  are  constantly  increasing,  this  question  of  the 
recognition  of  certificates  becomes  very  important.  The  purpose  of 
examination  and  certification  is  to  find  good  and  competent  teachers, 
not  to  impose  upon  them  unnecessary  burdens.  If  all  States  had  the 
same  standards  the  problem  would  be  easy.  Certificates  of  any  given 
class  issued  in  any  State  might  then  be  recognized  at  their  face  value 
in  all  other  States;  but  until  now  standards  have  varied  widely,  and 
universal  recognition  of  certificates  is  therefore  impossible.  Notwith- 
standing this  difficulty,  the  practice  has  become  established  in  many 
States  of  recognizing  certificates  of  the  higher  grades  issued  in  other 
States  in  which  there  is  an  equivalency  of  requirements.  In  some  of 
the  North  Central  and  Western  States  this  recognition  extends  to 
certificates  of  lower  grades,  and  everywhere  there  is  a tendency 
toward  a greater  liberality  in  this  matter. 

So  important  has  the  question  become  that  the  chief  State  education 
officers  have  taken  it  up  for  formal  and  careful  consideration  in  two 
conferences,  held  respectively  at  Lincoln,  Nebr.,  May  31  and  June  1, 
1910,  and  at  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  November  17,  18,  19,  1910.  A 
third  conference  for  this  purpose  has  been  called  to  meet  at  Topeka, 

5 


6 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


Kans.,  October  18,  19,  20,  1911.  The  conferences  held  have  focused 
attention  upon  the  desirability  of  removing  all  unreasonable  barriers 
to  the  free  and  full  recognition  of  all  standard  certificates,  and  of 
establishing  such  standards  as  will  make  this  possible. 

This  Office  has  cooperated  with  the  chief  State  education  officers  in 
their  conferences.  Dr.  Harlan  Updegraff,  Specialist  in  School  Admin- 
istration, has  attended  both  of  the  conferences  already  held,  and  he 
prepared  the  material  upon  which  the  deliberations  of  the  second 
conference  were  partially  based.  The  manuscript  by  Dr.  Updegraff, 
which  1 have  the  honor  to  forward  herewith,  has  been  written  pri- 
marily to  meet  the  needs  of  future  conferences;  but  it  will,  in  my 
judgment,  prove  helpful  to  all  administrators  of  public  education  and 
to  the  many  teachers  who  desire  to  know  about  the  system  of  certifi- 
cation in  the  United  States.  I,  therefore,  recommend  its  publication 
as  a bulletin  of  the  Bureau  of  Education. 

Very  respectfully,  P.  P.  Claxton, 

Commissioner . 

The  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 


TEACHERS’  CERTIFICATES  ISSUED  UNDER  GEN- 
ERAL STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

This  study  was  undertaken  originally  at  the  request  of  the  first 
conference  of  chief  State  education  officers  regarding  the  recognition 
in  each  State  of  teachers’  certificates  and  of  diplomas  of  educational 
institutions  issued  in  other  States,  held  in  Lincoln,  Nebr.,  May  31 
and  June  1,  1910.  In  November,  1910,  a limited  edition  of  200 
copies  of  124  pages  of  bound  proof  was  issued  as  a means  of  assisting 
the  second  conference  of  these  officers  held  in  Salt  Lake  City,  Utah, 
November  17,  18,  and  19.  This  bound  proof  included  the  table 
showing  the  principal  features  of  teachers’  certificates  in  the  various 
States  (p.  12)  and  a summary  of  the  laws  and  regulations  in  the 
various  States  governing  the  recognition  of  diplomas  of  higher  edu- 
cational institutions  situated  in  the  other  States  and  of  other  certifi- 
cates issued  in  other  States.  The  completion  of  the  study  was 
delayed  from  time  to  time  by  reason  of  the  pressing  nature  of  other 
official  duties  which  were  more  immediate  in  character,  until  it  was 
thought  best  to  incorporate  in  the  study  the  acts  of  the  40  or  more 
legislatures  which  convened  during  the  past  winter.  This  was  espe- 
cially desirable  for  the  reason  that  there  was  much  important  legis- 
lation in  a large  number  of  States,  part  of  which  was  due  in  a measure 
to  the  interest  that  had  been  awakened  through  the  conferences 
above  mentioned.  No  less  than  10  States  revised  their  entire  sys- 
tems of  certification  or  enacted  legislation  which  has  brought  about 
or  will  bring  about  radical  changes  in  their  systems.  These  States 
are  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  Georgia,  Texas,  North 
Dakota,  Nebraska,  Nevada,  Idaho,  and  Oregon.  In  all,  approxi- 
mately one-half  the  States  amended  their  laws;  some — as  Iowa,  Mis- 
souri, and  Kansas — making  changes  of  considerable  importance.  This 
study  includes  all  the  changes  in  the  States  named  above,  except 
those  in  Georgia,  which  have  not  yet  been  made  by  the  State  board, 
and  in  all  other  States  knowledge  of  which  reached  this  office  before 
it  became  necessary  to  close  the  subordinate  tables  so  as  to  proceed 
with  the  analysis.  Changes  received  later  are  given  in  the  appendix. 

All  licenses  to  teach  in  the  public  schools  of  the  United  States, 
except  those  issued  by  city  boards  of  education  in  accordance  with 
conditions  prescribed  by  such  boards,  are  embraced  in  this  study. 

7 


8 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


Diplomas  and  certificates  of  educational  institutions  that,  either  by 
law  or  by  regulations  of  State  boards,  are  declared  licenses  to  teach 
are  included,  as  well  as  those  city  certificates  the  conditions  for  the 
issuance  of  which  are  set  forth  in  the  acts  of  the  State  legislatures  or 
in  the  regulations  of  State  boards  of  education.  In  other  words, 
every  license  that  is  fully  defined  in  the  educational  laws  of  the  State 
or  in  the  regulations  of  the  central  educational  authorities  is  made  a 
part  of  this  study,  while  any  license  which  is  framed  for  the  most 
part  by  local  regulations  is  omitted.  It  has  not  been  possible,  how- 
ever, to  make  an  analysis  of  the  laws  relating  to  those  city  certificates 
which  are  described. 

The  method  of  treatment  is,  first,  the  presentation  of  the  provi- 
sions of  the  laws  and  regulations  in  certain  principal  tables,  and, 
second,  the  analysis  of  the  facts  presented  therein.  The  principal 
tables  are  as  follows:  (1)  Principal  features  of  teachers*  certificates 
in  the  various  States  (Table  1,  pp.  12-135) ; (2)  Minimum  age  require- 
ments (Table  32,  pp.  226-28);  (3)  Fees  (Table  33,  pp.  228-31);  (4) 
Revocation  of  certificates  (Table  34,  pp.  232-43) ; (5)  Recognition  of 
diplomas  of  educational  institutions  situated  in  other  States  and 
of  certificates  issued  in  other  States  (pp.  244-56).  In  the  analysis 
of  the  facts  presented  the  first  table  has  received  the  greatest  atten- 
tion. This  is  due  to  the  greater  importance  of  the  material  it  con- 
tains, and  also  to  the  fact  that  the  other  tables  are  not  susceptible 
of  so  extended  treatment.  Facts  are  given  a mathematical  form 
and  arranged  in  subordinate  tables  whenever  possible  in  order  to 
facilitate  exact  comparison.  A summary  of  the  results  of  the  com- 
parisons is  given  in  text  form  in  connection  with  the  table. 

The  fundamental  purpose  of  the  study  is  to  answer  the  question, 
What  is  the  exact  status  of  the  legal  provisions  relating  to  certifica- 
tion of  teachers  in  the  various  States  at  the  present  time?  in  such  a 
way  as  to  furnish  data  in  the  best  form  for  use  in  the  construction  of 
standards  of  measurement  for  all  certificates  and  in  the  preparation 
of  standard  systems  of  certification.  No  attempt  is  made  to  dis- 
cuss the  merits  of  various  practices,  although  the  superior  advan- 
tages of  certain  features  are  made  apparent  in  the  natural  develop- 
ment of  the  fundamental  purpose  of  the  study.  Certain  matters 
quite  unimportant  from  this  point  of  view,  but  of  considerable  inter- 
est in  other  connections,  are  omitted;  as,  for  example,  the  number 
of  times  a year  examinations  are  held,  regulations  governing  the  con- 
duct of  examinations  and  of  the  transportation  of  questions  and 
papers  between  State  and  county  officers. 

It  is  thought  desirable  to  show  the  differences  in  practice  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  United  States  as  well  as  in  the  different  States.  This 
has  been  done  by  observing  the  five  geographical  divisions  that  have 
been  used  in  the  Bureau  of  Education  and  other  bureaus  of  the 


INTRODUCTION. 


9 


National  Government.  It  is  only  ip  some  such  way  as  this  that  those 
who  are  interested  in  standards  can  grasp  most  intelligently  and 
effectively  the  situation  as  it  exists  in  every  section  of  the  country. 

The  following  outline  map  shows  the  States  included  in  the  various 
divisions : 

There  are  certain  facts  which,  because  of  their  practical  universality, 
are  assumed  to  exist  without  specific  mention.  They  are:  (1)  every 
teacher  must  be  of  good  moral  character,  (2)  experience  to  be  accepted 
as  qualification  for  a certificate  must  be  successful  experience,  (3)  in 
physiology  and  hygiene  are  included  the  nature  and  effects  of  stimu- 
lants and  narcotics. 


Fig.  1. — Geographical  divisions  observed  in  arrangement  of  subordinate  tables. 


In  the  principal  tables  the  States  are  named  in  alphabetical  order, 
but  in  all  the  subordinate  tables  and  in  the  naming  of  States  of  which 
a particular  fact  is  true  the  geographical  order  is  followed,  beginning 
with  the  North  Atlantic  States  and  proceeding  through  to  those  in  the 
Western  group.  The  order  within  the  divisions  of  States  is  the  same 
as  that  found  in  the  tables. 

All  licenses  to  teach,  whether  legally  known  as  diplomas,  licenses, 
or  certificates,  and  all  diplomas  and  certificates  of  educational 
institutions  valid  as  licenses  to  teach,  are  embraced  in  the  generic 
name  il certificate.’ 1 The  words  “ certificate’ f and  u certificates’ ’ are 
used  most  frequently  in  their  generic  sense,  meaning  a kind  or  a class, 


10 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


or  kinds  or  classes,  of  certificates,.  Thus  the  statement  that  10  cer- 
tificates are  issued  in  the  State  of  Iowa  means  that  10  different  kinds 
of  certificates  are  issued. 

PRINCIPAL  FEATURES  OF  TEACHERS’  CERTIFICATES. 

The  most  important  facts  relating  to  a teacher’s  certificate  are  (1) 
the  agency  which  issued  it;  (2)  its  form — territory  in  which  valid, 
school  or  position  in  which  the  holder  is  authorized  to  teach,  and 
duration;  (3)  its  content — the  scholarship,  experience,  and  profes- 
sional attainments  to  which  it  certifies;  and  (4)  the  effect  of  meeting 
the  requirements  for  it,  or  of  holding  it,  upon  the  issuance  of  subse- 
quent certificates,  or,  in  other  words,  its  persistence.  These  principal 
features  are  contained  in  the  table  which  follows. 

This  table  includes  all  corrections  made  by  the  various  State 
education  offices  in  the  table  as  printed  in  the  bound  proof  edition, 
which  included  all  legislation  up  to  October  1,  1910.  It  has  not 
been  deemed  necessary  to  request  corrections  of  the  changes  em- 
bodied in  the  legislative  acts  of  last  winter,  for  the  reason  that  the 
effect  of  such  laws  upon  the  systems  already  established  seemed 
clear. 

The  name  of  the  certificate  found  in  the  laws  has  been  given  in  the 
table  unless  general  use  of  another  term  indicated  strongly  the  de- 
sirability of  substituting  the  popular  name.  The  highest  certificate, 
as  determined  both  by  the  right  it  bestows  and  the  requirements 
which  must  be  met,  is  given  the  precedence.  State  certificates  are 
placed  above  county,  and  county  certificates  before  city  certificates. 
Within  each  of  these  divisions  certificates  valid  in  any  school  precede 
high  school  certificates,  high  school  certificates  precede  elementary, 
while  kindergarten  and  primary  and  special  certificates  follow.  The 
certificate  with  the  longer  duration  precedes  the  shorter. 

Certificates  of  the  same  name  but  granted  for  different  terms  are 
for  the  sake  of  brevity  given  under  one  head.  Certificates  based 
upon  one  of  several  different  sets  of  scholarship  requirements  are 
subdivided  whenever  necessary. 

Blanks  indicate  either  that  there  is  no  information  required  or  that 
none  is  available. 


. 


12 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


TABLE  1. — THE  PRINCIPAL  FEATURES  OF 
ALABAMA. 


[General  Public  School  Laws  of  Ala.,  1908,  pp.  23-27;  1909,  pp.  3-10  (passed  at  the  special  session  of  the 
legislature);  Acts  of  1911  (statement  of  superintendent  of  education).] 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by — 

Valid  in— 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Life  certificate 

State  superintend- 
ent and  secre- 
tary board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

State 

Any 

Life 

First-grade  certifi- 
cate. 

do 

do 

do 

6 years 

Nonrenewable. 

Second-grade  cer- 
tificate. 

do 

do.  . 

do 

4 years 

do 

Third-grade  certifi- 
cate. 

do 

do 

do 

2 years 

do 

Temporary  certifi- 
cate. 

Local  certificates1. . 

State  board  of  ex- 

County 

do 

Next  exami- 

Second can  not 

aminers. 

specified. 

nation  re- 
port. 

be  issued  un- 
less regular 
c e r t i ficate 
has  been  re- 
ceived dur- 
ing interim. 

ARIZONA. 

[Ariz.  School  Laws,  1907,  pp.  8-10, 14,  76-80.] 


Life  diploma 

Territorial  board 

Territory... 

Any 

Life 

Educational  diplo- 
ma. 

First-grade  certifi- 
cate: 

Upon  examina- 

of education. 
do 

do 

do 

6 years 

Nonrenewable. 

Territorial  board 

do 

Grammar  schools. . 

4 years 

Renewable  for 

tion. 

Without  exam- 

of examiners. 

4 years  by 
action  of 
board  if 
holder  has 
taught  2 
years. 

ination. 

Note. — References  are  given  only  to  printed  books  and  circulars;  letters  and  memoranda  from  the 
various  State  offices,  which  constitute  the  sole  authorities  for  many  statements,  are  not  cited. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


13 


TEACHERS’  CERTIFICATES  IN  THE  VARIOUS  STATES.1 

ALABAMA. 


[General  Public  School  Laws  of  Ala.,  1908,  pp.  23-27;  1909,  pp.  3-10  (passed  at  the  special  session  of  the 
legislature);  Acts  of  1911  (statement  of  superintendent  of  education).] 


Experience 

required. 


5 years  under  Ala- 
bama first-grade 
certificate. 


None. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


Questions 
prepared  by- 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


Papers  exam- 
ined by- 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


No  examination  required . 


Scholarship  requirements. 


High  degree  of  proficiency  and  professional 
attainment  as  shown  (1)  by  sketch  of  his 
school  work  during  any  5 years  while 
holding  a first-grade  certificate,  and  (2)  by 
discussion  of  questions  involving  history 
of  education  and  theory  and  practice  of 
teaching  based  on  two  or  more  books 
previously  announced. 

Examination  in  subjects  required  for  sec- 
ond grade  and  in  algebra,  natural  philos- 
ophy, plane  geometry,  school  law,  theory 
and  practice  of  teaching,  English  and 
literature,  with  a minimum  average  of 
75  per  cent  and  grade  of  50  per  cent. 

Examination  in  subjects  required  for  third- 
grade  certificate  and  in  arithmetic,  his- 
tory of  Alabama,  civics  and  United  States 
history,  English  grammar  and  composi- 
tion, theory  and  practice  of  teaching,  and 
intermediate  geography,  with  minimum 
average  of  75  per  cent  and  grade  of  50  per 
cent. 

Examination  in  orthography,  reading,  pen- 
manship, grammar,  arithmetic  (through 
fractions),  primary  geography,  theory 
and  practice  of  teaching,  elementary 
principles  of  physiology  and  hygiene, 
United  States  history,  and  agriculture, 
with  minimum  average  of  75  per  cent  and 
grade  of  50  per  cent. 

Recommendation  of  city  or  town  superin- 
tendent or  chairman  of  board  of  district 
trustees,  approved  by  county  superin- 
tendent; applicant  must  have  been  either 
not  a resident  of  Alabama  or  ill  at  time 
of  last  examination. 


ARIZONA. 

[Ariz.  School  Laws,  1907,  pp.  8-10,  14,  76-80.] 


10  years,  1 in  Ari- 

Board of  examin- 

Board of  examin- 

zona on  first- 

ers. 

ers. 

grade  certificate. 

5 yearsf  1 in  Ari- 

No examination  required 

zona  on  first- 

grade  certificate. 

None 

Board  of  examin- 

Board of  examin- 

ers. 

ers. 

do 

Examination  in  pedagogy,  history  of  edu- 
cation, school  economy,  school  govern- 
ment. 

None  specified. 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for  a 
second-grade  certificate  and,  in  addition, 
algebra  and  natural  philosophy,  with  an 
average  of  80  per  cent  and  minimum  as  in 
second  grade  below. 


(1)  Graduation  from  university  or  college 
having  4 years’  course  based  on  4-vear 
high-school  course;  (2)  1 year’s  work  in 
education  in  a normal  school,  college,  or 
university;  (3)  submission  of  diploma, 
recommendation  of  professors  of  educa- 
tion, and  other  papers.  Condition  (2) 
may  be  satisfied  by  passing  examination 
in  subjects  required  for  life  diplomas. 


1 Local  certificates  are  granted  by  “separate  districts”  having  2,000  population  or  over, 
visions  in  law.  (Forty-two  cities  and  towns  had  a population  of  2,000  or  over  in  1910.) 


No  detailed  pro- 


14 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES, 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers’ 
ARIZONA — Continued. 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by — 

Valid  in— 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Second-grade  cer- 
tificate. 

Territorial  board 
of  examiners. 

Territory  . . 

Primary  and  as- 
sistant in  gram- 
mar schools  ex- 
cept in  eighth 
grade. 

3 years 

Nonrenewable 

Special  certificate, 
commercial 
branches. 

Territorial  board 
of  education. 

do 

Commercial  sub- 
jects. 

4 years 

Renewable  if 
holder  has 
taught  3 
years  under 
certificate. 

Manual  training, 
domestic  science, 
certificate  with- 
out examination. 

Manual  training, 
domestic  science, 
certificate  upon 
examination. 

do 

do 

Subjects  named 

do. . . 

. . do.  . 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

ARKANSAS. 

[Digest  of  School  Laws,  1910,  pp.  14-15,  25-28,  35-38.  Acts  of  1911,  house  bill  No.  193.] 

State  certificate: 
Upon  examin- 
ation. 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

State ... 

Any 

Life 

Without  exam- 

 do 

do 

do 

do 

ination. 

Professionallicense: 
Upon  examina- 
tion. 

..  do... 

do 

do 

6 years 

May  be  re- 
newed in- 
definitely.1 

Without  exam- 

 do 

do 

do 

do 

Life  certifi- 

ination. 

cate. 

First  grade  State 
certificate. 

do 

do 

do 

2 years 

In  definitely. . . 

First-grade  certifi- 
cate. 

County  superin- 
tendent. 

County 

do 

do 

May  be  re- 
newed in- 
definitely. 1 

Second-grade  cer- 
tificate. 

do 

do 

do 

1 year 

Twice 

Third-grade  certifi- 
cate. 

do 

do 

do 

6 months 

Once 

1 All  renewals  based  on  a requirement  that  the  holder  of  any  certificate  must  attend  the  “summor  insti- 
tutes.” 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


15 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

ARIZ  O N A — Continued . 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by— 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

Scholarship  requirements. 

None 

Board  of  examin- 

Board  of  examin- 

Examination  in  geography,  history  and 
civics,  physiology,  hygiene  with  special 

ers. 

ers. 

do 

do 

do 

reference  to  the  nature  and  effects  of  alco- 
holic drinks,  etc.,  orthography,  defining, 
penmanship,  composition,  reading,  meth- 
od of  teaching,  grammar,  arithmetic,  and 
the  school  laws  of  Arizona,  with  an  aver- 
age of  80  per  cent,  no  grade  less  than  70 
per  cent  in  grammar,  orthography,  or 
arithmetic  and  not  less  than  50  per  cent 
in  any  other  subject. 

Examination  in  spelling,  arithmetic,  gram- 
mar, composition,  writing,  bookkeeping, 
shorthand,  typewriting,  and  commercial 
law,  unless  a holder  of  a territorial  certifi- 
cate, in  which  case  first  five  may  be 
omitted. 

Graduate  of  a manual  training  or  domestic 
science  school. 

Such  examination  as  required  if  conditions 

1 year’s  experience 
in  teaching  sub- 
ject. 

None 

Board  of  examin- 

Board of  examin- 

ers. 

ers. 

as  above  set  forth  can  not  be  met. 

ARKANSAS. 

[Digest  of  School  Laws,  1910,  pp.  14-16,  25-28,  35-38.  Acts  of  1911,  house  bill  No.  193.] 


None. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


No  examination  required. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


No  examination  required. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


County  superin- 
tendent. 


.do. 


.do. 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for  a 
first-grade  county  certificate,  and  in 
addition,  algebra,  geometry,  physics, 
rhetoric,  mental  philosophy,  general 
history,  Latin,  natural  history,  botany, 
and  geology. 

Holder  of  a State  teachers’  certificate,  grant- 
ed in  another  State,  and  satisfying  the 
State  superintendent  that  the  examina- 
tion of  said  applicant  was  of  the  standard 
required  for  issuance  of  a State  license  in 
Arkansas. 

Examination  in  subjects  required  for  a 
first-grade  county  certificate,  and,  in 
addition,  algebra,  plane  geometry,  gen- 
eral history,  and  rhetoric. 

Normal  school  diploma  or  degree  from  an 
educational  institution  if  State  superin- 
tendent is  satisfied  that  the  course  of 
study  pursued  was  of  the  standard  re- 
quired for  issuance  of  a professional 
license. 

Holder  of  a first-grade  county  license,  and 
satisfactory  examination  in  the  same 
branches  as  for  a first-grade  county 
license,  the  county  superintendent  for- 
warding all  papers  to  the  State  superin- 
tendent for  grading. 

Examination  in  subjects  required  for  a 
second-grade  certificate,  and,  in  addi- 
tion, civil  government  and  elementary 
algebra.  Minimum  average,  85  per  cent; 
minimum  grade,  70  per  cent. 

Examination  in  subjects  required  for  third- 
grade,  and,  in  addition,  history  of  Arkan- 
sas, physiology,  and  theory  and  practice. 
Minimum  average,  75  per  cent;  minimum 
grade,  65  per  cent. 

Examination  in  spelling,  reading,  penman- 
ship, English  grammar,  arithmetic,  geog- 
raphy, United  States  history,  elementary 
agriculture  and  horticulture.  Minimum 
average  65  per  cent;  minimum  grade,  60 
per  cent. 


16 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers’ 

CALIFORNIA. 

[School  Law  of  Cal.,  1909,  secs.  1503, 1521,  1771-1775,  1778,  1787-1793.] 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by- 


Valid  in — 


Territory. 


Schools. 


Duration. 


Persistence. 


Life  diploma: 

High  school 


State  board  of  edu- 
cation. 


State. 


Any. 


Life. 


Grammar 

school. 

K i ndergarten- 
primary. 

Special  kindergar- 
ten-primary life 
diploma. 

Permanent  certifi- 
cates: 

Secondary 


.do 

.do 

.do 


. .do. 
. .do. 
. .do. 


County  board  of  County,  or 
education.  city  and 

county. 


Grammar  or 
elementary. 

K i ndergarten- 
primary. 
Special 


do. 

do. 

do. 


do 

do 

do 


Secondary-s  c h o o 1 
certificate. 


County  board  of 
e d u c ation  (on 
credentials  only). 


County. 


Grammar  and  pri-  do . 

mary  schools. 

Kindergarten do . 


Branches  and 
grades  named. 


.do. 


Any. 


.do. 


Grammar  or  pri-  do. 

mary. 

Kindergarten do. 


Branches  and 
grades  named. 
Any 


do. 

6 years 


Renewable  at 
option  of 
board;  sec- 
ond renewal 
permanent. 
P e rmanent 
cert  ificate 
may  be  giv- 
en at  time 
of  first  re- 
newal. 


Grammar  or  ele- 
mentary school 
certificate. 


County  board  of 
education. 


.do 


Elementary 


do 


.do 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


17 


certijiates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

CALIFORNIA. 

[School  Law  of  Cal.,  1909,  secs.  1603,  1521,  1771-1775,  1778,  1787-1793.] 


Experience 

required. 


Questions 
prepared  by — 


Papers  exam- 
ined by — 


Scholarship  requirements. 


24  months  in  high 
schools,  normal 
schools  or  uni- 
versity; 21  in 
California. 

do 


Must  have  held  and  still  hold  a valid 
county  or  city  and  county  certificate  of 
same  grade. 


Do. 


do. 


Do. 


do. 


Do. 


5 years;  20  months  

in  high  school  in 
same  county. 

5 years  in  same  

county. 

do 

do 

None  or  20  months.  No  examination 
given. 


None  or  8 months.. 


County  board  of 
education. 


County  board  of 
education. 


Holder  of  secondary  school  certificate  or 
State  diploma. 

Holder  of  elementary  certificate  or  State 
diploma. 

Holder  of  kindergarten-primary  certificate 
or  State  diploma. 

Holder  of  special  certificate  or  State  di- 
ploma. 

One  of  following:  (1)  Holder  of  credentials 
approved  by  State  board  of  education. 
Minimum  requirements  as  follows: 
Graduation  from  an  accredited  4 years’ 
college  course  based  on  a 4 years’  high- 
school  course,  and  one  year’s  graduate 
study  in  an  approved  institution,  one- 
half  of  which  was  devoted  to  academic 
study  and  the  remainder  in  a practice 
school  of  secondary  grade  in  a university 
or  normal  school,  and  recommendation 
for  a high-school  certificate  from  the  fac- 
ulty in  which  pedagogical  work  was 
taken.  (2)  Holder  of  special  credentials 
from  State  board  of  education.  To  ob- 
tain these  it  is  necessary  that  applicant 
shall  have  taught  20  months  and  possess 
equivalent  of  requirements  given  under 
(1),  sometimes  determined  by  examina- 
tion. (3)  Holders  of  high-school  certifi- 
cates issued  by  other  county  boards. 

One  of  following:  (1)  Examination  in  read- 
ing. writing,  grammar  and  advanced  com- 
position, English  and  American  literar 
ture,  orthography  and  defining,  vocal 
music,  bookkeeping,  arithmetic,  algebra 
to  quadractics,  plane  geometry,  geog- 
raphy (physical,  political,  and  indus- 
trial), elementary  physics,  physiology 
and  hygiene,  history  of  the  United 
States,  civil  government,  history  (an- 
cient, medieval,  and  modem),  school  law, 
methods  of  teaching.  (2)  Holder  of  life 
diploma  or  certificate  of  any  State  de- 
clared by  State  board  to  be  equivalent  to 
requirements  for  elementary  life  diplomas 
(3)  Holder  of  normal-school  diploma  from 
State  school  and  those  declared  of  equal 
rank  by  State  board.  (4)  Holder  of 
diploma  from  University  of  California  or 
Leland  Stanford  Junior  University  when 
said  holder  has  completed  six  months’ 
training  in  one  of  State  normal  schools  or 
has  had  eight  months’  successful  experi- 
ence in  public  schools  of  State  after 
graduation.  (5)  Grammar  school  or  gram- 
mar grade  certificate  of  any  other  county 
of  California. 


10943°— 11 2 


18 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 
CALIFORNIA — Continued. 


Name  of  certificate. 


Kindergarten  - pri- 
mary certificate. 


Special  certificates. 


Temporary  certifi- 
cates (of  grades 
corresponding  to 
county  certifi- 
cates.) 


Temporary  ele- 
mentary certifi- 
cate. 

City,  or  city  and 
county  certifi- 
cates: 

Grammar 


Special. 


Issued  by- 


County  board  of 
education. 


.do. 


County  superin- 
tendent. 


.do. 


Board  of  education 


.do. 


Valid  in- 


Territory. 


County . . . 


.do. 


County 


.do. 


do. . . 


.do. 


Schools. 


Kindergarten . 


Branches  and 
grades  named; 
limited  to  draw- 
ing, music,  phy- 
sical culture, 
commercial, 
technical,  and. 
industrial  work. 

Same  as  county 
certificates. 


.do. 


Grammar  or  pri- 
mary. 


Same  as  county 
special. 


Duration. 


6 years. 


.do. 


Maximum 
6 months 
(expiring 
Jan.  1 or 
July  1 fol- 
lowing is- 
suance). 


2 years . 


...do 


.do. 


Persistence. 


Renewable  at 
option  of 
board. 


Renewable  at 
option  of 
board.  Sec- 
ond renewal 
permanent. 


Not  renew- 
able. (Only 
one  to  same 
person  in 
same  county.) 


.do. 


Renewable  at 
option  of 
board.  Sec- 
ond renewal 
permanent. 
do 


COLORADO. 


[School  Laws  of  Colorado,  1909,  pp.  33-36,  96-98.  Sess.  Laws,  1903,  ch.  165,  p.  421;  Sess.  Laws,  1909,  ch. 

165,  p.  369.] 


State  diploma: 
Without  exam- 

State board  of 

State 

Any 

5 years 

Renewable  for 

ination. 

education. 

5 years  in 
discretion  of 
State  board 
of  education; 
then  renew- 
able for  life. 

Upon  examina- 
tion. 

Without  exam- 

..do  

.do 

do 

do 

do 

.do 

_ .do 

do 

do 

do 

ination. 

19 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

CALIFORNIA— Continued . 


Experience 

required. 


Questions 
prepared  by — 


Papers  exam- 
ined by — 


Scholarship  requirements. 


None  or  8 months . 


No  examination;  granted  on  creden- 
tials only. 


None. 


County  board  of 
education. 


County  board  of 
education. 


None  (see  last  col- 
umn). 


No  examination  required. 


.do. 


No  examination  required. 


Prescribed  by 
city  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


.do. 


City  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


.do. 


City  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


.do. 


One  of  following'  (1)  Holder  of  diploma  of 
graduation  from  the  kindergarten  depart- 
ment of  any  State  normal  school.  (2) 
Holder  of  credentials  showing  profes- 
sional kindergarten  training  in  institu- 
tion approved  by  State  board  of  educa- 
tion and  also  general  education  equiva- 
lent to  that  required  for  graduation  from 
kindergarten  department  of  State  normal 
school.  (3)  Holder  of  kindergarten  cer- 
tificate issued  by  any  other  county  board. 

Board  must  satisfy  itself  by  examination  or 
credentials  of  special  fitness  to  teach  sub- 
jects, and  also  of  proficiency  in  English 
grammar,  orthography,  defining,  and 
methods  of  teaching. 


(1)  Holder  of  a valid  secondary  or  high 
school,  elementary  or  grammar  school, 
kindergarten-primary  or  special  certifi- 
cate granted  by  county  boards  of  educa- 
tion of  California;  (2)  or  graduate  of  a 
college,  normal  school,  or  university,  who 
holds  a valid  certificate  issued  in  another 
State  and  equivalent  to  a California  cer- 
tificate. 

Graduate  of  University  of  California  or  of 
Leland  Stanford  University. 


Prescribed  by  city  board  of  examiners. 


Do. 


COLORADO. 


[School  Laws  of  Colorado,  1909,  pp.  33-36,  96-98.  Sess.  Laws,  1903,  ch.  165,  p.  421;  Sess.  Laws,  1909,  ch. 

165,  p.  369.] 


24  months 

Graduation  from  a Colorado  college  main- 
taining standard  4-year  course  and  re- 
quiring 4-year  standard  high-school 
course  or  equivalent  for  admission. 
Professional  training  equivalent  to  one- 
sixth  standard  4-year  course  in  at  least 
three  of  these  (one  being  No.  4):  (1) 
General  and  educational  psychology; 
(2)  history  of  education;  (3)  science 
and  principles  of  education;  (4)  practice 
teaching  and  special  methods;  (5)  or- 
ganization and  management  of  schools; 
(6)  philosophy,  sociology,  and  anthro- 
pology. 

Academic  and  professional  attainments 

do 

State  board  of  ex- 

State board  of  ex- 

6  years’  eminent 
educational  serv- 
ice in  Colorado. 

aminers. 

aminers. 

equivalent  to  above. 

20 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  'principal  features  of  teachers’ 
COLORADO — Continued. 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by — 

Valid  in — 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Temporary  certifi- 
cate. 

First-grade  county 
certificate. 

State  board  of  edu- 

State 

Any 

5 years 

Nonrenewable. 
R e n e w a ble 

cation. 

County  superin- 
tendent. 

County  1 

do 

3 years 

once. 

S’econd-grade 
county  certificate. 
Third-grade  county 
certificate. 

School  district  cer- 

 do 

do 

do 

18  months. .. 

.do 

do 

do 

do 

9 months.. 

..do 

School  district 

District 

do 

Varies 

Determined  by 
district 
board. 

tificate  (districts 
of  first  class.) 

board. 

CONNECTICUT. 

[Laws  relating  to  schools  (1909),  secs.  4, 118, 195, 210, 211,  Connecticut  School  Documents  No.  21, 1909, secs. 
4,  67, 118,  210-212.  Report  of  the  board  of  education  of  the  State  of  Connecticut  to  the  governor,  to- 
gether with  the  report  of  the  secretary  of  the  board  July  14,  1904-July  14,  1905,  pp.  226-244.  Letter  from 
secretary  of  State  board  of  education.] 


Supervisor’s  certifi- 
cate. 

State  board  of  edu- 

State  

Any 

At  the  pleas- 
ure of  the 
board. 

Rene  wable; 
successful 
experience. 

cation. 

Honor  certificate2. . 

do 

do.... . . 

do 

Not  longer 
than  2 
years. 

do 

Elementary  certifi- 
cate. 

do 

do 

Subjects  named  in 
certificate. 

do 

do 

Statutory  certifi- 
cate. 

do. . . 

Town  spec- 
ified. 

do 

Not  longer 
than  1 
year. 

do 

1 County  superintendent  in  emergency  may  recognize  county  teachers’  certificates  issued  in  another 
county  or  another  State  by  indorsing  same  as  “Good  until  next  county  examination.” 

County  superintendent  may  issue  a like  grade  certificate  to  a teacher  holding  a similar  first-grade  cer- 
tificate of  another  county,  good  during  life  of  certificate  upon  which  it  was  issued. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


21 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

COLORADO — Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

juired 

do 

State  superintend- 

County superin- 

ent. 

tendent. 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Varies 

Determined  by  dis 

trict  board 

Scholarship  requirements. 


Equivalent  to  qualifications  described 
above  for  State  diploma. 

Examination  in  orthography,  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  English  grammar, 
geography,  history,  and  Constitution  of 
United  States  and  the  constitution  of 
Colorado,  civil  government,  physics, 
natural  science,  theory  and  practice  of 
teaching,  and  school  law  of  Colorado. 
If  applicant  is  to  teach  in  high  school, 
examination  shall  extend  to  such  addi- 
tional branches  as  are  to  be  pursued  in 
such  schools. 

Same  as  first  class,  but  lower  percentage 
is  required. 

Do. 

Determined  by  district  board. 


CONNECTICUT. 

[Laws  relating  to  schools  (1909),  secs.  4, 118, 195,  210,  211,  Connecticut  School  Documents  No.  21, 1909,  secs. 
4,  67,  118,  210-212.  Report  of  the  board  of  education  of  the  State  of  Connecticut  to  the  governor,  to- 
gether with  the  report  of  the  secretary  of  the  board  July  14, 1904-July  14,  1905,  pp.  226-244.  Letter  from 
secretary  of  State  board  of  education.] 


Experience  is  re- 
quired; no  def- 
inite amount 
fixed. 


State  board  of  edu- 
cation. 


State  board  of  edu- 
cation. 


Indefinite  amount. 


do. 


do. 


do. 


do 


do. 


None 


do 


do. 


Examination  in  school  law,  organization  of 
public  sohools,  courses  of  study,  history 
of  education  in  Connecticut,  supervision, 
qualifications  of  teachers;  also  academic 
examination  required  for  elementary  cer- 
tificate unless  candidate  (1)  is  a graduate 
of  a college,  university,  or  normal  school; 
(2)  holds  a State  elementary  or  honor  cer- 
tificate; or  (3)  has  a high-school  education 
and  has  had  5 years’  successful  experience 
as  a supervisor,  giving  entire  time  to 
supervision. 

Examination  showing  sound  elementary 
knowledge  in  subjects  required  for  ele- 
mentary certificate,  including  examina- 
tion upon  preliminary  papers,  and,  in 
addition,  examination  in  art  of  teaching 
by  actual  demonstration,  showing  ability 
to  teach  and  manage. 

Examination  showing  elementary  knowl- 
edge and  special  preparation  for  teaching 
in  writing,  English  (including  reading, 
writing,  spelling,  and  grammar),  arith- 
metic, elementary  science  (including 
physiology),  geography,  history,  and 
civil  government.  Satisfactory  prelim- 
inary papers  must  be  submitted  previous 
to  admission  to  examination,  showing 
evidence  of  professional  study.  Candi- 
date must  show  in  examination  (oral) 
practical  knowledge  of  subject  matter  of 
these  papers,  numbering  22  in  all. 

Examination  must  show  “tolerable  aca- 
demic acquaintance”  with  reading,  spell- 
ing, writing,  arithmetic,  English,  gram- 
mar, rudiments  of  geography,  United 
States  history,  physiology,  and  duties  of 
citizenship. 


2 A holder  of  an  honor  certificate  may  obtain  a “certificate  of  special  excellence”  in  any  subject  covered 
therein  by  submitting  a satisfactory  thesis  in  that  subject. 


22 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers 1 
CONNECTICUT— Continued. 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by — 

Valid  in — 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Kindergarten  cer- 
tificate. 

• 

State  board  of  edu- 
cation. 

State 

Kindergartens 

Not  longer 
than  2 
years. 

Renewable; 
successful  ex- 
perience. 

Kindergarten  hon- 

 do 

do 

do 

1 year 

do 

or  certificate. 

Certificate  of  spe- 

 do 

do 

Subject  named 

1 or 2 years.. 

do 

cial  preparation. 

Certificate  of  spe- 
cial excellence. 

State  board  of  edu- 
cation. 

State 

Subjects  named . . . 

1 or  2 years.. 

do 

Local  high -school 
certificates. 

High-school  com- 
mittee. 

Town  or 
district. 

High  school, 
branches 
named. 

Indefinite... 

At  discretion 
of  commit- 
tee. 

Local  public-school 
certificate. 

School  visitors, 
school  commit- 
tee, or  board  of 
education. 

do 

Any  specified 
school  in  branch- 
es named. 

do 

do 

DELAWARE. 

[School  Laws  for  the  Free  Public  Schools  of  Delaware,  1898-1909,  pp.  6,  37-40,  55.  Acts  of  1911,  chap.  94.] 


Professional  certifi- 
cate. 

County  superin- 
tendent.1 2 

County2... 

Any 

10  years 

Nonrenewable. 

First-grade  certifi- 

 do 

do 

do 

5 years 

cate. 

Second-grade  cer- 

 do 

do 

do 

2 years 

do 

tificate. 

Temporary  certifi- 
cate. 

do 

do 

do 

1 year 

On  authority  of 
State  board. 

1 No  teacher  may  teach  classes  above  third  grade  who  has  not  passed  a satisfactory  examination  in  hy- 
giene, including  the  efieots  of  alcohol  and  narcotics  on  health  and  character.  Other  branches  may  be  spee- 

ded on  certificate. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


23 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

CONNECTICUT— Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

Scholarship  requirements. 

Must  demonstrate 

State  board  of  edu- 

State  board  of  edu- 

Twenty  preliminary  papers  in  subjects 
named  below,  showing  evidence  of  pro- 

ability to  teach 

cation. 

cation. 

and  manage  by 
aotual  exercises 
in  teaching. 

do 

do 

do 

fessional  study.  Examination  upon  these 
papers  and  in  kindergarten  gifts  and  oc- 
cupations, music,  drawing,  English  (in- 
cluding reading,  spelling,  grammar,  Eng- 
lish literature),  penmanship,  elementary 
science  (including  physiology),  and  his- 
tory. 

Same  as  for  honor  certificate. 

No  prescribed 
minimum. 

do 

do 

A thesis  on  the  special  subject  not  included 
in  honor  or  elementary  certificates  may 

Examination  is  required  only  when 

original  examination  shows  some 

be  required.  Examination  may  also 

do. 

deficiency. 

State  board 

State  board 

include  actual  exercises  in  teaching. 

Holder  of  honor  certificate  or  approval  of 
board  of  education  in  lieu  thereof.  Skill 
in  teaching  demonstrated  by  actual  class 
exercises,  as  well  as  accurate  knowledge, 
must  be  shown. 

At  discretion  of  committee. 

At  discretion  of 

High-school  com- 

High-school com- 

committee. 

mittee  or  com- 

mittee or  com- 

 do 

mittee  appoint- 
ed by  it  (when 
examination 
given). 

Authorities  named 

mittee  appoint- 
ed by  it  (when 
e x a m i n a t ion 
given). 

Authorities  named 

Examination  in  reading,  writing,  arith- 

in column  2; 

in  column  2; 

metic,  grammar,  rudiments  of  geography 
and  history,  and  rudiments  of  drawing  if 

or  special  com- 

or special  com- 

mittee. 

mittee. 

required.1 

DELAWARE. 

[School  Laws  for  the  Free  Public  Schools  of  Delaware,  1898-1908,  pp.  6,37-40,55.  Acts  of  1911,  chap.  94.] 


Applicant  must  answer  90  per  cent  of  ques- 
tions asked  in  subjects  specified  under 
first-grade  certificate  below. 

Applicant  must  answer  90  per  cent  of  ques- 
tions in  each  of  following  subjects:  Or- 
thography, reading,  writing,  mental 
arithmetic,  written  arithmetic,  geogra- 
phy, physiology  and  hygiene  with  spe- 
cial reference  to  the  effects  of  stimulants 
and  narcotics,  United  States  history, 
United  States  and  Delaware  constitu- 
tions, pedagogy,  and  grammar;  and  75 
per  cent  of  questions  on  such  other  sub- 
jects as  are  specified  by  the  State  board 
of  education. 

Applicant  must  answer  75  per  cent  of  ques- 
tions asked  in  all  subjects  required  for 
first-grade  certificate. 

“Diploma  or  certificate  of  graduation  from 
any  respectable  normal  school  or  college.” 


None. 


.do. 


State  board 
education.* * 


.do. 


.do. 


of 


County  superin- 
tendent. 

do 


.do. 


No  examination  required . 


* In  accordance  with  the  regulations  of  the  State  board  of  education. 

3 May  be  countersigned  by  superintendent  of  any  other  county. 

* County  superintendent  may  prepare  questions  when  so  decided  by  State  board. 


24 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 

Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers ’ 

FLORIDA. 


[Digest  of  School  Laws  of  the  State  of  Florida,  1909.  pp.  26-34,  97.  Biennial  Report  of  the  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction  oi  Florida,  1908,  pp.  228-245.] 


Name  of  certificate. 

•Issued  by— 

Valid  in— 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Life  certificate 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

do 

State 

Any 

Life 

State  certificate 

do.  . 

5 years 

Reissued  upon 
reexamina- 
tion. 

do 

Special  certificate. . . 

Branches  specified. 

do 

Primary  certificate, 
i life. 

Primary  certificate. 

do 

do 

Kindergarten, 
first,  second,  and 
third  grade. 

do 

Life  . 

do 

do 

4 years 

Reissued  upon 
reexamina- 
tion. 

First-grade  life  cer- 
tificate: 

Upon  examina- 
tion. 

Without  exam- 

County superin- 
tendent. 

do 

County 

Any 

Life 

State 

do 

Life  in 

ination. 

First-grade  certifi- 
cate. 

Second-grade  cer- 
tificate. 

Third-grade  certifi- 

 do. 

County ; 
may  be 
indorse  d 
by  other 
co  u n t y 
super  i n- 
tendents. 
do 

do 

county. 

5 years 

Reissued  upon 
reexamina- 
tion. 

do 

do 

do 

4 years 

do 

County 

do 

2 years 

do 

cate. 

Temporary  certifi- 
cate. 

do 

do 

Elementary 

Until  next 

Nonrenewable; 

exami  n a- 
tion. 

one  only  to 
same  person. 

GEORGIA. 

[Compilation  of  laws  and  decisions  relating  to  the  common-school  system,  1910,  p.  37-40.] 


Permanent  license  . 

State  school  com- 

State . 

Any  elementary 

Life... 

missioner. 

school. 

1 County  superintendent  may  or  may  not,  at  his  own  discretion,  require  an  examination. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


25 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

FLORIDA. 


[Digest  of  School  Laws  of  the  State  of  Florida,  1909,  pp.  26-34,  97.  Biennial  Report  of  the  Superintendent 
of  Public  Instruction  of  Florida,  1908,  pp.  228-245.] 


Experience 
. required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

Scholarship  requirements. 

Must  be  a teacher  in  a high  school  or  college 
in  State  and  present  satisfactory  indorse- 
ment of  eminent  ability  in  teaching  from 
three  persons  holding  life  certificates. 

Examination  in  geometry,  trigonometry, 

Florida  State 
certificate. 

24  months;  8 

State  superintend- 

State  superintend- 

under  Florida 

ent. 

ent. 

physics,  botany,  zoology,  Latin,  rhetoric, 
English  literature,  psychology,  and  gen- 
eral history;  minimum  average  of  85  per 
cent  and  grade  of  60  per  cent. 

Testimonials  of  peculiar  fitness  for  teaching 
any  subject  not  included  in  requirements 
for  second-grade  certificate;  and  exami- 
nation with  minimum  grade  of  90  per 
cent  in  such  branches  as  are  prescribed  by 
State  superintendent.  (State  certificate 
examination  questions  are  given.) 

Satisfactory  evidence  of  successful  experi- 

first grade. 

do 

do 

4 years  under  pri- 

No examination  re< 

luired 

mary  certificate. 
None 

State  superintend- 

State superintend- 

ence. Accomplished  by  indorsement  of 
primary  certificate. 

Examination  in  primary  studies,  prescribed 

ent. 

ent. 

by  State  superintendent,  with  minimum 

20  years;  9 years 

0) 

C1) 

average  of  80  per  cent;  and  testimonials 
of  peculiar  fitness  for  primary  work. 

“ Faithful  and  successful  as  an  instructor 

under  certificate 
since  1894. 

6 years  under  first- 
grade  with  aver- 
age of  90  per  cent. 

None 

State  superintend- 

Grading commit- 

and disciplinarian.”  Accomplished  by 
indorsement  of  first-grade  certificate. 
Holder  of  first-grade  certificate. 

Examination  in  all  subjects  required  for 

ent. 

tee  of  county. 

third-grade  certificate  and  in  algebra  and 

do 

do 

do 

physical  geography,  with  a minimum 
average  of  85  per  cent  and  grade  of  60  per 
cent. 

Same  examination  as  for  third-grade;  mini- 
mum average  of  75  per  cent  and  grade  of 
60  per  cent. 

Examination  in  orthography,  reading, 
geography,  arithmetic,  geometry,  United 
States  history,  physiology,  theory  and 
practice  of  teaching,  composition,  and 
agriculture. 

Same  as  for  third-grade  certificate. 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

GEORGIA. 


[Compilation  of  laws  and  decisions  relating  to  the  common-school  system,  1910,  p.  37-40.] 


3 years 

State  school  com- 

State school  com- 

If in  the  judgment  of  the  county  school 

missioner. 

missioner. 

commissioner,  any  of  the  papers  for  first, 
second,  or  third  grade  licenses  “exhibit 
unusual  merit,”  he  shall  forward  them 
“together  with  certificate  of  good  moral 
and  professional  character  of  the  appli- 
cant” to  the  State  athool  commissioner, 
who  may  issue  permanent  license  if  in  his 
opinion  the  papers  exhibit  “a  sufficient 
degree  of  merit.” 

26 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers’ 
GE  ORGIA — Continued . 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by — 

Valid  in — 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

First,  second,  and 
third  grade  li- 
censes. 

County  board  of 
education. 

County; 
may  be 
indorsed 
by  other 
county 
c o Tnmis- 
sioners. 

Any  elementary 
school. 

3,  2,  and  1 
years,  re- 
spectively. 

Reissued  upon 
same  condi- 
tions as  origi- 
nal. 

Temporary  license. 

do 

County ; 
can  not 
be  in- 
dorsed. 

do 

Until  next 

No  provision. 

exami- 

nation, 

IDAHO. 


[Acts  of  1911,  chap.  159,  pp.  518-525.] 


Life  certificate: 
Upon  examina- 
tion. 

State  board  of  edu- 

State 

Any 

Life 

cation. 

.do 

. ...do 

animation. 

State  certificate: 
Upon  examina- 
tion. 

.do 

. . .do 

do 

8 years 

Renewable 

at  option  of 
State  board. 

Without  exam- 

... do 

. . .do 

do 

do 

do 

ination. 

Specialist’s  State 
certificate  (music, 
drawing,  manual 
training,  domestic 
science  and  phys- 
ical education.) 

First-grade  certifi- 
cate. 

Special  depart- 
ment named  in 
certificate. 

Any 

do 

do 

County  superin- 
tendent. 

State  when 

5 years 

Renewable  af- 

filed in 
county. 

ter  5 years’ 
successful 
experience. 

1 Less  experience  is  required  of  graduates  of  courses  in  chartered  institutions  covering  5 years  above  the 
eighth  grade. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


<21 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

GEORGIA — Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

Scholarship  requirements. 

None 

State  school  com- 

County school 

Examination  in  orthography,  reading, 

missioner. 

commissioner. 

writing,  geography,  grammar,  arith- 
metic, agriculture,  science  and  practice 
of  teaching,  and  physiology  and  hygiene, 
including  nature  and  effects  of.  alcohol, 
etc.  Minimum  averages  as  follows:  First 
grade,  90  per  cent;  second  grade,  80  per 
cent;  third  grade,  70  per  cent. 

do 

County  school 
commissioner. 

do 

Examination  must  be  ordered  by  county 
board  and  only  to  meet  an  emergency. 

IDAHO. 

[Acts  of  1911,  chap.  159,  pp.  518-525.] 


5 years,  2 in  State.. 


(See  last  column. ) 


3 years 1 


None,  or  5 years; 
or  18  months, 
part  of  which 
within  2 years. 
(See  last  col- 
umn.) 


None... 


8 months. 


State  board  of  edu- 

State  board  of  ex- 

cation. 

aminers. 

do 

do 

No  examination 

No  examination 

required. 

required. 

State  board  of  edu- 

State board  of  ex- 

cation. 

aminers. 

Holder  of  valid  Idaho  State  certificate  and 
examination  in  such  branches  as  State 
board  of  education  may  direct. 

Holder  of  life  certificate  from  another  State 
of  approved  educational  standing.  Must 
show  professional  training  or  qualifica- 
tions by  experience  to  instruct  or  manage 
any  school  in  the  State. 

Holder  of  a valid  first-grade  county  certifi- 
cate and  examination  in  such  branches 
as  the  State  board  of  education  may 
direct. 

(1)  Holder  of  B.  A.  or  B.  S.  from  Univer- 
sity of  Idaho  finishing  required  course 
in  department  of  education,  or  having 
taught  5 years  in  State. 

(2)  Graduate  of  the  advanced  course  (2 
years’  normal  work  above  a 4-year  high 
school  course)  of  a State  normal  school  of 
another  State  holding  state  or  life  certi- 
ficate in  such  State,  or  a graduate  of  a 
college,  the  A.  B.  degree  of  which  is 
recognized  by  the  university  of  the  State 
in  which  it  is  situated,  when  issuance  of 
certificate  is  authorized  by  the  State 
board;  and  18  months’  teaching  experi- 
ence, part  of  which  within  2 years. 

Graduate  of  an  approved  school  offering  a 
course  of  not  less  than  2 years  in  the 
special  department,  and  based  on  grad- 
uation from  an  approved  high  school 
or  an  equivalent  academic  course. 

(1)  Examination  in  branches  required  for  a 
second-grade  and  in  addition,  English 
literature,  principles  of  teaching,  algebra, 
physics  or  botany,  and  medieval  and  mod- 
em or  English  history.  The  county  su- 
perintendent may  transfer  the  grades  of 
a holder  of  second-grade  certificate  who, 
after  8 months’  successful  teaching  and  6 
weeks’  attendance  at  a professional  school 
for  teachers,  has  received  credits  in  at 
least  two  subjects  since  receiving  second- 
grade  certificate.2 


2 No  county  certificate  is  issued  when  average  is  less  than  85  per  cent,  or  any  grade  less  than  75  per 
cent. 


28 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 
IDAHO — Continued . 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by — 


Valid  in— 


Territory. 


Schools. 


Duration. 


Persistence. 


Second-grade  cer- 
tificate. 


County  superin- 
tendent. 


State  when 
filed  in 
county. 


Any 


3 years . 


Third-grade  cer- 
tificate. 


.do. 


County. 


.do. 


1 year. 


Special  third-grade 
certificate. 


Permit. 


County  superin- 
tendent with 
approvalof  State 
superintendent. 


uper 


. .do... 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


do.. 


Until  next 
regular  ex- 
amination. 


Renew  able 
upon  reex- 
aminat  i o n. 
or  after  2 
years’  teach- 
ing and  6 
weeks’  at- 
tendance at 
a profession- 
al school  for 
teachers, 
earning 
credits  in  2 
subjects.1 * 

Renewable 
upon  re- 
examina- 
tion, or  up- 
on 6 weeks’ 
attendan  c e. 
during  life  of 
certificate, 
at  a profes- 
sional school 
for  teachers, 
earning 
credits  in  2 
subjects.3 


Nonrenew- 
able. Only 
1 to  same 
person. 

Nonrenew- 
able. Only 
1 within  3 
years  to 
same  person. 


ILLINOIS. 


The  School  Law  of  Illinois,  1909,  pp.  4, 48-49,  Circular  No.  42,  office  of  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 

Nov.  1, 1909.] 


General  certificate. . 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

State 

Any 

Life 

State  elementary 
school  certificate. 

do 

do 

Any  elementary 
school. 

do 

State  high-school 
certificate. 

.do. . . 

. do. . . . 

Any  high  school... 

do 

State  supervisory 
certificate. 

. .do 

do 

As  principal  or 
superintendent, 
any  district. 

do 

1 Only  two  such  certificates  shall  be  given  to  one  person  after  July  1, 1911. 

* No  county  certificate  is  issued  when  average  is  less  than  85  per  cent,  or  any  grade  less  than  75  per  cent. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


29 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

IDAHO — Continued . 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

Scholarship  requirements. 

State  board  of 

State  board  of  ex- 

Examination  in  all  branches  required  for  a 
third-grade  certificate,  and,  in  addition, 
physical  geography,  American  literature, 
English  composition,  and  cataloguing 
and  use  of  school  libraries.  Standings  of 
a third-grade  certificate  in  force  may  be 
transferred  to  a second-grade  after  8 
months’  teaching,  and  6 weeks’  attend- 
ance at  a professional  school  for  teachers 
receiving  credits  in  at  least  2 subjects 
since  receiving  third-grade  certificate.* 

education. 

aminers. 

None  or  8 months. 

do 

do 

Examination  in  orthoepy,  spelling,  read- 

ing, penmanship,  arithmetic,  elementary 
composition,  grammar,  geography, 
United  States  history,  civil  government 
of  United  States  and  of  Idaho,  physiology 
and  hygiene  with  special  reference  to  the 
effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics,  school 
law,  Idaho  elementary  school  manual, 
and  the  elements  of  agriculture;  and,  in 
addition,  8 months’  teaching  experience 
prior  to  July  1,  1911,  or  6 weeks’  attend- 
ance at  a professional  school  for  teachers, 
receiving  credits  in  school  law  of  Idaho, 
school  management,  and  in  methods  of 
teaching  reading  and  language,  arithme- 
tic, history,  and  geography. 

None 

do 

do 

Examination  in  subjects  required  for  a 
third-grade  certificate . Issued  only  when 
supply  of  legally  qualified  teachers  has 
been  exhausted. 

Issued  only  when  supply  of  legally  qualified 

do 

No  examination  re- 

quired. 

teachers  has  been  exhausted,  by  indors- 
ing certificates  of  other  counties  or  States. 

ILLINOIS. 

[The  School  Law  of  Illinois,  1909,  pp.  4, 48-49,  Circular  No.  42,  office  of  superintendent  of  public  instruction, 

Nov.  1, 1909.] 


3 years 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

1 year 

do 

do 

2 years  of  teaching 
or  supervision. 

Examination  in  educational  psychology, 
principles  and  methods  of  teaching,  Eng- 
lish, European,  and  United  States  history, 
algebra,  civics,  plane  geometry,  biological 
science,  and  physical  science;  Latin  or 
a modern  language;  and  a satisfactory 
thesis  on  one  of  the  subjects  listed  by  the 
State  superintendent.  Minimum  aver- 
age, 75  per  cent;  grade,  65  per  cent. 

Graduation  from  a State  normal  school  or 
completion  of  an  equivalent  course,  and 
an  examination  in  first  3 subjects  named 
above  and  a satisfactory  thesis  as  above. 
Standings  as  above. 

Graduation  from  an  approved  high  school 
and  university  or  other  institution  offer- 
ing 4 years  of  work  beyond  a 4-year  high- 
school  course  and  examination  and  thesis 
as  for  State  elementary  certificate.  Thesis 
must  be  upon  a secondary  school  subject. 
Standings  as  above. 

Graduation  from  an  approved  college  or 
normal  school,  or  10  years  successful  su- 
pervision in  lieu  thereof,  and  examination 
in  English,  educational  psychology  and 
history  of  education.  Thesis,  as  above, 
on  a problem  of  school  administration. 
Standings  as  above. 


* Not  more  than  three  third-grade  certificates  to  one  person  after  July  1, 1911. 


30 


TEACHERS , CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers’ 
ILLIN  OIS — Continued . 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by — 

Valid  in — 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

State  special  cer- 
tificate. (Vocal 
music,  drawing, 
manual  training, 
or  household  arts 
only.) 

Srate  superintend- 
ent. 

State  

One  subject  named 

Life  ... 

First-grade  certifi- 
cate. 1 

County  superin- 
tendent. 

County 

Any 

2 years. 

At  discretion 

of  county  su- 
perintendent. 

Second  - grade  cer- 
tificate. 

do 

do 

do 

1 year 

do 

Special  certificates. 
(Music,  drawing, 
penmanship , 
bookkeeping, 
German,  or  any 
other  subject.) 

do 

do 

Branches  named . . 

Not  fixed  by 
law. 

do 

INDIANA. 


[School  Laws  of  Indiana,  1907,  pp.  20-29,  72-91,  228,  250,  202, 205.  Laws  1911,  chap.  81.  Indiana  Teachers’ 
Licenses,  Charles  A.  Greathouse,  1910  (pamphlet).] 


Life  State  license 
(regular). 

Any 

Life 

education. 

Life  State  license 
(special  for  col- 
lege graduates). 

do 

do 

_ . do 

do 

Professional  license 

do 

do 

do 

8 years 

Reissued  upon 
examination 
only. 

State  normal 
school  diploma. 

Board  of  trustees.. 

do 

do 

Life 

60-m  o n t h high- 
school  license. 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

do 

Designated  sub- 
jects in  any  high 
school;  common 
branches  in  any 
public  school. 

60  months... 

Reissued  upon 
examination 
only. 

i In  any  county  in  which  a county  normal  school  is  established,  the  diplomas  of  graduates,  when  direct  ed 
by  the  county  board  of  educaf;on,  may  be  accepted  by  the  county  superintendent  as  sufficient  evidence 
of  qualification  of  first-grade  certificate.  (School  Laws,  1909,  p.  48.) 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


31 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

ILLINOIS— Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by— 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

None 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

do 

County  superin- 
tendent. 

County  superin- 
tendent. 

do. . . 

do 

do 

do 

Scholarship  requirements. 


Graduation  from  a 4-year  high-school  course, 
2 years  of  work  in  special  subject  in  an 
approved  institution,  and  same  examina 
tion  and  thesis  as  required  for  State  ele- 
mentary certificate,  the  thesis  to  be  on  the 
educational  value  of  the  special  subject. 
Standings  as  above. 

Examination  in  subjects  required  for  a sec- 
ond-grade certificate,  and  in  addition,  in 
elements  of  the  natural  sciences  and  physi- 
ology and  laws  of  health.  No  standings 
named. 

Examination  in  orthography,  reading,  pen- 
manship, arithmetic,  grammar,  modern 
geography,  civics,  United  States  history, 
and  history  of  Illinois.  No  standings 
named. 

Examination  only  in  special  subject  or  sub- 
jects which  applicant  desires  to  teach. 


INDIANA. 

[School  Laws  of  Indiana,  1907,  pp.  20-29,  72-91,  228,  250,  262,  265.  Indiana  Teachers’  Licenses,  Charles  A. 
Greathouse,  1910  (pamphlet).] 


48  months. 


30  months;  10  in 
Indiana. 


State  board  of 
education. 


.do. 


State  board  of 
education. 


.do. 


48  months. 


2 years’  successful 
experience  after 
graduation. 

1 or  3 years.  (See 
scholarship  re- 
quirements.) 


.do. 


No  examination 
required. 

State  board  of 
education. 


.do. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


Applicant  must  have  held  two  36-month, 
a 36-month  and  a 60-month,  or  two  60 
month  licenses.  Examination  in  rhet- 
oric, geometry,  general  history,  English 
literature,  physical  geography,  and  two 
of  following:  Chemistry,  geology,  and 
zoology.  Minimum  general  average,  85 
per  cent;  minimum  grade,  75  per  cent. 

Graduation  from  a standard  approved  col- 
lege; holder  of  one  or  more  60-month 
licenses  or  a professional  license,  and  ex- 
amination in  any  three  of  following  sub- 
jects: General  history  of  education,  the 
school  system  and  the  school  law  of  In- 
diana, educational  psychology,  experi- 
mental psychology  and  child  study,  lead- 
ing school  systems  of  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica, and  principles  and  methods  of  in- 
struction. Same  grades  as  above. 

Same  as  for  regular  State  license  except 
subjects  of  examination,  which  are  as  fol- 
lows: Algebra,  civil  government,  Amer- 
ican literature,  science  of  education,  and 
two  of  following  six:  Physics,  botany, 
German,  French,  Spanish, ‘and  Latin. 

Graduation  from  Indiana  State  Normal 
School. 

Applicant  must  have  had  1 year’s  experi- 
ence previous  to  August,  1908,  or  be  a 
teacher  in  class  A or  B with  3 years’  ex- 
perience and  3 years’  normal  training  in 
an  accredited  school.2  Also  examination 
as  follows:  Division  I. — Common  branches 
(see  36-month  common-school  license), 
with  minimum  average  of  95  per  cent  and 
grade  of  85  per  cent.  Division  II. — (1) 
Literature  and  composition;  (2)  algebra 
or  geometry,  one  required;  (3)  botany, 
zoology,  chemistry,  physics,  or  physical 
geography,  one  required;  (4)  history  and 
civics,  Latin,  German,  French,  or  Span- 
ish, one  required;  (5)  another  subject  to 
be  selected  from  (2),  (3),  or  (4).  Mini- 
mum average,  85  per  cent;  grade,  75  per 
cent.  Divisions  must  be  taken  sepa- 
rately, but  both  within  same  examina- 
tion. Additional  subjects  may  be  taken. 


* See  p.  210. 


32 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES, 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 
INDIAN  A— Continued . 


Valid  in — 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by — 


Duration. 


Persistence. 


Territory. 


Schools. 


36-month  high- 
school  license. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


State. 


Designated  sub- 
jects in  any  high 
school. 


36  months... 


Permanent,  if 
6 years’  ex- 
pe  rience. 
Lapses  if 
holder  does 
not  teach 
continuous- 


ly- 


24-month  high- 
school  license. 


do. 


do. 


do. 


24  months... 


Reissued  upon 
examination 
only. 


12  months’  high- 
school  certificate. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


12  months...  . 


do 


36  months’  com- 
mon-school cer- 
tificate. 


do 


do 


Common  branches. 


36  months... 


Same  as  36 
months’ high- 
school  li- 
cense. 


24  months’  com- 
mon-school li- 
cense. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


24  months... 


Reissued  upon 
examination 
only. 


12  months’  com- 
mon-school li- 
cense. 


.do 


.do. 


.do. 


12  months... 


..do 


36  months’  primary- 
school  license. 

24  months’  primary- 
school  license. 

12  months’  primary- 
school  license. 

Kindergarten  1 i - 
cense. 


do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


36  months... 


First,  second, 
third,  and  fourth 
grades. 

Kindergarten 


24  months... 


[Reissued  upon 
examination 
only. 


.12  months... 
do 


.do. 


Kindergarten  d i - Indorsed  by  State 
ploma.  superintendent. 


.do... 


do..: 


Life. 


1 In  all  literature  examinations  the  manuscript  is  graded  from  0 to  75  on  correctness  of  answers  and  from 
0 to  25  on  the  quality  of  English  used. 

* See  p.  210. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


33 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

INDIANA — Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

1 or  3 years.  (See 
scholarship  re- 
quirements.) 

State  board  of 
education. 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

lyear.  (See  schol- 
arship require- 
ments.) 

do 

do 

None.  (See  schol- 
arship require- 
ments.) 

do 

do 

Same  as  for  36 

do 

do 

months’  high- 
school  certificate. 

Same  as  for  24 

do 

do 

months’  high- 
school  certificate 

None;  same  as  for 
12  months’  high- 
school  certificate. 

do 

do... 

[Same  as  for  respec- 
< tive  common- 

1 do 

do j 

[ school  license. 

I 

None 

do 

do 

No  examination  re< 

juired 

Same  as  for  60-month  high-school  license, 
except  examination,  which  is  as  follows: 
Applicant  must  pass  successfully  (mini- 
mum average  95  per  cent,  grade  85  per 
cent)  in  science  of  education  and  one  or 
more  of  following:  Latin,  German, 

French,  Spanish,  literature  and  compo- 
sition, history  and  civics,  physical  geog- 
raphy, commercial  geography,  zoology, 
botany,  physics,  chemistry,  commercial 
arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  bookkeep- 
ing, and  stenography.1 
Applicant  must  have  had  1 or  more  years’ 
experience  previous  to  August,  1908,  or  be 
a Class  A2  teacher  of  1 year’s  experience 
and  24  weeks’  normal  training  in  an  ac- 
credited school,  and  must  also  pass  suc- 
cessfully (minimum  general  average  90 
per  cent,  grade  80  per  cent)  in  one  or  more 
of  subjects  named  in  requirements  for  36- 
month  high-school  certificate  and  science 
of  education. 

Applicant  must  have  been  a teacher  prior 
to  August,  1908,  or  be  a graduate  of  a com- 
missioned or  certified  high  school  with  at 
least  12  weeks  of  normal  training  in  an 
accredited  school,  and  must  also  pass  suc- 
cessfully (minimum  average  85  per  cent, 
grade  75  per  cent)  in  one  or  more  sub- 
jects named  in  requirements  for  a 36- 
month  high-school  certificate,  and  science 
of  education. 

Same  as  for  36-month  high-school  license; 
except  examination,  which  is  as  follows: 
Arithmetic,  grammar,  United  States  his- 
tory, physiology  and  sciencific  temper- 
ance, geography,  reading,  writing,  spell- 
ing, literature,  science  of  education, 
drawing,  and  music.3  Drawing  and 
music  are  optional  except  in  counties 
where  they  are  specifically  required. 
Examination  in  reading-circle  books  for 
current  year  may  be  substituted  for 
examinations  in  analogous  subjects. 
Minimum  average  95  per  cent,  grade  85 
per  cent.  A teacher  holding  this  license 
is  in  Class  C.2 

Same  as  for  24  months’  high-school  certifi- 
cate, except  examination,  which  is  in 
same  subjects  as  for  36  months’  common- 
school  certificate.  Minimum  average,  90 
per  cent;  grade,  80  per  cent.  A teacher 
holding  this  license  is  in  Class  B.3 
Same  as  for  12  months’  high-school  certifi- 
cate, except  examination,  which  is  in 
same  subjects  as  for  36  months’  common- 
school  certificate.  Minimum  average,  85 
per  cent;  grade,  75  per  cent.  A teacher 
holding  this  license  is  in  Class  A.2 

[Same  scholarship  requirements  as  for  re- 
spective grades  of  common-school  license, 

; except  that  special  primary  questions  are 
given  in  arithmetic,  reading,  grammar, 
and  science  of  education. 

Any  person  eligible  to  any  other  examina- 
tion is  eligible  to  this,  which  is  in  kinder- 
garten theory  and  practice,  music,  draw- 
ing, and  English.  Minimum  average,  85 
per  cent;  grade,  75  per  cent. 

Graduation  from  an  approved  kindergarten 
training  school. 

3 Grades  in  writing  and  spelling  are  determined  from  the  manuscripts.  Grammar  and  literature  are 
graded  from  0 to  90  on  correctness  of  answers  and  from  0 to  10  on  quality  of  English  used. 

10943°— 11 3 


Scholarship  requirements. 


34 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 
INDIAN  A— Continued . 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by — 

Territory. 

Supervisor’s  license 
in  music,  art, 
manual  training, 
sewing,  and 
cooking. 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

State 

Special  license  (ru- 
ral and  town 
schools). 

State  board  of 
education. 

do 

County  high  school: 
36  months. . 

County  superin- 
tendent. 

do 

do 

County 

24  months 

12  months 

do 

do.... . 

County  common 
school: 

36  months 

24  months 

do 

. . .do 

do 

. .do 

12  months.. 

do 

do 

County  primary: 

36  months 

do 

.do 

24  months 

do 

do  ... 

12  months. . 

do 

do 

Special  teachers’s 
license. 

do 

do 

Valid  in — 


Schools. 


Supervisor  or 
teacher  of  spe- 
cial subject  in 
any  public 
school. 


Duration. 


12  months... 


3 years. 


Persistence. 


Reissued  upon 
examination 
only. 


.do. 


Rural  and  town 
schools;  com- 
mon branches. 


Same  as  for  corresponding  license  issued  by  State 


-Same  as  for  corresponding  license  issued  by  State 


Same  as  for  corresponding  license  issued  by  State 

exami-! 


Branches  named . 


3,  2,  or  1 
year. 


Upon 
nation  only. 


IOWA.2 

[Code  of  Iowa.  Secs.  2629-2631,  2634,  2734,  Department  of  Public  Instruction  Circular  No.  5,  1911.] 


State  diploma 

State  board  of  ex- 

State  

Any 

For  life 

aminers. 

State  certificate: 

. .do 

.do 

do 

5 years 

(3) 

Without  exami- 
nation. 

Upon  examina- 
tion. 

..  ..do 

. . .do 

do 

do 

Primary  teachers’ 
State  certificate. 

do 

do 

First,  second,  and 
third  grades. 

do 

do 

Special  State  cer- 
tificate (includ- 
ing kindergarten). 

do 

do 

Any,  in  subjects 
or  departments 
named. 

do 

Same  as  for 
State  certifi- 
cate. 

1 See  p.  209.  2 See  appendix,  p.  257. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  HEGULATIONS. 


35 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

INDIANA— Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

Scholarship  requirements. 

None;  same  as 
for  12  months’ 
common -school 
license. 

State  board  of 
education. 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

Same  as  for  12  months’  common-school 
license  except  examination,  which  is  in 
special  subject  (minimum  grade,  85  per 
cent)  and,  if  not  a graduate  of  a com- 
missioned high  school,  in  literature  and 
composition,  arithmetic,  United  States 
history,  and  physiology,  and  scientific 
temperance  (minimum  average,  85  per 
cent;  grade,  75  per  cent).  Courses  in 
approved  schools  in  special  subject 
will  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  normal  train- 
ing. 

None  

do 

State  board  of  ed 

Completion  of  special  2 years’  course  for 
teachers  in  accredited  schools.  Holders 
of  this  license  who  have  no  experience  are 
in  class  A ; those  with  one  or  more  years’ 
experience  are  in  class  B.* 1 

ucation. 

superintendent 

["County  superin- 
1 tendent. 

[ do 

(Same  as  for  corresponding  license  issued 
| by  State  superintendent. 

superintendent 

f do 

| Do. 

superin  tendent 

[ do 

\ .do 

| Do. 

| do 

None 

State  board  of 

do 

None  specified.  Papers  may  be  sent  to 
State  superintendent  for  grading. 

education. 

IOWA.2 


[Code  of  Iowa.  Secs.  2629-2631,  2634,  2734,  Department  of  Public  Instruction  Circular  No.  5, 1911.] 


5 years 

None 

State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

2 years 

t 

State  board  of  ex- 

State board  of  ex- 

aminers. 

aminers. 

do 

do 

.do 

None 

do 

In  addition  to  branches  required  for  a State 
certificate,  examination  in  geometry, 
trigonometry,  chemistry,  zoology,  geol- 
ogy, astronomy,  political  economy,  Eng- 
lish literature/and  general  history. 

(1)  Graduation  from  State  university,  nor- 
mal schools,  and  colleges  of  agriculture, 
and  other  educational  institutions  in  the 
State  having  regular  collegiate  courses  of 
equal  rank.  The  record  must  show  at 
least  6 semester  hours  in  psychology  and 
14  in  education.  (2)  Holder  of  a certifi- 
cate issued  by  State  department  of  educa- 
tion in  another  State,  upon  evidence  of 
scholarship  and  experience  equivalent  to 
that  required  for  like  certificate  in  Iowa. 

Examination  in  orthography,  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  English 
grammer,  bookkeeping,  physiology,  his- 
tory of  United  States,  algebra,  botany, 
physics,  drawing,  United  States  civics, 
Iowa  civics, school  laws  of  Iowa,  didactics. 

Examination  in  psychology  of  the  child, 
school  management,  history  of  education, 
school  laws  of  Iowa,  drawing,  primary 
methods,  plant  study,  vocal  music,  phys- 
ical culture. 

Same  as  for  special  county  certificate. 


3 Renewable  for  life  upon  proof  of  at  least  5 years’  successful  teaching,  three  of  which  shall  have  been  during 
the  time  the  said  certificate  (with  renewals)  has  been  in  force. 


36 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 
IOWA — Continued. 


Valid  in— 

Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by — 

Duration. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Normal  training- 

Superintendent  of 
public  instruc- 
tion. 

State 

Any 

2 years 

course  certificate. 

First-grade  county 
certificate. 

State  board  of  ex- 

 do 

do 

3 years 

aminers. 

Second-grade 
county  certifi- 
cate. 

do 

do 

do 

2 years 

Third-grade  county 
certificate. 

do 

do 

do 

1 year 

Provisional  county 
certificate. 

Special  county  cer- 
tificate (includ- 
ing kindergarten). 

do 

do 

Limited  to  county 
for  which  is- 
sued. 

Any,  in  subjects 
or  departments 
named. 

6 months.. 

do 

do 

3 years  . . . 

Persistence. 


After  36  weeks’ 
successful 
experie  n ce 
certified  to 
by  county 
superint  e n- 
dent  under 
whom  teach- 
ing was  done, 
holder  shall 
receive  a 
county  cer- 
tificate of  a 
grade  corre- 
sponding to 
his  qualifica- 
tions. 

Renewable 
upon  proofs 
of  successful 
teaching 
and  profes- 
sional study 
during  life  of 
certificate.1 2 3 

do 


Renewable 
once  on  evi- 
dence  of 
successful 
teaching. 
Not  more 
than  2 may 
be  issued  to 
same  person. 

Not  renewa- 
ble. 

Same  as  for 
first-g  r a d e 
county  .3 


KANSAS.4 


[Laws  relating  to  the  common  schools  of  Kansas,  1909,  pp.  18-24,  27-34,  115,  129-130,  143.  Manual  of  the 
Board  of  Education,  State  of  Kansas,  1910,  pp.  5-38.  Laws  1911,  chap.  276.] 


Life  diploma 

State  board  of 
education. 

do 

State 

Any 

Life 

Life  certificate 

do. . . 

do 

do 

Lapses  if 
holder  is  not 
engaged  in 
school  work 
for  3 years. 

1 Renewable  for  life  upon  proof  of  at  ieast  5 years’  successful  teaching,  three  of  which  shall  have  been 
during  the  time  the  said  certificate  (with  renewals)  has  been  in  force. 

2 Holder  of  a second-grade  certificate  may  build  to  a first-grade  certificate  by  making  the  required  grades, 
and  by  examination  in  the  additional  required  branches,  subject  to  the  requirements  of  36  weeks’  experi- 
ence. Likewise  a holder  of  a third-grade  certificate  may  build  to  a second  or  a first  grade,  applicant  having 
the  privilege  of  being  examined  in  one  or  more  of  such  branches  at  any  regular  examination. 

3 See  appendix,  p.  257. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


37 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

IOWA — Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

Scholarship  requirements. 

No  examination 

No  examination 

Certificate  of  graduation  from  the  high 

required. 

required. 

school  normal  training  course,  the  exam- 
ination for  graduation  being  conducted 
under  rules  of  the  State  board  of  exam- 
iners. 

36  weeks 

State  board  of  ex- 

State board  of  ex- 

Examination in  reading,  orthography, 
writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  gram- 
mar, United  States  history,  music,  phys- 
iology and  hygiene  with  reference  to 
effects  of  stimulants  and  narcotics,  ele- 
mentary civics,  elementary  economics, 
elementary  physics,  and  elementary 
algebra. 

Same  as  for  first-grade  county  certificate, 
except  that  an  examination  in  the  last 
four  subjects  named  above  is  not  re- 
quired. Lower  average  required.2 

Examination  in  the  same  subjects  required 
for  a second-grade  county  certificate. 
Lower  average  required.  (See  note  at 
bottom  of  p.  36.) 

None -. 

aminers. 

do  

aminers. 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Examination- in  the  same  subjects  required 
for  a third-grade  county  certificate. 
Lower  minimum  grade  accepted. 

Examination  in  the  subject  or  group  of 
subjects  for  which  a certificate  is  sought, 
and  per  cents  therein,  such  as  are  required 
for  a first-grade  county  certificate. 

do 

do 

_ do 

KANSAS. 

[Laws  relating  to  the  common  schools  of  Kansas,  1909,  pp.  18-24,  27-34,  115,  129-130,  143.  Manual  of  the 
Board  of  Education,  State  of  Kansas,  1910,  pp.  5-38.  Laws  1911,  chap.  276.] 


5 years;  2 in  State . 

State  board  of 

State  board  of 

education. 

education. 

2 years  under  3- 

No  examination  required 

year  renewable 

certificate. 

Examination  in  all  subjects  required  for  a 
3-year  certificate  and,  in  addition,  in 
political  economy,  zoology,  and  Latin, 
German,  or  French.  Minimum  average, 
85  per  cent;  minimum  grade,  70  per  cent. 
Holder  of  3-year  renewable  certificate. 


4 The  State  board  of  education  has  established  the  following  rules  governing  the  renewal  of  normal-training 
certificates: 

First.  Evidence  of  successful  experience  and  professional  interest  on  the  part  of  holders  of  such  certi- 
ficates satisfactory  to  the  State  board  of  education. 

Second.  Holders  shall  attend  2 county  teachers’  institutes,  provided  that  attendance  at  an  approved 
summer  training  school  for  2 summers  shall  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  such  institute  attendance. 

Third.  Holders  shall  pursue  such  a course  of  professional  reading  as  shall  be  outlined  by  the  State  board 
of  education. 

Fourth.  Holders  shall  have  taught  1 year  of  at  least  20  weeks  out  of  the  2 years,  provided  that  attendance 
at  a recognized  institution  of  higher  learning  for  2 years  shall  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  the  required  teaching 
experience. 

It  is  expected  that  holders  will  attend  1 of  the  2 institutes  required  before  beginning  to  teach. 


88 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers * 
KAN  S AS — Continued . 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by— 

Valid  in — 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

3 -year  renewable 
certificate  (upon 
complete  exami- 
nation to  non- 
graduates). 

3-year  renewable 
certificate  [with- 
out examination 
to  graduates  (arts 
course)]. 

3-year  nonrenewa- 

State board  of 

State 

Any 

3 years  . 

Life  certificate 

education. 
do 

..  .do 

do 

.do 

granted  if  2 
years  of  suc- 
cessful ex- 
perience. 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Nonrenewable. 

ble  certificate 
(normal  practice 
teaching  course). 

Industrial  certifi- 
cates: 

Manual  training. 
Upon  exami- 
nation. 

Without  exam- 

 do 

. do 

Any  school  in  sub- 
j e c t s named, 
provided  holder 
has  also  a valid 
Kansas  teacher’s 
certificate. 

do 

1 year 

May  secure  re- 
newable cer- 
tificate by 
passing  ex- 
amination in 
professional 
subjects. 

Renewable  2 

do 

do 

do 

years  if  ex- 
perience i s 
satisfactory; 
1 year  with- 
out experi- 
ence. 

ination. 

Domestic  science. 
Upon  exami- 
nation. 

Without  ex- 

 do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

amination. 
Normal  training 
certificate. 

do 

do 

Any 

2 years . . . 

2 years  at  a 
time;  indefi- 
nitely.1 

1 The  State  board  of  education  has  established  the  following  rules  governing  the  renewal  of  normal 
training  certificates: 

First.  Evidence  of  successful  experience  and  professional  interest  on  the  part  of  holders  of  such  certifi- 
cates satisfactory  to  the  State  board  of  education. 

Second.  Holders  shall  attend  2 county  teachers’  institutes,  provided  that  attendance  at  an  approved 
summer  training  school  for  2 summers  shall  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  such  institute  attendance. 

Third.  Holders  shall  pursue  such  a course  of  professional  reading  as  shall  be  outlined  by  the  State 
board  of  education. 

Fourth.  Holders  shall  have  taught  1 year  of  at  least  20  weeks-out  of  the  2 years,  provided  that  attend- 
ance at  a recognized  institution  of  higher  learning  for  2 years  shall  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  the  required 
teaching  experience . 

It  is  expected  that  holders  will  attend  1 of  the  2 institutes  required  before  beginning  to  teach. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


39 


certificates  m the  various  States — Continued. 

KAN  S AS — Continued . 


Experience 

Questions 

Papers  exam- 

required. 

prepared  by — 

ined  by — 

Scholarship  requirements. 


1 year. 


State  board  of 
education. 


State  board  of 
education. 


.do. 


Examination  in  first  15  subjects  named 
under  professional  certificate,  and  in  ad- 
dition, plane  and  solid  geometry,  physi- 
cal geography,  mediaeval  and  modem 
history,  botany,  general  psychology,  his- 
tory of  education,  school  law,  methods 
of  instruction,  school  management,  chem- 
istry, drawing,  and  music.  For  any  2 of 
the  last  3 named,  any  2 of  the  following  3 
may  be  substituted:  Zoology,  political 
economy  or  Latin,  including  Caesar  and 
Virgil.  Standings  as  under  life  diploma. 

Graduation  from  educational  institution 
placed  on  the  accredited  list  by  the  State 
board  of  education.  See  p.  — . 


20  weeks  of  prac- 
tice teaching. 


No  examination  required 


Graduation  from  the  normal  course  of  cer- 
tain Kansas  institutions  whose  courses  of 
study  include  all  subjects  required  for  the 
3-year  certificate  and  have  received  the 
approval  of  the  State  board  of  education. 


None. 


State  board  of 
education. 


State  board  of 
education. 


do 


Examination  must  show  ability  to  teach 
both  theory  and  laboratory  work  in  clay 
modeling,  cardboard  construction,  bas- 
ketry, joinery,  furniture  making,  wood 
turning,  and  mechanical  drawing  in  ele- 
mentary and  high  schools. 

Graduation  from  accredited  course  in  a 
manual-training  institution. 


do 


,do 

do 


State  board  of 
education. 

State  board  of 
education. 

State  board  of 
education. 

Examiners  ap- 
pointed by  State 
board  of  educa- 
tion. 

Examination  must  show  ability  to  teach 
sewing  and  cooking  in  elementary  and 
high  schools. 

Same  as  for  manual-training  certificate 
(without  examination). 

The  applicant  must  be  a graduate  of  a 4-year 
high-school  course  approved  by  the  State 
board  of  education,  That  course  must 
include  a prescribed  course  in  normal 
training.  The  applicant  is  examined  in 
arithmetic,  grammar,  geography,  read- 
ing. American  history,  psychology, 
methods  of  instruction,  and  school  man- 
agement. Minimum  average,  80  per  cent; 
minimum  grade,  60  per  cent. 


40 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers ’ 
KAN  S AS — Continued . 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by- 


Valid  in- 


Territory. 


Schools. 


Duration . 


Persistence. 


First-grade  certifi- 
cate. 


County  board  of 
examiners. 


Second-grade  cer- 
tificate. 


Third-grade  cer- 
tificate. 


.do. 


.do. 


Temporary 

tificates. 


Local  certificates: 
Cities  of  first  and 
second  class.4 

Common-school 
district  having 
over  10  teachers, 
County  high 
school. 

Institute  certifi- 
cates: 

Conductor’s 


County  superin- 
tendent. 


Examining  com- 
mittee. 


.do. 


.do. 


Instructor’s . 


State  board  of 
education. 


.do. 


Special  certificate . 


.do. 


County,  ex- 
cept in 
cities  of 
first  and 
second 
class 
May  be 
indorsed 
in  other 
c o unties 
for  unex- 
p i r e d 
time. 

do 


.do. 


District 

named. 


City. 


District . 


County. 


State. 


.do. 


.do. 


Any 


3 years . 


.do. 


2 years . 


.do. 


1 year. 


.do. 


Department 

named. 


Until  close 
of  next  ex- 
amination. 


Varies. 


.do. 


.do. 


High  school 
named. 


Institutes. 


.do. 


1 year. 


.do. 


.do. 


Branches  named . . 


do... 


Renewed  for  3 
years  with- 
out exami- 
nation, pro- 
vided cer- 
tain condi- 
tions are 
met.1 2 


(3) 


Reissued  once 
upon  exam- 
ination if 
holder  has 
taught  3 
months. 


Can  not  be  re- 
issued to 
same  person 
at  expira- 
tion of  time 


Varies. 


.do. 


.do. 


Renewable  for 
5 years  to 
holder  who 
has  success- 
fully con- 
ducted one 
institute. 

Renewable  for 
3 years  to 
holder  who 
has  taught 
successfully 
in  one  insti- 
tute. 

Renewable  for 
1 year. 


1 Varying  amounts  of  work  in  an  accredited  high  school  or  its  equivalent  will  be  required  in  the  future 
of  applicants  for  any  grade  certificate,  as  follows:  After  May  1,  1913,  1 year  of  work;  after  May  1,  1915, 

2 years  of  work;  after  May  1,  1917, 4 years  of  work. 

This  requirement  does  not  apply  to  any  person  who  shall  have  taught  at  least  6 school  years  before 
May  1, 1912.  The  board  of  education  is  empowered  to  make  such  temporary  modifications  of  these  require- 
ments as  may  be  necessary  to  supply  the  schools  with  teachers. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


41 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

KAN  S AS — Continued . 


Experience 

required. 


Questions 
prepared  by — 


Papers  exam- 
ined by — 


Scholarship  requirements. 


12  months. 


State  board  of 
education. 


County  board  of  Examination  in  all  subjects  required  for 
examiners.  second-grade  certificate  and  such  addi- 

tional branches  as  State  board  may  pre- 
scribe. Minimum  standings  90  per  cent 
and  75  per  cent.1 


3 months. 


do 


do 


None 


do 


do 


do 


County  superintendent  when  exami- 
nation is  required. 


Examination  in  all  subjects  required  for 
third  grade  and  such  additional  branches 
as  S tate  board  may  prescribe . M inim  um 
standings  80  per  cent  and  60  per  cent.1 

Examination  in  orthography,  reading, 
writing,  grammar,  geography,  arithme- 
tic, history  of  Kansas,  United  States 
history,  Constitution  of  United  States, 
physiology  and  hygiene,  agriculture,  and 
principles  and  methods  of  teaching  with 
minimum  average  of  75  per  cent  and 
minimum  grade  of  60  per  cent. 

Upon  written  request  of  a district  board 
county  superintendent  may  issue  cer- 
tificate if  he  believes  the  applicant  pos- 
sesses “the  necessary  qualifications  of  a 
teacher.” 


Varies. 


do 


Examining  committee  when  examina- 
tion is  required.  | 

do 


Varies;  as  determined  by  each  local  board 
Must  be  judged  competent  to  teach  in 
department  named. 


do 


do. 


8 years  as  a teacher . 


No  examination  required 


5 years  as  a teacher . 


do. 


Do. 


Must  have  taught  successfully  under  cer- 
tificate in  three  normal  institutes,  not 
more  than  two  of  which  were  in  the  same 
year.  This  rule  may  be  waived  in  the 
case  of  applicants  of  high  professional 
standing  and  long  experience  in  educa- 
tional work. 

Holder  of  State  certificate  or  life  diploma  or 
one  whose  professional  experience  and 
ability  warrants. 


Not  fixed. 


.do. 


“Board  must  be  satisfied  as  to  special  qual- 
ifications.” 


2 Conditions  are  as  follows:  (1)  No  non  teaching  period  of  more  than  2 years;  (2)  attended  90  per  cent  of 
last  county  institute  or  6 weeks  professional  training  in  some  approved  school;  and  (3)  does  such 
professional  work  as  State  or  county  superintendent  may  direct. 

3 Holder  may  build  toward  a first  grade  certificate.  Any  grade  of  90  per  cent  or  more  secured  at  not  to 
exceed  4 regular  examinations  may  be  retained  for  2 years  and  applied  toward  such  first-grade  certificate. 

4 Cities  having  a population  of  2,000  or  over. 


42 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES, 


Table  1. — The  'principal  features  of  teachers 1 

KENTUCKY. 

[Common  School  Laws  of  Kentucky,  1910,  pp.  12,  27-33,  133-134,  158,  166.  Biennial  Report  of  State 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of  Kentucky,  1908-9,  pp.  28-29.] 


Valid  in — 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by — 


Territory. 


Schools. 


Duration. 


Persistence. 


State  diploma. 


State  certificate . 


University  diploma 
(B.  A.  in  educa- 
tion). 

Advanced  uni- 
versity and  nor- 
mal-school certifi- 
cates. 


Intermediate  uni- 
versity and  nor- 
mal - school  cer- 
tificate. 

Elementary  uni- 
versity and  nor- 
mal-school certifi- 
cate. 

Kentucky  Normal 
and  Industrial 
Institute  certifi- 
cates. 

First-class  county 
certificate. 


Second-class  county 
certificate. 
Third-class  county 
certificate. 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


.do. 


State. 


Any. 


.do. 


.do. 


Board  of  trustees 
(approved  by 
State  superin- 
tendent). 

Board  of  trustees 
of  univ.,  board 
of  regents  of  nor- 
mal schools,  sub- 
ject to  approval 
of  State  superin- 
tendent. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


do. 


.do. 


Board  of  trustees. . 


County  board  of 
examiners. 


do 


County. 


Colored  schools. . 


Any. 


.do. 

.do. 


Life,,  unless 
holder  fails 
to  teach  2 
successive 
years. 

8 years,  un- 
less holder 
fails  to 
teach  2 
successive 
years. 


Life. 


3 years . 


4 years . 


2 years . 


Life. 


4 years . 


2 years . 
1 year. . 


Renewed  for 
original  pe- 
riod on  rec- 
ommen- 
dation  of 
county 
board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


Renewed  for 
life  upon 
evidence  of 
succes  s f u 1 
teaching 
and  ap- 
proval of 
State  super- 
intendent. 

Nonrenewable. 


.do. 


May  be  re- 
newed an- 
nually for 
4 years  if 
holder  has 
taught  8 con- 
secutive 
years  under 
first-g  r a d e 
certificate. 

Nonrenewable. 

Not  issued 
more  than 
once  to  same 
person. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


43 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

KENTUCKY. 


Common  School  Laws  of  Kentucky;  1910,  pp.  12,  27-33,  133-134,  158,  166.  Biennial  Report  of  State 
Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction  of  Kentucky,  1908-9,  pp.  28-29.] 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

Scholarship  requirements. 

2 years  in  State 

State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

do 

State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

do 

Examination  in  subjects  required  for  a 
State  certificate  and,  in  addition,  in  ge- 
ometry, physics,  and  elementary  Latin 
with  minimum  average  of  90  per  cent  and 
grade  of  70  per  cent. 

Examination  in  subjects  required  for 
county  certificates  and  in  English  litera- 
ture, algebra,  higher  arithmetic,  and 
psychology,  with  a minimum  average  of 
90  per  cent  and  grade  of  70  per  cent,  and 
recommendation  of  county  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

Bachelor  of  Arts  in  education  from  State 

university. 

do 

Completion  of  3 years’  work  in  department 
of  education  of  State  university  or  in 
State  normal  schools. 

do 

Same,  except  2 years’  work. 

do 

Same,  except  1 year  work. 

do 

Graduation  from  institution. 

do 

State  board  of  ex- 

County board  of 
examiners. 

Examination  in  spelling,  reading,  writing, 
grammar,  geography,  arithmetic,  United 
States  history,  history  of  Kentucky, 
composition,  physiology  and  hygiene, 
including  nature  and  effects  of  alcoholic 
drinks,  etc.,  with  minimum  average  of 
85  per  cent  and  grade  of  05  per  cent. 

aminers. 

do 

do. 

do. 

Same,  except  minimum  average  of  75  per 
cent  and  grade  of  55  per  cent. 

Same,  except  minimum  average  of  05  per 
cent  and  grade  of  50  per  cent. 

do 

do 

do 

44 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 

LOUISIANA. 

[Sixth  compilation  of  the  Laws  of  Louisiana  relating  to  public  schools,  1908,  pp.  65-69,  122, 146, 147.] 


Valid  in— 

Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by— 

Duration. 

Persistence 

Territory. 

Schools. 

State  certificate 

State  board  of  ex- 

State 

Any 

10  years 

May  be  re- 
newed by 
board. 

aminers. 

First-grade  certifi- 
cate. 

Parish  board  of 

Parish;  pa- 
pers may 
be  sent  to 
anot  her 
parish 
s u perin- 
tend  e n t 
upon  his 
request. 

.do 

5 years 

Extended  1 

examiners. 

year  for  at- 
tend  ance 
State  sum- 
mer normal 
school  for  9 
weeks  or 
more. 

Second-grade  certif- 
icate. 

.do 

.do 

.do 

3 years 

Extended  1 

year  for  at- 
tendance 
State  sum- 
mer normal 
school  9 
weeks. 

Third-grade  certifi- 
cate. 

do 

do 

.do 

1 year 

Renewed  1 

year  if  sum- 
mer school 
is  attended 
9 weeks. 

Normal-school  di- 
ploma. 

Institutions 

State.  . 

do 

4 years 

Renewed  for  4 

named  in  last 
column. 

years  by  au- 
thority is- 
suing  d i- 
ploma.1 

Special  certificate . . 

Parish  examining 
committee. 

Parish . . . 

Special  academic 
depart  me  n t 
named. 

5 years 

Nonrenew- 

able. 

1 State  superintendent  may  renew  for  graduates  of  Peabody  Normal  School. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


45 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

LOUISIANA. 

[Sixth  compilation  of  the  Laws  of  Louisiana  relating  to  public  schools,  1908,  pp.  65-69,  122,  146,  147.] 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

None 

State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

do 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

Parish  board  of 
examiners. 

... do ... . 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

Parish  examining 
committee. 

Scholarship  requirements. 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for  first- 
grade  certificate  and  also  in  literature, 
chemistry,  bookkeeping,  Latin,  general 
history,  botany,  history  of  education, 
psychology,  and  school  administration. 
Completion  of  course  in  any  subject  by  a 
graduate  of  any  institution  in  Louisiana 
authorized  by  law  to  issue  diplomas  certi- 
fied to  by  the  president  of  such  institu- 
tion secures  credit  of  satisfactory  exami- 
nation in  that  subject.  This  does  not  ap- 
ply to  subjects  in  the  field  of  education. 

If  applicant  holds  a valid  second-grade  cer- 
tificate, examination  in  higher  algebra, 
physics,  geometry,  penmanship  and 
drawing,  theory  and  art  of  teaching, 
English  grammar  and  composition,  arith- 
metic (written  and  mental),  political 
and  physical  geography,  United  States 
history,  and  agriculture.  If  applicant 
holds  a third-grade  certificate,  also  in 
reading,  constitutions  of  Louisiana  and 
of  the  United  States,  and  spelling.  An 
applicant  who  holds  no  certificate  nor 
is  a graduate  of  an  institution  authorized 
to  issue  diplomas  must,  in  addition  to 
the  first-grade  subjects,  take  the  third- 
grade  examination  in  physiology  and 
hygiene  and  the  second-grade  examina- 
tion in  constitutions  of  Louisiana  and  of 
the  United  States  and  spelling. 

Examination  in  grammatical  analysis, 
physical  and  political  geography,  ele- 
mentary algebra,  theory  and  art  of  teach- 
ing, arithmetic,  United  States  history, 
agriculture,  reading,  constitutions  of 
Louisiana  and  United  States,  and  spell- 
ing. If  applicant  does  not  hold  third- 
grade  certificate,  also  in  penmanship  and 
drawing,  and  physiology  and  hygiene. 
Minimum  average,  80  per  cent;  minimum 
grade , 50  per  cent.  Average  of  70  per  cent 
entitles  applicant  to  third-grade  certifi- 
cate. 

Examination  in  spelling,  reading,  penman- 
ship, drawing,  arithmetic,  English  gram- 
mar, geography,  United  States  history, 
constitutions  of  United  States  and  of 
Louisiana,  physiology  and  hygiene,  with 
special  reference  to  the  effects  of  stimu- 
lants and  narcotics,  and  theory  and  art 
of  teaching.  Minimum  average,  75  per 
cent;  minimum  grade,  40  per  cent. 

Diplomas  from  Peabody  Normal  School; 
State  normal  school;  city  normal  school, 
New  Orleans;  department  of  philosophy 
and  education  Louisiana  State  Uni- 
versity; Teachers’  College  of  Tulane 
University. 

Examination  in  subjects  to  be  taught. 


Note. — General  average  obtained  upon  examination  is  increased  15  per  cent  for  attendance  upon  State 
summer  normal  schools  for  nine  weeks.  Examinations  must  be  taken  within  one  year  from  date  of  attend- 
ance. 


46 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers’ 

MAINE. 


[Maine  School  Laws,  1909,  pp.  13, 38.  Circulars  “ Examination  for  State  certificates,”  1904,  "Conditions  of 
granting  State  certificates  of  superintendence  grade,”  1910. 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by — 

Valid  in — 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

State  certificates: 
Upon  examina- 
tion. 

Superint  end- 
ence  grade. 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

State 

Superintendent. . . 

Life  or  5 

Renewable  for 
life. 

years.1 

Public  - school 

do 

Any  . . 

Life,  5,  3,  or 
1 year.1 3 

One  renewal 
without  re- 
examination. 

grade. 

Grammar  or 

do 

Common  schools. . 

.do. . . . 

.do  . . 

common 
school  grade. 

Common-school 

do 

do 

do 

grade. 

Primary  or 
common 
school  grade. 
Without  exami- 

 do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

(4) 

Branches  upon 
which  exam- 
ined. 

do 

do 

nation. 

Town  certificate 

Town  superintend- 
ent. 

Town 

1 year 

Renewable 

without  ex- 
amination. 

1 Persons  having  had  less  than  5 years’  experience  in  school  supervision  are  eligible  for  the  5-year  certifi- 
cate; those  who  present  evidence  of  successful  work  as  superintendents  for  5 or  more  years  are  eligible  for 
the  life  certificate. 

2 See  page  209. 

3 The  preliminary  examination  consists  of  filling  out  a blank  form  concerning  the  life,  education,  experi- 
ence, special  preparation,  and  reading  of  the  applicant  and  other  facts  bearing  upon  his  probable  ability 

as  a teacher.  The  names  of  5 references  are  also  required. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


47 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

MAINE. 


fMaine  School  Laws,  1909,  pp.  13, 38.  Circulars  “Examination  for  State  certificates,”  1904,  “Conditions  of 
granting  State  certificates  of  superintendence  grade,”  1910.] 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

Scholarship  requirements. 

Not  less  than  2 

State  superintend- 

State  superintend- 

Written  examination  in  school  law,  meth- 

years’ experi- 

ent. 

ent. 

ods  of  teaching,  school  management,  edu- 

ence as  superin- 
tendent  of 
schools  or  as  a 
school  principal 
with  supervi- 
sory powers. 

18, 9, 5,  or  0 terms 2 . 

do 

do 

cational  psychology,  history  of  educa- 
tion, and  school  administration. 

Written  examination  in  reading,  writing, 
spelling,  arithmetic,  geography,  English 
grammar,  United  States  history,  physi- 
ology and  hygiene,  elementary  science  or 
nature  study,  civil  government,  theory 
and  practice  of  teaching,  and  school  law; 
minimum  average  90  per  cent,  minimum 
grade  70  per  cent;  also  graduation  from 
college  or  full  college-preparatory  course 
of  first-class  seminary  of  exceptionally 
high  rank  with  ability  to  teach  college 
preparatory  studies , including  at  least  one 
ancient  and  one  modem  language,  and  a 
recommendation  for  high  school  work 
given  by  references.  Reports  of  refer- 
ences are  taken  into  account,3  also 
statements  contained  in  preliminary 
examination.2 

Examination  in  same  subjects;  minimum 
average  80  per  cent,  minimum  grade  70 
per  cent.  Account  also  taken  of  state- 
ments of  references  and  of  preliminary 
examination.2  3 

Same,  except  minimum  average  and  grade 
70  per  cent  and  50  per  cent.2  3 

Same,  except  no  minimum  average  is  stip- 
ulated, and  minimum  grade  is  placed  at 
35  per  cent. 

Graduation  from  a Maine  State  normal 
school.4 

Examination  in  reading,  spelling,  gram- 

 do 

do 

.do. . . 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

As  determined  by 

Town  superintend- 

Town superintend- 

town superin- 

ent. 

ent. 

mar,  geography,  history,  arithmetic, 

tendent. 

civil  government,  bookkeeping,  physi- 
ology with  special  reference  to  effect  of 
alcoholic  drinks,  stimulants,  and  nar- 
cotics, elements  of  the  natural  sciences 
especially  as  applied  to  agriculture,  and 
such  other  branches  as  superintending 
school  committee  desires  to  introduce 
into  the  public  school,  particularly  into 
the  school  for  which  he  is  examined. 

4 Graduates  of  State  normal  schools  are  admitted  to  all  classes  of  State  certificates.  In  determining  the 
grade  of  certificate  to  be  given  to  each  graduate,  consideration  is  g ven  to  the  grade  of  work  done  by  the 
student  during  the  course,  expezience  in  teaching,  if  any,  before  entrance  to  the  course,  and  rank  attained 
m examination. 


48 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers ’ 

MARYLAND. 

[The  Public  School  Laws  of  1910,  pp.  12,  24,  26,  31-32.  By-Laws,  Rules,  and  Regulations  of  the  Public 
School  System  of  Maryland,  1908,  pp.  18-21.] 


Valid  in — 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by- 


Terr  itory. 


Schools. 


Duration. 


Persistence. 


Life  certificate: 
Without  exami- 
nation. 


Upon  examina- 
tion. 


State  normal  di- 
ploma. 

State  normal  certif- 
icate. 


University,  college, 
and  normal  di- 
plomas. 


State  board  of 
education. 


.do. 


State. 


Any. 


Life. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


Principal  of  school 
and  State  board. 


Indorsed  by  State 
superintendent. 


. .do 


.do. 


.do 


do.. 

5 years. 


.do. 


Varies;  may 
be  for  life. 


Renewed  for 
life,  upon  2 
years’  experi- 
ence and  rec- 
ommenda- 
tion  of  coun- 
ty superin- 
tendent. 


County  certificates: 

First  grade 

First  class 

Second  class 

Second  grade 

First  class 

Second  class 


•County  superin- 
tendent. 


County. 


.do. 


6 months 
after  elec- 
tion to  a 
pos  i t i o n 
within  15 
months 
after  date 
of  issuance. 


Renewed  for  5 
years  if  coun- 
ty superin- 
tendent is 
satisfied  of 
holder’s  fit- 
ness to  teach 
and  govern. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


49 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

MARYLAND. 


[The  Public  School  Laws  of  1910,  pp.  12,  24,  26,  31-32.  By-Laws,  Rules,  and  Regulations  of  the  Public 
School  System  of  Maryland,  1908,  pp.  18-21.] 


Experience 

required. 


Questions 
prepared  by — 


Papers  exam- 
ined by — 


Scholarship  requirements. 


7 years,  5 in  Mary- 
land. 


do. 


1 year. 


State  superintend-  State  superintend- 
ent subject  to  ent. 
approval  of 
State  board. 

No  examination  required 


None. 


.do. 


Holder  of  first-class  certificate;  unanimous 
recommendation  of  county  board  of 
school  commissioners;  satisfactory  proof 
of  liberal  education  and  professional 
study,  equivalent  to  graduation  from 
some  reputable  college. 

Same  as  above;  board  of  education  may  re- 
quire any  applicant  to  pass  a satisfactory 
examination. 

Graduation  from  a State  normal  school  of 
Maryland  or  of  the  normal  department  of 
Washington  College. 

None  specified.  (No  longer  issued.) 


Varies;  left  to  judg- 
ment of  State 
superintendent. 


do. 


■None. 


County  superin- 
tendent. 


County  superin- 
tendent. 


Graduation  from  approved  higher  institu- 
tion in  Maryland,  including  completion 
of  2 years'  professional  course  prescribed 
by  State  board  of  education. 

'Examination  for  first  grade  same  as  that 
for  second  grade  except  the  omission  of 
the  history  of  Maryland  and  the  addition 
of  bookkeeping,  algebra  (without  limita- 
tions), natural  philosophy,  plane  geom- 
etry (4  books),  and  general  history.  Ex- 
amination for  second  grade  in  orthog- 
raphy, reading,  writing,  arithmetic, 
geography,  United  States  history,  his- 
tory of  Maryland , grammer,  Constitutions 
of  United  States  and  Maryland,  algebra 
(to  quadratics),  theory  and  practice  of 
teaching,  physiology,  and  laws  and  by- 
laws of  the  public  school  system  of  Mary- 
land. The  grade  of  certificate  is  deter- 
mined by  the  scholastic  qualifications  as 
shown  in  the  examination.  The  class  of 
certificate  under  each  grade  is  determined 
by  a consideration  of  the  (a)  scholarship, 
(6)  executive  ability,  (c)  personality,  and 
( d ) teaching  power  of  the  applicant,  and 
of  such  other  points  as  the  State  board  of 
education  may  approve. 


10943°— 11 


4 


50 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 

MASSACHUSETTS. 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by— 

Valid  in — 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Union  superintend- 
ent’s certificate. 

State  board  of 
education. 

State 

Superintendent. . . 

From  1 to  5 
years. 

A pleasure  of 
board;  may. 
be  renewed 
if  record  is 
satisfactory. 

Local  certificates . . . 

School  committee. 

Town 

1 

. 

1 year,  usu- 
ally. 

Very  variable 
practice. 

MICHIGAN. 

[School  Laws,  1909,  secs.  59,  165,  177,  287,  301,  334.  Public  Acts  of  Michigan,  1903,  ch.  213;  1905,  chs.  24, 
148;  1907,  chs.  112,  125;  1909,  ch.  165;  1911,  chs.  20, 146.] 


University  of 
Michigan  certifi- 
cate. 


State  life  certificate. 
College  certificate . . 


Advanced  State 
Normal  College, 
Central  Normal, 
Northern  Nor- 
mal, or  Western 
Normal  certifi- 
cate. 

Central  Normal  and 
Western  Normal 
advanced  rural 
certificate. 

State  Normal  Col- 
lege, Central  Nor- 
mal, N or  them 
Normal,  or  West- 
ern Normal  grad- 
ed certificate. 

State  Normal  Col- 
lege, Central  Nor- 
mal, N o r t hem 
Normal,  or  West- 
ern Normal  ele- 
mentary rural 
school  certificate. 

Certificate  of  teach- 
er of  agriculture. 


Regents  of  univer- 
sity. 


State  board  of 
education. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


State  hoard  of 
riculture. 


State. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


....do. 


do. 


Any. 


.do. 


In  rural  schools . 


In  grades . 


In  rural  schools . 


Any. 


Life. 


do. 

4 years . 

Life.... 


5 years . 


3 years . 


.do. 


.do. 


Renewable  for 
life  after  3 
years’  expe- 
rience. 


Renewable  for 
3 years  after 
5 years’ 
teaching. 

Renewable  for 
3 years  after 
3 years’ 
teaching. 


.do. 


Nonrenewable 


1 As  determined  by  State  board  of  education. 

2 Qualifications  of  certain  superintendents  of  schools  determined  by  the  State  board  of  education. 

a As  determined  by  school  committee. 

4 Sec.  28.  It  [The  school  committee]  shall  select  and  contract  with  the  teachers  of  the  public  schools, 
shall  require  full  and  satisfactory  evidence  of  their  moral  character,  and  shall  ascertain  by  personal  exami- 
nation their  qualifications  for  teaching  and  their  capacity  for  the  government  of  schools;  or  in  lieu  thereof, 
may  accept  the  diplomas  granted  by  the  State  normal  schools  of  this  Commonwealth  to  their  graduates. 

Sec.  29.  Every  teacher  shall,  before  he  opens  any  public  school,  obtain  from  the  school  committee  a 
certificate,  in  duplicate,  of  his  qualifications,  one  of  which  shall  be  deposited  with  the  selectmen,  or,  in  a 
city,  with  the  auditor  or  treasurer  or  with  any  officer  who  may  be  prescribed  on  the  charter,  before  any 
payment  is  made  to  him  on  account  of  his  services.  (Mass.  School  Laws,  1909,  p.  24.) 

The  authority  and  duty  of  the  school  committee  of  a town  are  not  confined  to  ascertaining  by  examina- 
tion the  literary  qualifications  of  teachers  and  their  capacity  for  the  government  of  schools,  but  they  are 
the  sole  judges  of  their  qualifications  in  all  respects  to  teach  and  govern  the  schools  for  which  they  are 
S6l6ct6(l.  (9  Allen  94.) 

The  school  committee  have  the  whole  power  to  examine  teachers.  (Bachelder  v.  City  of  Salem, 
4 Cush.,  599.) 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


51 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Tapers  exam- 
ined by — 

Scholarship  requirements. 

(i)  

(i) 

(i) 

See  footnote  2. 

(3) 

(3) 

(3) 

See  footnote  4. 

MICHIGAN. 


[School  Laws,  1909,  secs.  59,  165,  177,  287,  301,  334.  Public  Acts  of  Michigan,  1903,  ch.  213,  1905,  chs.  24, 
148;  1907,  chs.  112,  125;  1909,  ch.  165;  1911,  ch.  20.] 


2 years 

State  board  of 
education. 

No  examination  re< 
. .do 

State  board  of 
education. 

piired 

None 

.do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

....do 

Possession  of  bachelor’s,  master’s  or  doc- 
tor’s degree,  and  also  a teacher’s  diploma 
for  work  done  in  the  science  and  the  art 
of  teaching  in  the  university  or  in  equal 
institution. 

Eminent  scholarship  and  ability  shown  by 
examinations  in  every  study  required 
for  such  certificate.  & 

Possession  of  bachelor’s,  master’s  or  doc- 
tor’s degree  of  approved  college,  with  at 
least  a 1-year  course  in  science  and  art 
of  teaching  and  observation  of  actual 
school  work. 

Two  years’  normal  course  after  4 years’  high 
school  or  4 years’  course  after  tenth  grade. 


Two  years’  normal  work  in  advance  of  ele- 
mentary rural  course. 


One  year’s  normal  work  after  4 years’  high 
school. 


Two  years’  normal  work  and  1 term  if  no 
high-school  credits. 


Graduation  from  4-year  course  in  agricul- 
ture in  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College, 
with  a course  of  at  least  a half  year  in 
pedagogics. 


The  committee  are  to  find  such  teachers  [good  teachers]  by  examination.  The  most  satisfactory  exami- 
nation will  be  made  by  observing  a teacher  at  his  work.  If  this  can  not  be  done,  the  candidate  may  be 
examined  by  questions  which  shall  test  his  ability  to  teach  the  branches  of  learning  to  be  pursued  in  the 
schools,  also  his  ability  to  organize  and  control  a school.  [Note  in  Mass.  School  Law,  1892,  p.  42,  and 
repeated  for  several  years.] 

Chapter  215,  acts  of  1904,  provides  as  follows: 

In  all  the  superintendency  unions  in  which  any  part  of  the  expense  of  the  superintendent  is  borne  by 
the  Commonwealth  the  State  board  of  education  shall  determine,  by  examination  or  otherwise,  the  quali- 
fications of  candidates  for  the  position  of  superintendent  of  public  schools;  and,  after  the  first  day  of  Janu- 
ary, in  the  year  nineteen  hundred  and  five,  no  person  shall  be  elected  to  such  position  who  does  not  hold 
a certificate  of  fitness  and  competency  from  said  board:  Provided,  however,  That  this  act  shall  not  apply 
to  any  superintendency  union  in  which  one  town  does  not  receive  aid  from  the  Commonwealth  for  expense 
of  a superintendent  until  the  termination  of  the  contract,  if  any,  existing  between  such  towns  at  the  time 
of  the  passage  of  this  act. 

5 Algebra,  botany,  United  States  history,  civil  government,  arithmetic,  literature,  chemistry,  general 
history,  geography,  geology,  Latin,  geometry,  orthography,  theory  and  art  of  teaching,  rhetoric,  zoology, 
German,  English  grammar,  school  law,  penmanship,  physiology,  and  physics. 


52 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  'principal  features  of  teachers' 
MICHIGAN— Continued. 


Naino  of  certificate. 


Kinder  garten 
teachers’  certifi- 
cate. 

Certificate  for 
teachers  of  music 
or  drawing. 


First-grade  county 
certificate. 


Second-grade  coun- 
ty certificate. 


Third-grade  county 
certificate: 

Class  A 


Class  B 

County  normal 
training  class  di- 
ploma. 


[County  special  cer- 
tificate. 


: Local  certificates 


Valid  in — 


Issued  by — 


Territory. 


Schools. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


State 


Kindergarten 
and  first  grade. 


Duration. 


Persistence. 


Life. 


.do. 


.do 


Subject  named 


do 


County  board  of 
examiners. 


do. 


County  Any.. 
(State,  if 
c o unter- 
signed  by 
State  su- 
p e r i n - 
tendent). 

County*  1 2 do. 


4 years Renewable  if 

average  is 
above  85  per 
cent  in  2 ex- 
aminations, 
and  continu- 
ous teaching. 

3 years do 


do. 


do 


Primary  depart- 
ment. 


1 year. 


do. 


do do 

County  normal  do 

board. 


County  commis- 
sioner. 


Spec  ified 
district. 


Any do, 

Any  school  hav-  do 

ing  not  over  2 
teachers. 


Until  next 
publio  ex- 
ami  na- 
tion. 


Renewable, 
option  of 
county  nor- 
mal board 
for  3 years.  . 

Nonrenewable. 


MINNESOTA. 

[School  Laws  of  Minnesota,  1907,  pp.  113-119.  Laws  of  Minnesota,  1909,  ch.  455;  Circular  of  information, 
relating  to  examinations,  etc.,  department  of  public  instruction,  1908. 


First-grade  profes- 

sional ce  r t i fi- 

cate: 

Upon  examina- 

State superintend- 

State  

Any 

tion. 

ent. 

Limited 
n u m be  r 
of  years  at 
first.  For 
life  after 
10  years' 
successful 
teaching. 


See  duration.. 


1 Examination  papers  may  be  sent  to  another  county  on  request  of  applicant;  new  certificates  may  be 
issued  thereon;  valid  in  the  other  county  for  life  of  original  certificate. 

2 Without  examination,  if  average  is  above  85  per  cent  in  2 examinations,  and  continuous  teaching;  not 
more  than  3 to  same  person. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


53 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

MICHIGAN — Continued . 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

nuired 

. .do 

No  examination  renuired  

lyear. 

State  superintend- 

County  board  of 

ent. 

school  examin- 

ers. 

7 months 

do 

3 years  in  primary 

do 

.do 

department  of 

graded  schools. 

None 

do 

do 

do 

No  examination  renuired _ .. 

. — do 

County  commis- 

County commis- 

sioner. 

sioner. 

Scholarship  requirements. 


Graudation  from  approved  kindergarten 
training  school  and  possession  of  a teach- 
er’s certificate,  or  diploma  from  a college 
or  a high  school  with  a 4-year  course. 

Completion  of  at  least  2 years’  course  in 
music  in  State  university,  a State  normal 
school,  or  an  incorporated  college;  or 
completion  of  at  least  1-year  course  in 
drawing  in  same  or  equal  institution. 

Examination  in  orthography,  reading, 
writing,  grammar,  geography,  arithme- 
tic, theory  and  art  of  teaching,  United 
States  history,  civil  government,  physi- 
ology and  hygiene,  school  law,  State 
course  of  study  for  district  schools,  phys- 
ics, general  history,  botany,  and  algebra. 

Examination  in  subjects  required  for  third- 
grade  certificate,  and  in  addition  two  of 
the  following:  General  history,  botany, 
physics,  and  algebra.  • 


Examination  in  writing,  orthography 
reading,  grammar,  arithmetic,  geogra- 
phy, United  States  history,  civil  govern- 
ment, theory  and  art  of  teaching,  physi- 
ology and  hygiene,  with  special  reference 
to  the  effect  upon  the  human  system  of 
alcoholic  drinks,  stimulants,  narcotics, 
school  law,  State  course  of  study  for  dis- 
trict schools,  and  the  causes  and  preven- 
tion of  dangerous  communicable  diseases. 

Same  as  for  third  grade,  Class  A. 

Graduation  from  county  normal  training 
class  (1-year  course). 


Personal  examination  by  county  commis- 
sioner in  third-grade  branches. 


MINNESOTA. 

[School  Laws  of  Minnesota,  1907,  pp.  113-119.  Laws  of  Minnesota,  1909,  ch.  455.  Circular  of  information, 
relating  to  examinations,  etc.;  department  of  public  instruction,  1908.] 


Permanent  teach- 
ers of  success- 
ful experience, 
including  9 
months  in  Min- 
nesota. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


Examination  in  the  branches  required  for  a 
first-grade  certificate;  also  all  the  branches 
included  in  subdivision  1 (following); 
2 in  subdivision  3;  2 in  subdivision  4; 
and  3 in  each  of  the  other  subdivisions, 
namely:  (1)  Educational  science,  includ- 
ing history  of  education,  psychology,  gen- 
eral pedagogy,  and  school  organization; 
(2)  mathematics,  including  higher  algebra, 
solid  geometry,  trigonometry,  plane  and 
spherical;  (3)  English,  including  English 
and  American  literature  and  rhetoric; 
(4)  history,  ancient,  medieval,  English, 
and  American;  (5)  science,  including 
botany,  chemistry,  geology,  and  physiog- 
raphy, astronomy,  zoology,  and  political 
science. 


s “In  incorporated  cities  employing  a principal  of  the  high  school  and  also  a superintendent  of  schools 
who  gives  not  less  than  one-third  of  his  or  her  time  to  school  supervision,  the  superintendent  of  schools  and 
the  board  of  education  or  a committee  thereof  shall  be  empowered  to  examine  their  teachers  and  grant 
certificates  to  such  as  are  not  already  legally  qualified,  at  such  times  and  in  such  form  as  the  superintendent 
of  public  tinsruction  shall  prescribe.”  (Public  Acts,  1911,  No.  146.) 


54 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers ’ 
MINNESOTA— Continued. 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by— 

Valid  in — 

Territory. 

Schools. 

President  of  uni- 

State  

Any . . . 

versity  and  State 
superintendent. 

State  superintend- 

do 

Elementary  grades 

ent. 

do 

. . do 

Same  as  c o r r e- 

President  of  school 

do 

sponding  profes- 
sional certificate. 

Elementary  grades 

and  State  super- 
intendent. 

State  normal  board 

do 

do 

State  and  county 

do 

do 

superintendent. 

do 

County;  in 

do 

do 

other 
counti  e s 
when  in- 
dorsed. 
do 

do 

County  superin- 

District 

do 

tendent. 

specified. 

State  superintend- 

State  

Branches  named . . 

ent. 

Duration. 


Persistence. 


First-grade  profes- 
sional certifi- 
cate—Contd. 

Without  exami- 
nation. 


Second-grade  pro- 
fessional certifi- 
cate. 

Professional  permit 


First-grade  certifi 
cate: 

Upon  diploma 


Upon  normal  ele- 
mentary diplo- 


Upon  examina- 
tion. 


Second-grade  certif- 
icate.2 


Limited  second- 
grade  certificate. 


Third-grade  certifi- 
cate. 

Special  certificates. 


Life  or  2 
years. 


Same  as  first 
grade  pro- 
fessional. 

1 year 

2 years 

3 years 


5 years . 


2 years . 


1 year. 


.do. 


Term  of 
years  or 
life. 


See  duration . 


Nonrenewable 


Renewable 
for  life  on  2 
years’  teach- 
ing. 

Renewable  3 
years;  com- 
pletion of  ad- 
ditional year 
in  State  nor- 
mal school. 

Conditions  of 
renewal  pre- 
scribed d y 
State  super- 
intendent. 


.do. 


Renewable  5 
months’  ex- 
perience; all 
grades  above 
70  per  cent. 

Reissued  upon 
examina- 
tion.1 * 3 

Limited  (2 
years).4 


MISSISSIPPI. 

[School  Laws  of  Mississippi,  1906,  pp.  20-26,  Acts  of  1908,  Chap.  201.] 


Professional  license. 

State  board  of 

State 

Any 

Life 

education. 

1 Laws,  p.  114,  sec.  272.  The  written  answers  for  the  scholastic  examination  shall  be  read  and  marked 
under  the  direction  of  the  State  superintendent.  Markings  for  the  professional  requirements  shall  be 

given  by  the  county  superintendent,  who  shall  also  be  the  judge  of  skill  in  teaching  and  moral  character  of 

applicants.  (1351.) 

Superintendents  of  public  instruction  may  limit  first  and  second  grade  teachers’  certificates  to  1 year 
in  certain  instances.  (Douglas,  Aug.  24, 1899.) 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


55 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

MINNESOTA— Continued . 


Experience 

required. 


Questions 
prepared  by- 


Papers  exam- 
ined by — 


Scholarship  requirements. 


2 years  for  life  cer- 
tificate; none  for 
2-year  certifi- 
cate. 

Same  as  first-grade 
professional. 


.do 


No  examination  required. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


do 


None. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


.do 


.do. 


No  examination  required . 
No  examination  required  . 


8 months. 


5 months . 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


.do. 


None. 


.do. 


.do. 


2 years  for  life  cer- 
tificate. 


County  superin- 
tendent. 

State  superintend- 
ent. 


State  superintend- 
ent.1 2 3 


.do. 


.do. 


County  superin- 
tendent. 

State  superintend- 
ent 


Graduation  from  University  of  Minnesota 
from  its  college  of  education  or  from  col- 
lege of  science,  literature,  and  art,  or  from 
college  of  agriculture,  including  specified 
courses  in  college  of  education. 

Examination  in  all  branches  included  in 
examination  for  first-grade  certificate  in 
subdivision  1 (above)  and  in  6 branches 
included  in  the  other  subdivisions. 

Teachers  lacking  not  more  than  3 of  the 
branches  required  for  a professional  cer- 
tificate. 


Gradution  from  State  normal  school  or  of 
the  teachers’  course  in  the  department 
of  agriculture  in  the  State  university. 

Completion  of  course  in  a Minnesota  State 
normal  school  prescribed  for  elementary 
diploma. 


Examination  in  reading,  spelling,  arithme- 
tic, grammar,  United  States  history, 
composition,  geography,  physiology,  civil 
government,  and  practical  hygiene;  also 
algebra,  geometry,  physical  geography, 
and  physics.  Other  branches  may  be 
substituted  by  State  superintendent  for 
the  last  3.  Music,  drawing,  and  lan- 
guages are  optionals. 

Examination  in  reading,  spelling,  writing, 
arithmetic,  grammar,  United  States  his- 
tory, composition,  geography,  physiology, 
civil  government,  and  practical  hygiene. 

Do. 


Do. 


Examination  in  branches  to  be  taught, 
with  those  required  for  a second-grade 
certificate. 


MISSISSIPPI. 


[School  Laws  of  Mississippi,  1906,  pp.  20-26,  Acts  of  1908,  Chap.  201.] 


Varies. 


State  board  of  State  board  of  ex- 
examiners. aminers. 


To  teachers  of  recognized  ability,  moral 
character,  and  scholarly  attainments 
who  shall  pass  a satisfactory  written  ex- 
amination in  algebra,  physics,  geometry, 
rhetoric,  English  literature,  botany, 
chemistry,  science  of  teaching,  civil 
government,  Caesar  and  Virgil. 


2 Certificates  showing  completion  of  2 years’  prescribed  work  in  State  normal  schools  may  be  indorsed  by 
State  superintendent,  giving  them  the  effect  of  second-grade  certificates. 

3 Not  more  than  2 certificates  to  same  person  in  same  county. 

* Certificate  may  be  renewed  after  2 years’  successful  experience. 


56 


teachers/  certificates. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 
MISSISSIPPI— Continued . 


Name  of  certificate. 


State  license. 


First-grade  license. . 


Second-grade 

license. 


Third-grade  license. 
Transfer  license 


Issued  by— 

Valid  in — 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

State  

Any 

1,  2,  or  3 
years,  ac- 
cording to 
standing. 

May  be  re- 
newed by 
r e examina- 
tion. Hold- 
er of  second 
3 years’  li- 
cense ex- 
empt from 
further  ex- 
amination. 

County  board  of 
examiners. 

County 

do 

1,  2,  or  3 
years.  See 
last  c o 1- 
umn. 

Second  3 years’ 
license  re- 
newable so 
long  as  hold- 
er continues 
to  teach. 

do 

do 

.do 

1 year 

N onrenewable. 

do 

...  . .do 

do 

.do 

do 

State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

County 
designat- 
ed by  ap- 
plicant. 

do 

U n expired 
time  of 
original. 

Same  as  for 
original  li- 
cense. 

MISSOURI. 

[Rev.  School  Laws  of  Missouri,  1911,  secs.  10920,  10939-10948,  11073.  Laws  1911,  S.  B.  240.  Circular  of 
Dept,  of  Ed.,  “Requirements  for  State  certificates,  1910.”] 


Life  State  certifi- 
cate: 

Upon  examina- 
tion. 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

State 

All  public  schools 
of  State. 

Life 

Upon  diploma 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Missouri  normal  di- 

Board of  regents 

.do 

. ..do 

do 

ploma. 

STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


57 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

MISSISSIPPI— Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by— 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

Scholarship  requirements. 

Varies 

State  board  of  ex- 

State  board  of  ex- 

Subjects  required  for  first-grade  certificate. 

None  for  1 year;  6 

amination. 

State  superintend- 

amination. 
County  board  of 

Examination  in  subjects  required  for  sec- 

months for  2 and 

ent. 

examiners. 

ond-grade  certificate,  except  no  examina- 
tions are  “elementary,”  and  also  in  his- 
tory of  Mississippi,  agriculture,  and  civil 
government,  with  minimum  average  of 
75  per  cent  and  grade  of  50  per  cent  for  1- 
year  certificate;  minimum  average  of  85 
per  cent  for  2-year  certificate;  and  90  per 
cent  for  3-year  certificate. 

Examination  in  spelling,  reading,  mental 
arithmetic,  practical  arithmetic,  elemen- 
tary geography,  elementary  English, 
grammar  and  composition,  primary 
United  States  history,  primary  physiol- 
ogy and  hygiene,  with  special  reference 
to  the  effects  of  narcotics  and  stimulants, 
with  a minimum  average  of  75  per  cent 
and  grade  of  50  per  cent. 

Same  as  for  second  grade,  except  minimum 
average  of  60  per  cent  and  grade  of  40  per 
cent. 

Holder  of  any  license  may  direct  a county 

3 year  certificate. 
None 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

See  scholarship  re- 

State board  of  ex- 

quirements. 

aminers. 

superintendent  to  forward  his  papers  and 

• 

license  to  State  board  of  examiners.  If 
grading  of  county  board  is  sustained,  the 
transfer  license  is  issued. 

MISSOURI. 

[Rev.  School  Laws  of  Missouri,  1911,  secs.  10920,  10939-10948,  11073.  See  p.  56.  Circular  of  Dept,  of  Ed., 
“Requirements  for  State  certificates,  1910.”] 


40  months. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


.do. 


do. 


.do. 


10  months  in  train- 
ing school. 


No  examination  required. 


The  same  as  5-year  limited  certificate,  and 
in  addition  history  of  education,  psychol- 
ogy, and  a thorough  examination  along 
some  special  line  of  educational  or  peda- 
gogical work,  as  mathematics,  English 
history,  foreign  languages,  or  science. 

Graduation  from  an  institution  holding 
membership  in  the  “Missouri  College 
Union”  or  an  institution  of  equal  rank, 
and  examination  in  history  of  education, 
and  two  of  the  following : Primary  teaching 
and  kindergarten,  grade  and  rural  teach- 
ing, supervision,  Missouri  school  system. 

Completion  of  advanced  course,  which  ad- 
mits to  junior  year  in  the  university. 


58 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  'principal  features  of  teachers' 
MISSOURI — Continued. 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by— 


Valid  in— 


Territory. 


Schools. 


Duration. 


Persistence. 


Limited  State  cer- 
tificate: 

Upon  examina- 
tion. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


State 


All  public  schools 
of  State. 


5 years . 


Upon  diploma. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


Missouri  normal 
certificate. 
First-grade  county 
certificate. 


Board  of  regents.. 

County  superin- 
tendent. 


do. 

State.. 


2 years. 

3 years. 


Second-grade  coun- 
ty certificate. 


Third-grade  coun- 
ty certificate. 


Special  county  cer- 
tificate. 


.do. 


.do. 


County, 
maybe  in- 
dorsed in 
other  coun- 
ties. 

...  .do 


.do. 


2 years. 


.do. 


1 year. 


Renewable 


.do. 


Nonrenewable 

R e n e w a ble 
u n 1 i m ited 
number  of 
times,  pro- 
vided holder 
comp  letes 
required 
p rofessional 
work  or, 
having  5 
years’  expe- 
rience, con- 
tinues in 
same  posi- 
tion. 

Once  only 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


Until  next 
regular  ex- 
amination. 


Reissued  up- 
on exami- 
nation only 
during  4 
c onsecutive 
years. 


Non  renew- 
able. 


i The  county  superintendent  is  required  to  grade  all  applicants  who  have  had  4 months’  experience  on 
(1)  teaching  ability  and  (2)  management.  The  minimum  grade  requirements  apply  to  their  professional 
qualities  as  well.  (See  also  note  2.) 

Grades  made  in  the  summer  terms  of  State  educational  institutions  and  in  such  other  schools  as  may  be 
approved  by  the  State  board  of  education,  when  obtained  under  conditions  prescribed  by  the  State  board, 
shall  be  accepted  by  State  and  county  superintendents  in  lieu  of  examination. 

Grades  given  by  the  State  superintendent  on  county  certificates  are  valid  throughout  the  State 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


59 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

MISSOURI— Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by— 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

12  months 

State  superintend- 

State  superintend- 

ent. 

ent. 

do 

do 

. .do 

5 months  in  train- 

No examination  re< 

^uired 

ing  school 

8 months 

State  superintend- 

State superintend- 

ent. 

ent. 

None 

.do 

County  or  State 

superintendent. 

do 

..  ..do 

. .do 

do 

County  superin- 

County superin- 

tendent. 

tendent. 

Scholarship  requirements. 


Examination  in  same  branches  as  for  sec- 
ond-grade county  certificate  and  one 
branch  of  each  of  following  divisions:  (1) 
ancient  history,  mediaeval  and  modem 
history,  English  history  and  government, 
American  history  and  government,  gen- 
eral economic  history;  (2)  rhetoric,  his- 
tory of  English  language,  history  of 
American  and  English  literature,  Latin 
(Caesar  and  Cicero),  German  (2  years); 
(3)  biology,  botany,  zoology,  physical 
geography,  geology;  (4)  physics,  chem- 
istry, nigher  algebra,  plane  and  solid 
geometry,  manual  training;  (5)  primary 
teaching  and  kindergarten,  grade  and 
rural  teaching,  supervision,  Missouri 
school  system. 1 

Graduation  from  an  institution  holding 
membership  in  the  “Missouri  College 
Union”  or  an  institution  of  equal  rank 
and  examination  in  pedagogy,  psychol- 
ogy, and  four  common-school  branches  to 
be  selected  by  examiner. 

Course  of  study,  elementary  pedagogy,  aca- 
demic, equal  to  2 years  in  high  school. 

Examination  in  same  branches  as  for  sec- 
ond-grade county  certificate,  with  addi- 
tion of  one  division  of  history,  either  an- 
cient, mediaeval,  modern,  or  English,  and 
one  branch  of  science,  either  physical  geog- 
raphy, elementary  physics  or  elementary 
biology,  b 2 Minimum  average  of  90  per 
cent. 


Examination  in  same  branches  as  third- 
grade  county  certificate,  with  addition  of 
algebra  and  literature,  b 2 Minimum  av- 
erage of  85  per  cent. 

Examination  in  spelling,  reading  in  Eng- 
lish, penmanship,  language  lessons, 
geography,  arithmetic,  English  grammar, 
United  States  history,  civil  government 
(including  State  government),  physiol- 
ogy and  hygiene,  pedagogy,  elementary 
agriculture,  b 2 Minimum  average  of  80 
per  cent  with  no  branch  below  60  per  cent. 

Same  as  for  third-grade  county  certificate. 


2 Completion  of  various  years  of  classified  or  accredited  high  schools  or  their  equivalent  required  of  appli- 
cants for  first  and  second  grade  certificate  after  various  years,  as  follows:  From  and  after  Sept.  1,  1914,  2 
years;  from  and  after  Sept.  1,  1916,  3 years;  from  and  after  Sept.  1,  1918,  4 years. 

The  work  may  be  done  in  any  public,  private,  or  parochial  school  or  by  private  study.  These  require- 
ments do  not  apply  to  those  holding  certificates  on  Jan.  1, 1912. 


GO 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES, 


Table  1. — The  'principal  features  of  teachers' 

MONTANA. 

[School  Laws  of  Montana,  1909,  pp.  15,  16,  21,  132-138.  Acts  of  1911,  H.  B.  No.  87.] 


Valid  in — 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by — 


Life  diploma: 

Upon  exam- 
ination. 


State  board  of  ed- 
ucation. 


Territory. 


State. 


Schools. 


Any. 


Duration. 


Life. 


Persistence. 


Without  e x - 
amination. 


do. 


do. 


do. 


do. 


State  certificate: 
Ujion  exami- 
nation. 


do. 


.do. 


.do. 


6 years 


Renewable — 


Without  e x - 
amination. 


do.... 


do 


. .do 


do 


do 


University  diploma. 


Temporary  State 
certificate. 


do. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


Normal  school  di- 
ploma. 


State  board  of 
education. 


do. 


do. 


Professional  certifi-  County  board  of 
cate.  examiners. 


County;  . 
valid  in 
any  other 
county 
upon  in- 
dorse- 
ment. 


. .do 


First-grade  certifi- 
cate. 


Second-grade  cer- 
tificate. 


.do. 


do 


.do. 


County. 


Any,  except  in 
high  schools  and 
as  principal  of 
school  of  more 
than  two  de- 
partments un- 
less holder  is 
a graduate  of  a 
reputable  col- 
lege, university, 
or  normal 
school. 

do 


5 years, 


Until  meet- 
i n g of 
State 
board  o f 
education. 

3 years 


Not  less 
than  4 
years. 


Not  less 
than  3 
years. 


2 years 


R e n e w a ble 
for  life  after 
teaching  in 
high  schools 
27  months 


Life  diploma 
granted 
graduate  of 
4 - y e a r 
course  after 

1 year’s  ex- 
perience; 
graduate  of 
3 - y e a r 
course  after 

2 years’  ex- 
perience. 

10  months  un- 
der certifi- 
cate; renew- 
able as  long 
as  holder 
conti  nues 
teaching 
and  gives 
county  su- 
p e r intend- 
ent  satisfac- 
t o r y evi- 
dence of 
progress  and 
efficiency. 

do 


Renewable 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


61 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

MONTANA. 

[School  Laws  of  Montana,  1909,  pp.  21, 132-138.  Acts  of  1911,  H.  B.  No.  87.] 


Experience 

required. 


Questions 
prepared  by — 


Papers  exam- 
ined by — 


Scholarship  requirements. 


10  years  of  not  less 
than  7 months 
each,  of  which 
21  months  were 
in  public  schools 
of  Montana. 

See  scholarship  re- 
quirements. 


Superintendent  of 
public  instruc- 
tion. 


5 years  of  not  less 
than  7 months 
each,  of  which 
21  months  were 
in  public  schools 
of  Montana. 

18  months  since 
graduation. 


Superintendent  of 
public  instruc- 
tion. 


None. 


No  examination  required. 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for  a pro- 
fessional county  certificate  and,  in  addi- 
tion, in  rhetoric,  botany,  zoology , geology, 
general  history,  political  economy,  and 
English  literature. 

(1)  Holder  of  State  certificate  or  Montana 
normal  school  diploma.  Five  years’  ex- 
perience in  State  required  of  former,  1 or  2 
years  of  latter.  (2)  Graduate  of  Univer- 
sity of  Montana  holding  a university  cer- 
tificate of  qualification  to  teach,  and  hav- 
ing taught  in  high  schools  27  months. 

Examination  in  subjects  required  for  a pro- 
fessional county  certificate  with  the  addi- 
tion of  English  literature  and  psychology. 


Graduation  from  a reputable  college,  uni- 
versity, or  normal  school  in  advanced 
course,  and  a resident  teacher  of  Montana. 

Registration  of  University  of  Montana  di- 
ploma and  university  certificate  of  quali- 
fication to  teach,  in  the  office  of  the  State 
superintendent. 


See  scholarship  re- 
quirements. 


Qualifications  must  warrant  the  granting  of 
a State  certificate. 


None. 


No  examination  required 


Graduation  from  either  3 or  4 year  course  of 
Montana  State  Normal  School. 


12  months. 


State  superintend-  County  board  of 
ent.  examiners. 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for  first- 
grade  certificate  and,  in  addition,  in  phys- 
ics and  plane  geometry. 


do. 


do. 


do. 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for  sec- 
ond-grade certificate  and,  in  addition,  in 
American  literature  and  elementary  alge- 
bra. 


None. 


do. 


do. 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for  third- 
grade  certificate  and,  in  addition,  in 
civics  of  United  States  and  Montana,  and 
physical  geography. 


62 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers ’ 
MONTANA— Continued. 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by — 

Valid  in — 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Third  grade  certifi- 
cate. 

County  board  of 
examiners. 

County 

Any,  except  in 
high  schools  and 
as  principal  of 
school  of  more 
than  two  de- 
partments un- 
less holder  is 
a graduate  of  a 
reputable  col- 
lege, university, 
or  normal 
school. 

1 year 

Reissued  not 
more  than 
once  to  same 
person. 

Special  certificate 
(penmanship, 
drawing,  mod- 
em language  and 
music,  elocution, 
physical  train- 
ing, commercial 
branches,  man- 
ual training,  do- 
mestic science, 
kindergarten, 
first  primary). 

.do 

District 

Special  branches 
named. 

3 years 

Renew  able. 
N o definite 
c o n d itions 
specified. 

Temporary  certifi- 
cate. 

do 

County 

Same  as  first  grade. 

Until  next 
e x anima- 
tion. 

Issued  not 
more  than 
once  to  same 
person  ex- 
cept in 
emergency. 

NEBRASKA.1 

[School  Laws,  1909,  pp.  70-81,  91,  102.  Laws  of  Nebraska,  1897,  chap.  65;  1905,  chap.  135;  1907,  chap.  123 

Acts  of  1911,  chap.  120.] 


Professional  State 
certificate: 
Upon  examina- 
tion. 

Upon  diploma 

State  superin- 
tendent. 

. .do 

State 

Any 

Life 

do 

do 

do 

Do.  . 

Nebraska  State 

Board  of  educa- 

 do 

do 

do 

normal  1 ife 

tion  of  State  nor- 

diploma. 

mal  schools. 

College  or  univer- 

State superin- 

 do 

do 

do 

sity  permanent 

tendent. 

certificate. 

State  normal  school 

Board  of  educa- 

do  

do 

3 years 

diploma. 

tion  of  State  nor- 

mal schools. 

1 See  appendix  for  revised  scheme  of  certification  as  submitted  by  J.  W.  Crabtree,  superintendent  of 
public  instruction. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


63 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

MONTANA  Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

Scholarship  requirements. 

None 

State  superin- 
tendent. 

County  board  of 
examiners. 

Examination  in  penmanship,  orthography, 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  mental 
arithmetic,  geography,  grammar,  United 
States  history,  and  theory  and  practice  of 
teaching.  Minimum  standing  for  each 
county  certificate  is  fixed  by  State  super- 
intendent. 

do 

No  examination  re 

quired 

Issued  upon  the  request  of  a majority  of  any 
local  board. 

do 

No  examination  rei 

quired 

Applicant  must  give  satisfactory  reasons 
for  not  attending  previous  regular  exam- 
ination. 

NEBRASKA. 


[School  Laws,  1909,  pp.  70-81,  91,  102.  Laws  of  Nebraska,  1897,  chap.  65;  1905,  chap.  135;  1907,  chap.  123; 

Acts  of  1911,  Senate  file,  No.  300.] 


1 year  in  State 


3 years  in  State. 


2 years 


2 years  after  grad- 
uation or  3 years 
before  or  partly 
before  and 
partly  after. 

3 years 


None. 


State  superin- 
tendent. 

State  superin- 
tendent. 

Possession  of  Nebraska  first-grade  county 
certificate,  and  examination  in  chemis- 
try, English  literature,  general  history, 
geology,  physical  geography,  plane  trigo- 
nometry, psychology,  rhetoric,  and  zool- 
ogy. 

Diploma  from  approved  college  or  univer- 
sity, and  possession  of  Nebraska  first- 
grade  county  certificate. 

Diploma  from  advanced  course  of  a State 
normal  school  of  another  State  conferring 
the  right  to  teach  for  life  in  said  State. 

Completion  of  the  higher  course  of  study 
in  a State  normal  school. 


Graduate  of  University  of  Nebraska  or 
institution  in  Nebraska  approved  by  the 
State  superintendent  on  the  basis  of  the 
University  of  Nebraska  holding  degree 
of  A.  B.  or  B.  S.  and  certificate  showing 
completion  of  course  of  instruction  for 
special  training  of  teachers;  or  the  com- 
pletion of  a course  of  study  equal  in 
extent  and  similar  in  subjects  to  the 
advanced  course  of  the  Nebraska  State 
normal  schools,  in  a Nebraska  institution 
approved  by  the  State  superintendent  on 
the  basis  of  the  State  normal  schools. 

Completion  of  higher  course  of  State  nor- 
mal school. 


64 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 
NEBRASKA— Continued. 


Valid  in — 

Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by— 

Duration. 

Persistence 

Territory. 

Schools. 

College,  university, 
or  normal  school 

Board  of  trustees 

State  

Any 

3 years 

May  be  ex- 
tended by 

of  instit  u t i o n 

first-grade  State 

and  State  super- 

State  super- 

certificate. 

intendent. 

intendent. 

College  or  univer- 
sity first-g  r a d e 

do 

do 

do 

..  ..do 

of  institution. 

State  certificate. 

Elementary  State 
certificate. 

do 

Common  school 

1 to  3 years 
(discre- 

.do  

tion  of  the  State 

distric  t s and 

normal  schools. 

grades  of  high 

tion  of 

school  and  city 

county  su- 

districts. 

perintend- 

ent). 

College  or  univer- 

Board  of  trustees 

do 

do 

do 

do 

sity  second-grade 

of  instit  u t i o n 

State  certificate. 

and  State  super- 
intendent. 

City  certificates 
super  visor’s, 

State  superin- 
tendent. 

do 

City  schools 

0) 

0) 

high  school, gram- 
mar, (special  pri- 
mary, and  kin- 
dergarten grades). 

First-grade  county 

certificate: 
Upon  examina- 

County superin- 

County  

Any  except  in  city 

2 to  3 years.. 

Renewable  at 

tion. 

tendent.* 

districts. 

the  discre- 
tion of  the 
county  su- 

perint  end- 
ent,  subject 

to  the  rules 
and  regula- 

tions of  the 
State  super- 
intendent. 

Without  exami- 

.do  

do 

do 

do 

do 

nation. 

S ec  o n d-g  rade 
county  certifi- 

do 

...  do 

. . .do 

1 to  2 years.. 

(3) 

cate. 

Third-grade  county 
certificate. 

.do 

do 

do 

Not  over  1 

Not  reissued. . 

year. 

Permit 

State  superin- 
tendent. 

Spec  ified 

do 

Term  of 

do 

district 
in  speci- 
fied coun- 
ty. 

school. 
Until  re- 

Granted only 
once  in  any 

Emergency  certifi- 
cate. 

County  superin- 
tendent. 

County 

do 

sults  of 

next  regu- 

county t o 

lar  exam- 

same per- 

ination are 
learned. 

son. 

! City  certificates  shall  be  granted  as  State  certificates  under  rules  prescribed  by  the  State  superintendent 
of  public  instruction.  Such  rules  shall  set  forth  the  standards  for  each  class  and  fix  the  minimum  require- 
ments of  same. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


65 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

NEBRASKA — Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

Scholarship  requirements. 

Completion  of  course  of  study  equal  in 
extent  and  similar  in  subjects  to  higher 
course  of  State  normal  schools,  in  a 
Nebraska  institution  approved  by  the 
State  superintendent  on  basis  of  State 
normal  schools. 

Graduate  of  University  of  Nebraska  or  in- 
stitution in  Nebraska  approved  by  the 
State  superintendent  on  the  basis  of  the 
University  of  Nebraska  with  the  degree 
of  A.  B.  or  B.  S.  and  completion  of  course 
for  special  training  of  teachers. 

Completion  of  elementary  course  in  State 
normal  school  of  Nebraska. 

do 

Completion  of  course  of  study  equal  in 
extent  and  similar  in  subjects  to  ele- 
mentary course  of  State  normal  schools, 
in  a Nebraska  institution  approved  by 
the  State  superintendent  on  the  basis  of 
the  State  normal  schools. 

For  a city  certificate  of  supervisor's  or  high 
school  grade,  requirements  must  not  be 
less  than  the  equivalent  of  a first-grade 
State  certificate;  for  other  grades,  not  less 
than  for  a second-grade  county  certifi- 
cate.1 

(i)  

(i) 

(i) 

1 year  or  12  weeks 
normal  training. 

State  superin- 
tendent. 

State  superin- 
tendent. 

Same  as  second-grade  county  certificate 
with  examination  in  algebra,  botany, 
geometry,  and  physics;  or  graduation 
from  standard  college,  university,  or 
State  normal  school. 

Graduation  from  a college,  university,  or 
State  normal  school,  and  meeting  the  re- 
quirements of  the  State  superintendent. 

Same  as  third-grade  county  certificate, 
with  examination  in  civil  government, 
bookkeeping,  drawing,  theory  and  art  of 
teaching,  and  elementary  agriculture. 

Examination  in  orthography,  reading 
penmanship,  geography,  arithmetic, 
mental  arithmetic,  physiology  and  hy- 
giene, English  composition,  English 
grammar  and  United  States  history. 

Granted  on  recommendation  of  county 
superintendent.  Applicant  must  attend 
teachers’  examinations  and  write  upon 
such  subjects  as  county  superintendent 
may  direct. 

Evidence  of  ability  to  secure  passing  grades 
in  all  subjects  required  for  certificate 
sought. 

1 year  (or  8 weeks 
normal  training). 

None 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

* Papers  are  graded  by  the  State  superintendent.  The  county  superintendent  issues  the  certificate  upon 
the  standings  sent  him  by  the  State  superintendent,  provided  he  “has  satisfactory  evidence  that  the  can- 
didate is  a person  of  good  moral  character,  has  had  successful  experience,  if  any,  and  possesses  aptness  to 
teach  and  govern  a school.”  (School  Laws,  1909,  p.  76.) 

* If  average  85  per  cent  and  no  grade  below  80  per  cent  may  be  reissued  without  examination  upon  recom- 
mendation of  county  superintendent. 

10943°— 11 5 


66 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES, 


Table  1. — The  'principal  features  of  teachers' 

NEVADA. 

[School  Law,  1909,  pp.  14-21.  Laws  of  Nevada,  1907,  chap.  182,  p.  378.  Laws  1911,  chap.  133.] 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by- 


Valid  in- 


Territory. 


Schools. 


Duration. 


Persistence. 


Life  diploma  (high- 
school  elemen- 
tary, special). 


High-school  certifi- 
cate: 

Upon  examina- 
tion. 


Without  exam- 
ination. 

Elementary 
school  certifi- 
cate: 

First-grade — 
Upon  exami- 
nation. 


Without  ex- 
amination. 
Second  grade 


Elementary  school 
certificate.  Third 
grade. 

Special  certificate 
(music,  drawing, 
manual  training, 
commercial  sub- 
jects, kindergar- 
ten, foreign  lan- 
guages). 

Temporary  certifi- 
cate. 


State  board  of  edu- 
cation. 


.do. 


State. 


Any. 


Life. 


.do. 


.do. 


4 years. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


5 years. 


Renewed  at 
discretion  of 
State  board. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 

.do. 


Elementary 

schools. 


3 years . 


.do. 


5 years. 
2 years. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


School  in 
which  ap- 
plicant is 
teaching. 
do 


Elementary 

schools. 


Subjects  named . 


Until  next 
examina- 
tion. 


2 years. 


Deputy  superin- 
tendent. 


School  dis- 
trict. 


Any. 


Until  next 
e x anima- 
tion. 


N onrenew- 
able. 


Issued  only 
once  to 
same  person. 

Renewable  for 
2 years  if 
holder  con- 
tinues teach 
ing. 


N o n r e new- 
able. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


67 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

NEVADA. 

[School  Law,  1909,  pp.  14-21.  Laws  of  Nevada,  1907,  chap.  182,  p.  378.  Laws  1911,  chap.  133.] 


Experience 

required. 


Questions 
prepared  by- 


Papers  exam- 
ined by — 


Scholarship  requirements. 


(1)  72  months  in 
State,  or  36  in 
State;  (2)  45 
months  for 
graduates  of 
State  normal 
school. 


None. 


State  board  of 
education. 


Board  of  educa- 
tional examin- 
ers. 


.do. 


16  months. 


State  board  of 
education. 


Board  of  educa- 
tional examin- 
ers. 


None 

do 


.do. 


State  board  of 
education. 


Board  of  educa- 
tional examin- 
ers. 


.do 


.do 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


(1)  Evidence  of  having  taught  successfully 
and  continuously  in  public  schools  of 
State  for  72  months,  or  (2)  graduate  of 
State  normal  school  and  holder  of  high- 
school  or  grammar-school  certificate  who 
has  had  45  months’  experience;  life  di- 
ploma of  same  grade  as  certificate. 


Examination  in  English  grammar,  spell- 
ing, arithmetic,  English  literature,  gen- 
eral history,  history  of  the  United  States, 
civil  government,  algebra,  plane  geom- 
etry, physics,  history  and  methods  of 
teaching;  one  of  the  following  languages: 
Latin,  French,  German,  or  Spanish;  and 
any  three  of  the  following:  Rhetoric, 
English  history,  solid  geometry,  physical 
geography,  chemistry,  botany,  and 
zoology. 

Graduation  from  State  normal  school,  ad- 
vanced course. 


Examination  in  spelling,  reading,  writing, 
English  grammar,  mental  arithmetic, 
written  arithmetic,  physiology  and  hy- 
giene, history  of  the  United  States,  geog- 
raphy, general  history,  drawing,  music, 
business  forms,  and  theory  and  methods 
of  teaching. 

Graduation  from  elementary  course  in 
State  normal  school. 

Examination  in  subjects  required  for  first 
grade  elementary  certificate.  Minimum 
average,  75  per  cent;  minimum  grade,  60 
per  cent. 

Granted  only  to  those  who  have  taken  the 
December  examination  and  are  at  that 
time  engaged  in  teaching,  at  discretion  of 
board. 

Board  shall  determine  fitness  of  applicant 
to  teach  special  subject  by  whatever 
method  it  considers  most  appropriate. 
May  be  granted  to  teach  music,  drawing, 
manual  training,  penmanship,  kinder- 
garten work,  or  any  foreign  language. 

Board  of  school  trustees  must  request. 
Certificate  will  not  be  granted  if  any 
member  of  board  is  a near  relative  of 
applicant. 


68 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

BLaws  of  New  Hampshire,  relating  to  public  schools,  pp.  34,  41-42.  Abstract  of  regulations  governing 
State  examination  and  certification  (no  date).] 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by — 

Valid  in — 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Supervisory  certifi- 
cate. 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

State 

Any 

Life 

High  school  cer- 
tificate: 

Permanent 

do 

do 

High  schools 

. . do 

Probationary 

do 

do 

do 

1 year 

Perm  a n e nt 
certifi  cate 
issued  upon 
completio  n 
of  examina- 
tions. 

Elementary  certifi- 
cate: 

Permanent— 
Upon  exam- 
ination. 

do 

do 

Elementary 

Life. . . 

Without  ex- 

 do 

do 

do 

do 

amination. 
Probationary 

do 

Has  never 

do 

1 year 

Has  never 

been  de- 
termined. 

been  deter- 
mined. 

Local  certificates1 2  3. . 

School  board 

District 

Branches  named . . 

do 

None 

1 An  average  of  not  lower  than  90  per  cent  and  no  subject  below  80  per  cent  entitles  applicant  to  a cer- 
tificate “with  credit.”  An  average  of  not  lower  than  95  per  cent  and  no  subject  below  90  per  cent  entitles 
applicant  to  a certificate  “with  honor.” 

2 Group  /.—History  of  education,  psychology,  pedagogy,  school  law,  school  management,  with  special 
reference  to  the  problems  of  the  adolescent  period. 

Group  //.—English  literature,  including  American  authors;  grammar;  rhetoric;  composition;  either 
Latin,  Greek,  French,  or  German;  either  physics,  chemistry,  or  biology;  algebra,  through  quadratics;  plane 
geometry;  United  States  history;  either  Grecian  and  Roman,  mediaeval  and  modern,  or  English  history; 
and  civil  government. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


69 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 


(Laws  of  New  Hampshire,  relating  to  public  schools,  pp.  34,  41-42.  Abstract  of  regulations  governing 
State  examination  and  certification  (no  date).] 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

2 years 

State  superintend- 

State  superintend- 

ent. 

ent. 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

No  additional  exan 

lination  required  . . . 

do 

State  superintend- 

State superintend- 

ent. 

ent. 

do 

School  board 

Sehool  board 

Scholarship  requirements. 


Examination  in  history  of  education,  school 
management,  psychology,  pedagogy, 
school  organization  and  supervision, 
school  law;  and  graduation  from  approved 
college  or  equivalent.! 


(1)  Graduation  from  approved  college,  cer- 
tificate of  college  standing  in  advance 
courses  of  subjects  in  Group  III  and 
examination  in  Group  I,  with  minimum 
average  of  75  per  cent  and  grade  of  55  per 
cent;  (2)  or  satisfactory  evidence  of  ade- 
quate education,  and  examination  in 
Groups  I,  II,  and  III,  with  same  mini- 
mum standings.2 

Same  as  for  permanent  certificate  except 
minimum  average  of  70  per  cent  and 
minimum  grade  of  50  per  cent,  and 
omission  of  Group  III  from  subjects  of 
examination. 


(1)  Graduation  from  approved  high  school 
or  academy  in  New  Hampshire  and 
examination  in  Group  I (same  stand- 
ings as  under  (2))  or  (2)  examination  in 
Groups  I and  II,  with  minimum  average 
of  75  per  cent  and  grade  of  55  per  cent. 

Group  I. — Psychology,  pedagogy,  school 
management,  school  law. 

Group  //.—English  literature,  grammar, 
composition,  spelling,  United  States 
history,  civil  government,  oral  and 
written  arithmetic,  physiology  and  hy- 
giene, and  geography.1 

Graduation  from  a State  normal  school  of 
New  Hampshire  (full  course). 

Same  as  for  permanent  except  minimum 
average  of  70  per  cent  and  minimum 
grade  of  50  per  cent  and  the  further 
provision  that  certificates  of  standing  in 
professional  subjects  in  teacher’s  course 
in  a State  normal  school  are  accepted  in 
lieu  of  examination  in  Group  I. 

Examination  in  studies  prescribed  by 
law— physiology  and  hygiene  with  spe- 
cial reference  to  effects  of  alcoholic  stimu- 
lants and  of  narcotics,  humane  treat- 
ment of  lower  animals,  United  States 
and  New  Hampshire  Constitutions — 
and  by  school  board  for  particular 
school  or  grade  in  which  teacher  desires 
to  teach. 


Group  III. — Examination  to  test  special  proficiency  in  one  of  following  departments  of  study:  The 
English  language  and  literature,  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages  and  literatures,  the  French  and  German 
languages  and  literatures,  history,  chemistry  and  physics,  biology,  mathematics,  and  commerce. 

3 The  superintendent  of  public  instruction  may  issue,  without  the  requirement  of  examination,  a certifi- 
cate of  qualifications  to  any  person  who  has  served  as  a teacher  in  the  public  schools  of  the  State  for  a term 
of  three  school  years  when  in  his  judgment  the  educational  interests  of  the  State  will  be  served  by  such 
action.  (Act  of  Apr.  14, 1911.) 


70 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers 1 

NEW  JERSEY. 

[Rules  of  the  Slate  board  of  education,  adopted  April,  1911.] 


Issued  by— 

Valid  in — 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Supervisor’s  certifi- 
cate: 

Permanent 

State  board  of  ex- 

State 

Any,  as  supervisor 
or  principal,  or 
teacher  of  any 
branch  covered 
by  certificate. 
do 

Life 

aminers. 

do 

do 

Not  given 

Secondary  State 
certificate: 
Permanent 

do 

do 

Any,  in  branches 
named. 

do 

Life 

Limited 

do 

do 

1 year 

Renewable  for 

Elementary  State 
certificate: 
Permanent 

do 

do 

Elementary 

Life 

2 years. 

Limited 

do 

do 

do 

1 year 

Renewable  for 

2 years. 

1 No  grade  may  fall  below  70  per  cent. 

In  lieu  of  an  examination  the  State  board  may  accept  (1)  the  diploma  of  any  approved  college  for  the 
subjects  it  covers;  (2)  the  diploma  of  a State  normal  school  of  another  State;  (3)  a permanent  State  certifi- 
cate granted  in  another  State  on  examination,  provided  that  such  normal-school  diploma  or  State  certifi- 
cate covers  work  equivalent  to  the  requirements  in  this  State  for  the  grade  of  certificate  for  which  appli- 
cation is  made. 

Records  from  approved  universities,  colleges,  or  summer  schools  of  the  completion  of  a course  of  study 
in  any  professional  subject  required  for  any  grade  of  certificate  may  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  examination  in 
such  subject,  provided  the  record  of  the  same  be  submitted  under  seal  or  affida  it  of  the  institution. 

Any  New  Jersey  county  or  State  certificate  in  full  force  within  one  year  next  preceding  the  date  of  the 
examination  and  any  credit  heretofore  given  by  any  board  of  examiners  shall  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  an 
examination  in  the  subjects  covered. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


71 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

NEW  JERSEY. 

[Rules  of  the  State  board  of  education,  adopted  April,  1911.] 


3 


Experience 

required. 


Questions 
prepared  by — 


Papers  exam- 
ined by — 


Scholarship  requirements. 


years  as  super- 
visor. 


No  examination  required 


Holder  of  a limited  supervisor’s  certificate, 
after  3 years’  successful  experience  as 
supervisor. 


5 years’  experience 
in  teaching  and 
1 year  as  super- 
visor of  a school 
employing  at 
least  5 assistant 
teachers. 


State  board  of 
examiners. 


State  board  of  Holder  of  a New  Jersey  secondary  or 
examiners.  elementary  certificate,  or  the  equivalent, 

upon  presentation  of  testimonials  of 
executive  ability  from  the  county  or  the 
city  superintendent  and  the  president, 
district  clerk,  or  secretary  of  board  of 
education  under  which  applicant  has 
taught;  and  examination  in  school 
organization.! 


3 years 
None. . 


No  examination  required 

State  board  of  State  board  of 
examiners.  examiners. 


Holder  of  a limited  secondary  State  certifi- 
cate, after  3 years’  successful  experience. 

Holder  of  a diploma  from  an  approved 
college  or  from  an  approved  4-year  high- 
school  teachers’  course  of  a State  normal 
school,  or  holder  of  a permanent  New 
Jersey  elementary  State  certificate;  and, 
in  addition,  examination  in  psychology, 
with  special  reference  to  teaching,  history 
of  education,  physiology  and  hygiene, 
principles  of  secondary  education,  school 
law,  and  the  subjects  to  be  taught.1 


3 years 


.do 


.do 


None 


do 


do 


Holder  of  a limited  elementary  State  certifi- 
cate, after  3 years’  successful  experience 
and  examination  in  psychology,  physical 
training,  manual  training,  or  household 
economics,  theory  and  practice  of  teach- 
ing, history  of  education,  physics,  ele- 
mentary algebra,  school  law,  and  any 
three  of  the  following:  Botany,  chemis- 
try, vocal  music,  zoology,  mineralogy, 
agriculture,  plane  geometry,  astronomy.1 

Examination  in  orthography,  reading, 
grammar,  composition,  literature  for  the 
grades,  arithmetic,  penmanship,  business 
forms,  geography,  United  States  history 
with  civics,  general  history,  physiology 
and  hygiene,  drawing.  After  Sept.  1, 
1911,  applicant  must  have  had  1 year  of 
a course  in  an  “approved”  high  school; 
after  1912, 2 years;  after  1913, 3 years;  after 
1914  must  be  a graduate  of  such  school.1 


72 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  'principal  features  of  teachers' 
NEW  JERSEY— Continued. 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by— 

Valid  in — 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Special  State  cer- 
tificates (kinder- 
garten, modern 
languages,  physi- 
cal training, 
manual  training, 
cooking,  sewing, 
agriculture,  com- 
mercial branches, 
and  penman- 
ship): i 

Permanent 

State  board  of  ex- 

State  

Branches  named . . 

Life 

Limited 

aminers. 

do 

.do 

. ..do 

1 year 

Renewable  for 
2 years. 

(See  last  col- 

Provisional State 

City  or 

According  to 

Until  15th 

certificate  (any 

county. 

grade  of  certifi- 

of month 

umn.) 

grade). 

N ormal-school 
certificates: 
Permanent 

do 

State 

cate. 

Any  in  branches 
named. 

.do. . . 

follow  i n g 
next  reg- 
ular ex- 
amination. 

Life 

(any  grade). 
Limited  sec- 

 do 

..  ..do 

1 ypfl.r 

Renewable  for 
2 years. 

. .do 

ondary. 
Limited  ele- 

 do 

do 

Elementary 

do 

mentary. 
Limited  special. 

Branches  named . . 

. . . , .do 

do 

Limited  kindergar- 
ten-primary cer- 
tificate. 

Permit 

do 

do 

Kindergarten  and 
first  3 primary 
grades. 

According  to  grade 
of  certificate  ap- 
plied for. 

do 

do 

City  or  county  su- 
perintendent  

City  or 
county  is- 
suing. 

30  days 

Nonrenewable. 

1 Kindergarten  includes  kindergarten  drawing  and  kindergarten  music;  drawing  includes  plane  geom- 
etry; commercial  branches  include  stenography,  typewriting,  commercial  arithmetic,  bookkeeping,  com- 
mercial law,  and  economics;  manual  training  includes  mechanical  drawing;  cooking  includes  household 
chemistry,  physiology,  and  hygiene;  sewing  includes  dressmaking;  penmanship  includes  penmanship 
theory  and  practice,  orthography,  and  English  grammar;  music  includes  history  of  musio,  methods  in 
music,  musical  material  used  in  schools;  modern  languages  include  psychology,  history  of  education, 
theory  and  practice,  and  school  law. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


73 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

NEW  JERSEY— Continued. 


Experience 

required. 


Questions 
prepared  by — 


Papers  exam- 
ined by — 


Scholarship  requirements. 


3 years. 
None... 


No  examination  required . 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


.do . 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


No  examination  required  (see  last 
column). 


2 years. 
None... 


No  examination  required. 
do 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 

.do. 

.do. 

.do. 


Holder  of  a special  limited  State  certificate 
after  3 years’  successful  teaching. 

Examination  in  subject  to  be  taught.  For 
kindergarten,  modem  languages,  and 
commercial  branches  must  be  a graduate 
of  a 4-year  approved  high-school  course 
or  the  equivalent.  For  a music  certifi- 
cate applicant  must  also  file  testimonials 
from  two  qualified  teachers  of  music.2 

Applicant  must  file  with  State  board  the 
recommendation  of  the  county  or  the 
city  superintendent  having  jurisdiction 
over  school  applicant  desires  to  teach. 
Such  certificate  may  be  extended  until 
15th  of  month  following  the  second  regu- 
lar examination,  if  applicant  must  be 
examined  in  all  branches  required  for  the 
special  grade  applied  for,  provided  he 
shall  pass  in  more  than  half  of  subjects 
specified  for  said  grade  of  certificate  at  the 
first  examination,  securing  at  least  70 
per  cent  in  each  subject  and  a minimum 
average  of  75  per  cent. 


Holder  of  a limited  normal-school  cer- 
tificate of  similar  grade,  after  2 years 
teaching. 

A normal  certificate  for  the  high-school 
teachers’  course  of  4 years  shall  rank  as  a 
secondary  certificate  for  the  branches 
named  in  certificate. 

A normal  certificate  for  either  the  2-year  or 
the  3-year  normal  course  shall  rank  as  an 
elementary  State  certificate. 

A certificate  for  efficient  special  work  in 
any  subject  to  the  extent  of  two  elective 
units  shall  rank  as  a special  certificate  in 
that  subject. 

A kindergarten-primary  certificate  issued 
by  a normal  school. 

Applicant  must  file  with  city  or  county 
superintendent  a certified  copy  of  ah 
application  for  a State  certificate. 


2 No  grade  may  fall  below  70  per  cent. 

In  lieu  of  an  examination  the  State  board  may  accept  (1)  the  diploma  of  any  approved  college  for  the 
subjects  it  covers;  (2)  the  diploma  of  a State  normal  school  of  another  State;  (3)  a permanent  State  cer- 
tificate granted  in  another  State  on  examination,  provided  that  such  normal-school  diploma  or  State 
certificate  covers  work  equivalent  to  the  requirements  in  this  State  for  the  grade  of  certificate  for  which 
application  is  made. 

Records  from  approved  universities,  colleges,  or  summer  schools  of  the  completion  of  a course  of  study 
in  any  professional  subject  required  for  any  grade  of  certificate  may  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  examination  in 
such  subject,  provided  the  record  of  the  same  be  submitted  under  seal  or  affidavit  of  the  institution. 

Any  New  Jersey  county  or  State  certificate  in  full  force  within  one  year  next  preceding  the  date  of  the 
examination  and  any  credit  heretofore  given  by  any  board  of  examiners  shall  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  an 
examination  in  the  subjects  covered. 


74 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers * 

NEW  MEXICO. 

[Acts  of  1907,  chap.  97,  p.  224,  and  Regulations  of  Territorial  Board  of  Education  in  Report  of  Supt.  of 
Public  Instruction  for  biennium  ending  June  15, 1908,  pp.  21-29.] 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by — 


Valid  in— 


Territory. 


Schools. 


Duration. 


Persistence. 


Professional: 

Life  certificate 


5-year  certificate. 


Territorial  board 
of  education. 


.do. 


Territory... 


.do. 


Any. 


Life. 


.do. 


5 years . 


3-year  certificate . 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


3 years . 


Temporary  permits 


First-grade  certifi- 
cate. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 

Territorial  board 
of  education. 


.do. 
.do  , 


.do. 

.do 


Until  next 
e x anima- 
tion. 

3 years 


Second  - grade  cer- 
tificate. 


Third-grade  certifi- 
cate. 


Temporary  permits 
City  certificates.1 2 3 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


2 years . 


.do 


.do 


.do 


County  superin- 
tendent. 


County. 


.do. 


Renewable  for 
3 years  if 
holder  did 
not  pre- 
viously 
hold  a pro- 
fessional 3- 
year  certifi- 
cate (which 
see). 

Granted  5-year 
certificate 
upon  com- 
pletion of  3 
years’  expe- 
rience. 


Nonrenewable. 


County  super- 
i n tendent 
may  renew 
once  with- 
out exami- 
nation if  ap- 
proved by 
Terri  tor  i a 1 
supe  r i n - 
tendent. 


Nonrenewable. 


1 year 


Until  next 
exam  ina- 
tion. 


do. 


Not  issued 
twice  in 
succession. 


1 Honorary  life  certificates  may  be  granted  in  recognition  of  scholarship  and  efficient  service  in  New 
Mexico  public  schools  to  those  persons  who  are  unable  to  furnish  transcripts  of  college  records  and  have 
served  at  least  90  months  in  public  schools  of  New  Mexico. 

2 Group  /.—Arithmetic  review  (1),  geometry  (1),  zoology  (|),  algebra  (1),  English  grammar  review  (1), 
composition  and  rhetoric  (1),  history  of  English  literature  and  English  and  American  classics  (2),  United 
States  history  (i),  civics  (i),  general  history  (1),  physiology  and  hygiene  (£),  botany  (i),  physical  geog- 
raphy (i),  psychology  (1),  history  of  education,  including  a general  knowledge  of  the  following  school 
systems:  The  German,  the  French,  the  United  States,  and  the  New  Mexico  [sic]  (i),  school  management 

(s|),  general  method  (i),  special  method  in  reading,  geography,  language,  spelling,  and  primary  arithmetic 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


75 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

NEW  MEXICO. 

[Acts  of  1907,  chap.  97,  p.  224,  and  Regulations  of  Territorial  Board  of  Education  in  Report  of  Supt.  of 
Public  Instruction  for  biennium  ending  June  15,  1908,  pp.  21-29.] 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

Territorial  super- 
intendent when 
examination  is 
required. 

Territorial  super- 
intendent when 
examination  is 
required  (see 
last  column,  No. 
2). 

.do 

do 

credits  are  pre- 
sented in  obser- 
vation and  prac- 
tice. (See  schol- 
arship require- 
ments.) 

None 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Territorial  super- 
intendent, when 
examination  is 
necessary. 

Territorial  super- 

intendent, when 
examination  is 
necessary.  (See 
scholarship  re- 
quirements.) 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

. ...do 

Scholarship  requirements. 


(1)  Life  certificate  of  another  State  accept- 
able to  Territorial  board  of  education,  or 

(2)  examination  in  subjects  constituting 
four  credits  in  group  II  additional  to 
those  presented  in  said  group  for  5-year 
certificate  and  all  in  group  I (see  below, 
5-year  certificate),  or  (3)  satisfactory  cred- 
its in  these  subjects.* 1 

(1)  Certificate  of  another  State  acceptable  to 
Territorial  board  of  education,  or  (2)  ex- 
amination in  subjects  constituting  four 
credits  in  group  II  and  all  in  group  I,2  or 

(3)  satisfactory  credits  in  these  subjects, 
or  (4)  holder  of  3-year  professional  certifi- 
cate with  3 years’  experience. 


(1)  Certificate  of  another  State  acceptable  to 
Territorial  board  of  education,  (2)  exam- 
ination in  subjects  constituting  four 
credits  in  group  II  and  all  in  group  I ex- 
cept last  two  (substitutions  allowed  in 
any  subject  except  the  five  subjects  im- 
mediately preceding  these  last  two),  or 
(3)  satisfactory  credits  in  these  subjects. 

Holder  of  credentials  deemed  sufficient  to 
meet  the  requirements  of  the  law. 

(1)  Indorsement  by  Territorial  board  of  un- 
expired certificate  of  other  States;  (2) 
completion  specified  courses  in  specified 
schools,  including  graduation  from  full 
course  at  St.  Michael’s  College;  (3)  pres- 
entation of  credits  in  subjects  required; 
or  (4)  examination  in  subjects  required  for 
second-grade  certificate,  and,  in  addition, 
civil  government,  elements  of  pedagogy 
(more  advanced),  applied  psychology, 
and  one  of  the  following:  Algebra,  botany, 
zoology,  physics,  or  bookkeeping,  with  a 
minimum  average  of  90  per  cent  and 
grade  of  75  per  cent. 

(2)  or  (3),  as  above,  or  examination  in  sub- 
jects required  for  third-grade  certificate, 
and,  in  addition,  United  States  history 
and  elementary  course  in  teaching  and 
school  management,  with  an  average  of  75 
per  cent  and  a minimum  grade  of  50  per 
cent.  (Questions  of  higher  standard 
than  presented  for  third  grade.) 

Examination  in  reading,  penmanship,  or- 
thography, English  grammar  and  com- 
position, geography,  physiology,  and 
arithmetic  Percentages  not  named- 
lower  than  required  for  second  grade. 

As  in  temporary  permit  issued  by  Terri- 
torial superintendent. 


(1),  observation  (D,  practice  (1).  Substitutions  are  allowed  for  any  subject  except  the  seven  last  named, 
twenty-seven  months’  teaching  being  considered  the  equivalent  of  the  last  two. 

Group  II.— Latin  (2,3,  or  4),  Spanish  (2),  German  (2),  Greek  (2),  trigonometry  (|),  sociology  (|),  ethics  (£), 
geology  (|),  astronomy  (£),  commercial  law  (|),  English  history  (J),  chemistry  (1),  bookkeeping  (§),  physics 

(1)  calculus  (£)•  Substitutions  are  allowed  for  any  credit  in  this  group.  Grades  must  accompany  all 
applications  for  acceptance  of  credits. 

3 City  certificates  may  be  issued  by  city  boards  of  education.  “ Each  city  is  a law  unto  itself  in  the  matter 
of  certificating  its  teachers,  but  certificates  issued  by  a city  board  are  legal  only  in  the  city  where  issued.” 
(9  cities  in  1910.) 


76 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 

NEW  YORK. 


[Laws  of  New  York,  1910,  ch.  140,  being  ch.  16  of  the  Consolidated  Laws,  secs.  551-555.  Handbook  7,  Sep- 
tember, 1910.  Regulations  relating  to  teachers’  certificates.] 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by- 


Valid  in — 


Territory. 


Schools. 


Duration. 

Persistence. 

Life 

3 years 

Nonrenewable 

Life 

2 years 

Life 

Extended  1 
year;  upon 
passing  ex- 
amination 
in  psychol- 
ogy, his- 

tory of  edu- 
cation, prin- 
ciples of  ed- 
ucation, and 
methods. 

College  graduate 
professional  cer- 
ticate. 

College  graduate 
professional  pro- 
visional certifi- 
cate. 

College  graduate 
certificate: 

Permanent 

Limited 


Commissioner  of 
education. 


.do. 


State. 


Any. 


.do. 


.do. 


Normal  diplomas. . . 


State  life  certificate . 


Commissioner  of 
education,  chair- 
man and  secre- 
tary of  local 
board,  and  prin- 
cipal of  normal 
school. 

Commissioner  of 
education. 


. .do 


do 

Any  except  pri- 
mary or  gram- 
mar grades  in 
cities  and  in  vil- 
lages of  5,000  or 
more. 


Any. 


.do. 


.do. 


State  limited  cer- 
tificate. 


Special  certificate. . 

Without  exam- 
ination (in 
elocution, 
sewing,  cook- 
ing, manual 
training,  vo- 
cal music). 

Upon  examina- 
tion (in  kin- 
dergarten, 
drawing , 
comm  ercial 
branches,  ste- 
nography). 


do. 


.do. 


.do. 


5 years. 


School  com- 
missioner or  city 
superintendent. 


.do. 


School  com- 
missioner, 
d i s t rict 
or  city 
(s  u bject 
toch.  140, 
sec.  551, 
Laws, 
1910).2 

do 


Subjects  named . . 


.do. 


3 years . 


.do. 


Nonrenewable, 
if  remaining 
subjects  are 
passed  in 
one  exami- 
nation life 
c e r t i ficate 
will  be  is- 
sued. 

Renewable  for 
5-year  pe- 
riods after 
2 years’  ex- 
perience. 


.do. 


1 These  examination  questions  are  of  higher  standard  than  those  required  for  other  certificates. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


77 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

NEW  YORK. 


[Laws  of  New  York,  1910,  ch.  140,  being  ch.  10  of  the  Consolidated  Laws,  secs.  551-555.  Handbook  7, 
September,  1910.  Regulations  relating  to  teachers’  certificates.] 


Experience 

required. 


Questions 
prepared  by — 


Papers  exam- 
ined by— 


Scholarship  requirements. 


3 years  under  pro- 
visional college 
graduate  profes- 
sional certificate 
None 


No  examination  required 


.do. 


Holder  of  a college  graduate  professional 
provisional  certificate. 


Graduation  from  an  approved  college 
course  including  education. 


3 years 

None. . 


do. 

do. 


Do. 

Graduation  from  an  approved  college. 


None;  600  periods 
of  practice  teach- 
ing and  observa- 
tion. 


do. 


Diploma  from  a New  York  State  normal 
school  or  New  York  State  normal  college. 


3 years. 


Commissioner  of 
education. 


Commissioner  of 
education. 


do 


do 


do, 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for  ele- 
mentary certificate  and  in  algebra  with 
a minimum  grade  of  75  per  cent,  and  ex- 
amination in  following  subjects:  Group 
II,  with  an  average  of  75  per  cent  and 
minimum  grade  of  60  per  cent,  English 
and  American  literature,  a foreign  lan- 
guage (French,  German,  Latin  [Caesar]), 
plane  geometry,  physics,  chemistry, 
botany  or  zoology,  physical  geography, 
history  (ancient,  European,  or  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland),  civics,  drawing; 
Group  III:  History  of  education  or  psy- 
chology, methods  and  school  manage- 
ment, school  law.1 

Examination  in  all  of  Groups  I and  III  re- 
quired for  State  life  certificates  and  in 
physics,  civics,  drawing,  and  10  addi- 
tional credits  in  Group  II. 


None;  applicant 
must  satisfy 
commissioner  he 
is  qualified  to 
teach  the  sub- 
ject. 


Graduation  from  approved  high  school  or 
equivalent  and  from  approved  profes- 
sional institution  wherein  the  course  of 
study  in  special  subjects  has  been  com- 
pleted. Request  from  a city  or  district 
superintendent  after  position  has  been 
assured  candidate. 


.do, 


Commissioner  of 
education. 


Commissioner  of  Same  as  above,  and  in  addition  examina- 
education.  tion  as  follows:  (1)  For  kindergarten 

certificate,  training-school  examination 
in  history  of  education,  psychology,  prin- 
ciples of  education,  school  management, 
primary  methods,  kindergarten  methods; 

(2)  for  drawing  certificate,  in  drawing; 

(3)  for  commercial  certificate,  in  advanced 
bookkeeping,  business  arithmetic;  (4) 
for  stenographer’s  certificate,  in  stenog- 
raphy and  typewriting. 


2 Indorsable  in  other  districts  or  cities. 


78 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES, 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 
NEW  YORK— Continued. 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by — 

V alid  in — 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Training  school  cer- 

City  superintend- 

City,  in- 

Any  elementary 

3 years 

Renewable  for 

tificate. 

ent. 

dors  able 

school. 

10-year  pe- 

Training  class  cer- 

School  commis- 

by  super- 
intend- 
ents  in 
other  cities. 

School  com- 

Any  school  not 

do 

rio.ds  on  evi- 
dence of  2 
years’  suc- 
cessful expe- 
rience. 

Renewablefor 

tificate. 

sioner. 

mission- 

maintaining  an 

10-year  pe- 

Rural school  re- 

 do 

er’s  dis- 
trict; must 
be  in- 
dorsed by 
any  other 
commis- 
si o n e r , 
unless  he 
can  give 
valid  rea- 
son for  re- 
fusing. 

do 

academic  depart- 
ment. After  3 
years’ experience 
may  teach  in 
s u b a c a d emic 
grades  of  school 
maintaining  an 
academic  de- 
partment, pro- 
vided holder  en- 
tered training 
class  on  aca- 
demic diploma. 

Any  school  not 

10  years 

riods  on  evi- 
dence of  2 
years’  suc- 
cessful ex- 
perience. 

Renewablefor 

newable  certifi- 
cate. 

Academic  certifi- 

 do 

Particular  s 

maintaining  an 
academic  de- 
partment. 

chool  approved  by 

2 years 

10  years,  on 
evidence  of 
5 years’  suc- 
cessful expe- 
rience. 

Nonrenew- 

cate. 

Elementary  certifi- 
cate. 

Temporary  license. 

rlr>  , 

school  c 
maintainh 
departmei 

do 

ommissioner  not 
ig  an  academic 
it. 

able.  May 
be  extended 
1 year  for 
each  18 
credits  earn- 
ed in  ex- 
a m inaticns 
for  life  cer- 
tificate while 
certificate  is 
in  force. 

May  be  ex- 
tended  1 
year  for  each 
8 counts  of 
academic 
work  com- 
pleted while 
in  force. 

Nonrenew- 

Commissioner of 

School  com- 

Any 

Not  to  ex- 

Local certificates 1 

education. 

mission- 
ers’  dis- 
t r i c t . 
school 
d i strict, 
or  city. 

ceed  1 year. 

able. 

i Local  certificates  are  issued  according  to  authority  conferred  in  special  acts  or  in  city  charters  or  as  may 
be  authorized  by  the  regents’  general  rules. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


79 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

NEW  YORK— Continued. 


Experience 

required. 


Questions 
prepared  by — 


Papers  exam- 
ined by — 


Scholarship  requirements. 


Same  as  for  nor- 
mal diploma. 


Commissioner  of 
education. 


Commissioner  of 
education. 


None;  in  training 
class  has  had 
opportunity  to 
observe  work  of 
critic  teacher  in 
grades  at  least 
twice  each  week 
and  has  been 
required  to 
teach  occasion- 
ally. 


2 years. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


None. 


.do. 


.do. 


Do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


No  examination  required . 


Graduation  from  a 4-year  academic  course 
required  for  admission  to  training  school. 
Graduation  from  the  2-year  professional 
course  of  training  school  and  examination 
in  arithmetic;  geography;  language,  com- 

Eosition,  and  grammar;  physiology  and 
ygiene;  nature  study;  American  history, 
with  civics;  drawing;  methods  in  read- 
ing, writing,  and  spelling;  psychology; 
history  of  education;  and  school  man- 
agement. 

Examination  in  subjects  required  for  a 
rural  school  renewable  certificate,  ex- 
cept algebra  and  one  branch  of  history 
other  than  American;  substitution  of 
language,  composition  and  grammar, 
including  methods  in  same,  for  first- 
year  English,  and  of  methods  in  read- 
ing, writing,  and  spelling  for  methods  in 
teaching.  In  addition,  examination  is 
required  in  psychology,  and  the  questions 
in  arithmetic  and  geography  include 
questions  in  methods  in  those  subjects. 


Examination  in  penmanship;  spelling; 
arithmetic;  geography;  first-year  Eng- 
lish; algebra;  physiology  and  hygiene; 
nature  study  and  agriculture;  drawing; 
American  history  with  civics;  either 
ancient,  European,  or  English  and  Irish 
history;  history  of  education;  school  man- 
agement; methods  of  teaching;  and  school 
law. 

Holder  of  a regent’s  academic  diploma. 
Issued  only  after  engagement  to  teach 
has  been  made. 


Examination  in  writing,  spelling,  arith- 
metic, geography,  elementery  United 
States  history  with  civics,  first-year  Eng- 
lish, physiology  and  hygiene,  drawing. 
Minimum  grade  of  75  per  cent.  Issued 
only  after  engagement  to  teach  has  been 
made. 

Issued  at  discretion  of  commissioner  of 
education  to  meet  emergencies. 


80 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers’ 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 


[Public  School  Law  of  North  Carolina,  1909,  pp.  67-68.] 


Name  of  certificate. 


State  certificate 


High-school  certifi- 
cate. 


Special  high-school 
certificate  (for  as- 
sistant teachers). 

County  certificates, 
first,  second,  and 
third  grades. 


Issued  by — 

Valid  in— 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

State  board  of  ex- 

State 

Any  elementary 
school. 

5 years 

Reissued  upon 
r e examina- 
tion. 

aminers. 

do 

do 

Any 

3 years 

do. . 

do 

do 

Branches  named. . 

do 

do 

County  superin- 
tendent. 

County 

Any  elementary 
school;  third 
grade  as  assist- 
ant teacher  only. 

2,  1,  and  1 
year. 

First  grade  re- 
newable at 
discretion  of 
county  su- 
p e rintend- 
ent;  second 
and  third 
grades  can 
be  reissued 
upon  reex- 
amination. 

NORTH  DAKOTA. 


[Laws  of  1911,  chaps.  265,  266.] 


Professional  certifi- 
cates: 

First  grade— 
Upon  examina- 
tion. 

State  board  of  ex- 

State  

Any 

5 years  or 
life. 

aminers. 

W ithout  exam- 

 do 

do 

do 

Life 

ination. 

Do 

do 

do 

do 

2 years 

Renewable  for 

5 years  after 
9 months' 
teaching  on 
such  certifi- 
cate. Re- 
newable for 
life  after  5 
years’  teach- 
ing. 

1 The  board  of  examiners  may  accredit  the  specific  marks  or  standings  given  in  high  schools,  summer 
schools,  normal  schools,  and  the  other  institutions  of  this  State  upon  good  evidence  of  proficiency  in  the 
subjects  specified. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


81 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 

[Public  School  Law  of  North  Carolina,  1909,  pp.  67-68.] 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

1 year 

State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

None 

do 

do 

do 

do 

County  superin- 
tendent (State 
board  prepares 
uniform  exami- 
nation questions 
which  county 
s uperintendent 
may  obtain  upon 
application). 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


.do. 


.do. 


County  superin- 
tendent. 


Scholarship  requirements. 


Certificate  of  county  superintendent  that 
applicant  holds  a first-grade  certificate 
and  has  taught  1 year  successfully. 
Examination  in  same  subjects  as  re- 
quired for  county  certificate.  Minimum 
general  average,  90  per  cent. 

(1)  Graduation  from  college  of  high  rank  and 
examination  in  English,  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  teaching,  and  school  law.  (2)  Ex- 
amination in  above  subjects  and  also  in 
history  (State,  national,  including  civics, 
English,  and  general);  advanced  arith- 
metic; algebra;  geometry;  one  of  following 
languages— Latin  (Caesar,  Cicero,  Virgil), 
Greek  (Anabasis),  French,  or  German; 
and  one  of  the  following  sciences — phys- 
ical geography,  physics,  agriculture, 
chemistry,  or  botany. 

Examination  in  subjects  under  (1)  above 
and  in  such  branches  as  applicant  desires 
to  teach. 

Examination  in  spelling,  reading,  writing, 
arithmetic,  drawing,  language  lessons  and 
composition,  grammar,  geography,  his- 
tory of  North  Carolina,  United  States 
history,  agriculture,  physiology  and  hy- 
giene, including  nature  and  effects  of  alco- 
holic drinks  and  narcotics,  and  theory  and 
practice  of  teaching.  Minimum  averages 
as  follows:  First  grade,  90  per  cent;  sec- 
ond grade,  80  per  cent;  third  grade,  70 
per  cent. 


NORTH  DAKOTA. 

[Laws  of  1911,  chaps.  265,  266.] 


18  months. 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


9 months. 


None  or  3 years 
(see  last  c o 1 - 
umn). 


Equivalent  of  a college  education  and  all 
qualifications  necessary  for  a second- 
grade  professional  certificate  and  exami- 
nation in  (1)  foreign  language,  (2)  a 
natural  science  other  than  the  one  pre- 
sented for  the  second-grade  professional 
certificate,  (3)  ethics,  (4)  political  science, 
economics,  or  domestic  science,  (5)  any 

2 subjects  of  college  grade  listed  for 
second-grade  professional  certificate  and 
not  previously  offered  by  the  applicant.1 

Diploma  from  4-year  course  of  Teachers’ 
College  of  the  University  of  North  Da- 
kota. 

Bachelor’s  diploma  from  a college  of  recog- 
nized standing  which  must  show  at  least 
a 2-year  course  or  16  semester  hours  of 
professional  training,  or  in  lieu  of  such 
professional  study  holder  must  have  had 

3 years’  successful  teaching  after  receiving 
said  diploma. 


10943°— 11 6 


82 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers ’ 

NORTH  DAKOTA— Continued. 


Valid  in— 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by — 


Duration. 


Persistence. 


Territory. 


Schools. 


Professional  certifi- 
cates—Contd. 

Second  grade— 

Uponexamina-  State  board  of  ex- 
tion.  aminers. 


State 


Any  except  in  4- 
year  high 
schools. 


5 years. 


Renewable  at 
discretion  of 
board  for  a 
period  of 
years  or  for 
life. 


Without  exam- 
ination. 


.do 


do, 


do 


5 years  or 
life  (see 
last  col- 
umn). 


Renewable  at 
discretion  of 
board. 


Do. 


Teachers’  College 
of  the  University 
of  North  Dakota 
diploma. 


Normal  school 
diploma. 

Special  certificates 
(drawing,  music, 
kindergarten,  pri- 
mary subjects, 
agriculture,  com- 
mercial subjects, 
domestic  science, 
or  manual  and  in- 
dustrial training. 


do 


University 

tees. 


do 


trus- 


do 


Normal  school  do. 

trustees. 

State  board  of  ex-  do 

aminers. 


do 


Any 


Same  as  second- 
grade  profes- 
sional. 

Subjects  named. . . 


2 years 


do 


At  option  of 
Stateboard. 


Renewable  for 
5 years  after 
9 months’ 
teaching  on 
such  certifi- 
cate.  Re- 
newable for 
life  after  5 
years’  teach- 
ing. 

Holder  en- 
titled to  a 
first-g  r a d e 
professional 
certificate 
after  9 
months’  suc- 
cessful teach- 
ing. 


do 


Permit. 


do. 


Elementary  certifi- 
cates: 


First  grade. 


do. 


.do. 


do. 


Any. 


Maximum, 
6 months, 
valid  only 
until  ex- 
amination. 


Nonrenewable. 


Any  grade  up  to 
and  including 
the  eighth  grade, 
and  in  ninth 
grade  in  1 year 
high  schools. 


3 years 


Renewable  by 
county  su- 
per i ntend- 
ent  under 
rules  prer 
scribed  by 
State  board. 


* The  board  of  examiners  may  accredit  the  specific  marks  or  standings  given  in  high  schools,  summer 
schools,  normal  schools,  and  the  other  institutions  of  this  State  upon  good  evidence  of  proficiency  in  the 
subjects  specified.  - ' 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


83 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

NORTH  DAKOTA— Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

9 months 

State  board  of  ex- 

State  board  of  ex- 

aminers. 

aminers. 

do 

None  or  3 years 
(see  last  col- 
umn). 

None 

No  examination  re- 

No examination  re- 

quired. 

quired. 

do 

None  or  9 months 
(see  last  c o 1 - 
umn). 

State  board  of  ex- 
aminers (when 
required).. 

State  board  of  ex- 
aminers (when 
required). 

None 

N o examination  re- 

quired. 

8 months 

State  board  of  ex- 

State board  of  ex- 

aminers. 

aminers. 

Scholarship  requirements. 


Same  as  for  first-grade  elementary  certifi- 
cate and  in  addition  examination  in  (1) 
psychology,  (2)  history  of  education,  (3) 
principles  of  education,  (4)  school  admin- 
istration, (5)  methods  in  elementary  sub- 
jects, (6)  rhetoric  and  composition,  (7) 
American  or  English  literature,  (8) 
ancient,  English,  or  American  history, 
(9)  1 natural  science  (which  may  in- 
clude agriculture),  (10)  higher  algebra, 
solid  geometry,  manual  training,  or  do- 
mestic science. 1 

Diploma  f rom  the  advanced  or  5-year  course 
of  State  normal  schools  or  the  2-year 
course  for  high-school  graduates  entitles 
holder  to  a life  certificate.  Diploma  from 
the  4-year  course  of  State  normal  schools 
or  the  1-year  course  for  high-school  gradu- 
ates entitles  holder  to  a .5-year  certificate. 

Diploma  or  certificate  from  institution 
whose  curriculum  is  equivalent  to  the  4- 
year  or  5-year  courses  of  the  State  normal 
schools,  which  must  show  at  least  a 2-year 
course  or  16  semester  hours  of  profes- 
sional training:  or  in  lieu  of  such  profes- 
sional study  holder  must  have  had  3 
years’  successful  teaching  after  receiving 
said  diploma. 

Completion  of  the  4-year  course  ranks  as 
first-grade  professional  certificate. 


Diploma  ranks  same  as  second-grade  pro- 
fessional certificate  issued  without  ex- 
amination. 

Holder  of  at  least  a second-grade  elementary 
certificate  is  entitled  to  special  certificates 
in  music,  drawing,  kindergarten,  or  pri- 
mary subjects.  Qualifications  equivalent 
to  the  requirements  for  a second-grade 
professional  certificate  are  essential  for  a 
special  certificate  in  the  other  lines.  Sat- 
isfactory evidence  of  proficiency  in  the 
special  line  may  be  obtained  by  exami- 
nation or  otherwise,  1 

Graduation  from  a college,  but  without  ex- 
perience or  the  professional  training  re- 
quired. 


Examination  in  same  subjects  as  for  a sec- 
ond-grade elementary  certificate,  and  in 
addition  elements  of  psychology  and  4 of 
the  following  subjects  of  secondary  grade: 
Elementary  algebra,  plane  geometry, 
physics,  physical  geography,  botany,  ele- 
ments of  agriculture,  nature  study,  man- 
ual training,  domestic  science,  and  Amer- 
ican literature.1 


84 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers 1 

NORTH  DAKOTA— Continued. 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by — 

Valid  in— 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

State  hoard  of  ex- 

State   

Rural  schools  and 

2 years 

Renewable 

aminers. 

do 

do 

any  grade  up  to 
and  including 
the  eighth. 

do 

do 

by  county 
superin- 
tendent un- 
der rules 
prescribed 
b y State 
board. 

do 

High  school  board 
of  education. 

County  superin- 

 do 

do 

do 

Holder  enti- 

County  

Option  of  county 

Until  next 

tled  to  a first 
grade  ele- 
mentary cer- 
tificate after 
8 months’ 
successful 
experience. 

Nonrenewable. 

tendent. 

superintendent. 

regular  ex- 
amination. 

Elementary  certifi- 
cates— Contd. 
Second  grade: 
Upon  examina- 
tion. 


Without  exam- 
ination. 

High  school  diplo- 
ma. 


Permit. 


OHIO. 


[Ohio  School  Laws,  1906,  pp.  167-179.  Sess.  Laws  1908,  pp.  350-353,  and  1910,  pp.  305-306,  317-319.] 


1 

High-school  life  cer- 
tificate: 

Plan  I . 

State  board  of 

State 

Any 

Life 

Plan  II 

school  examin- 
ers. 

do.  . 

do 

do 

Common-school  life 
certificate: 

Plan  I . 

. .do 

do 

Any,  for  branches 
named. 

do 

1 The  board  of  examiners  may  accredit  the  specific  marks  or  standings  given  in  high  schools,  summer 
schools,  normal  schools,  and  the  other  institutions  of  this  State  upon  good  evidence  of  proficiency  in  the 
subjects  specified. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


85 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

NORTH  DAKOTA— Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

None 

State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

do 

do 

No  examination  re< 
do 

juired 

do 

Scholarship  requirements. 


Examination  in  reading,  arithmetic,  lan- 
guage and  grammar,  geography,  United 
States  history,  physiology  and  hygiene 
(including  physical  culture),  civil  govern- 
ment, pedagogy,  and  one  of  the  following: 
Music,  drawing,  agriculture,  nature 
study,  domestic  science,  manual  train- 
ing.1 

Certificate  of  completion  of  10§  months’ 
course  of  State  normal  schools. 

Diploma  from  high  school  doing  4 years’ 
work,  including  psychology,  pedagogy, 
and  two  senior  review  subjects. 


Satisfactory  evidence  of  qualifications  and 
satisfactory  reason  for  nonattendance  at 
previous  examination,  and  subject  to  the 
regulations  of  the  board. 


OHIO. 

[Ohio  School  Laws,  1906,  pp.  167-179.  Sess.  Laws  1908,  pp.  350-353,  and  1910,  pp.  305-306,  317-319.] 


50  months. 


(1)  24  months  for 
holder  of  provi- 
sional certificate 
of  same  kind  is- 
sued to  college 
and  normal- 
school  graduates 
by  State  com- 
missioner. (2) 
10  years  for 
holder  of  profes- 
sional certificate 
of  same  grade 
issued  by  a city 
or  county  board 
of  examiners. 


State  board  of 
school  examin- 
ers. 


State  board  of 
school  examin- 
ers. 


do 


do 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for  com- 
mon-school life  certificate  and,  in  addi- 
tion, in  geometry,  rhetoric,  civil  govern- 
ment, advanced  algebra,  advanced  phys- 
ics, Latin,  psychology,  history  of  educa- 
tion, science  of  education,  and  three  of 
following:  Chemistry,  botany,  zoology, 
astronomy,  trigonometry  and  its  applica- 
tions, logic,  Greek,  German,  and  political 

economy  .2 

(1)  Holder  of  provisional  high-school  certifi- 
cate issued  by  State  commissioner  and 
examination  in  theory  and  practice  of 
teaching,  history  of  education,  and 
science  of  education. 2 (2)  Holder  of  pro- 
fessional high-school  certificate  issued  by 
county  board  of  examiners,  and  examina- 
tions in  same  subjects. 


50  months. 


do 


do 


Examination  in  orthography,  reading, writ- 
ing, arithmetic,  elementary  algebra,  geog- 
raphy, physical  geography,  English 
grammar  and  composition,  United  States 
history,  including  civil  government,  gen- 
eral history,  English  literature,  physi- 
ology and  hygiene,  including  effects  of 
alcohol  and  narcotics,  elementary  phys- 
ics, theory  and  practice  of  teaching,  scien- 
tific temperance,  and  such  other  branches, 
if  any,  as  they  may  elect.2 


2 Examination  for  any  kind  of  a certificate  issued  by  the  State  board  requires  a minimum  average  of  85 
per  cent  and  a minimum  grade  of  80  per  cent. 


86 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES, 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers * 
OHIO — Continued . 


Valid  in — 

Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by— 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Common-sch  ool 
life  Certificate- 
Continued. 

Plan  II 

State  board  of 

State 

Any,  for  branches 
named. 

Life 

school  examin- 
ers. 

Special  life  certifi- 
cate: 

Plan  I 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Plan  II 

.do 

do 

. do 

Provisional  high- 
school  certifi- 
cate. 

State  commis- 

.do  

Any 

4 years . _ 

Eligible  after 
24  months’ 
experience 
for  high- 
school  life 
certificate. 

sioner. 

Provisional  elemen- 
tary-school cer- 
tificate. 

do 

do 

Any,  for  branches 
named. 

do 

Eligible  after 
24  months’ 
experience 
for  common- 
school  life 
certificate. 

Provisional  special 
certificate. 

Teachers’  high- 
school  certifi- 
cate: 

Professional 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Eligible  after 
24  months’ 
experience 
for  special 
life  certifi- 
cate 

Renewable 

County  or  city 
board  of  school 
examiners. 

State  cer- 

High  schools 

5 or  8 years. . 

tific  a t es 
issued  by 
city 
board , 
valid  in 
cities 
only. 

unless  hold- 
er has  not 
taught  4 
years  pre- 
ceding. 

Provisional 2 

do 

County  2 

do 

1,  2,  or  3 

(3) 

years. 

1 Examination  for  any  kind  of  a certificate  issued  by  the  state  board  requires  a minimum  average  of  85 
per  cent  and  a minimum  grade  of  80  per  cent. 

2 County  and  city  boards  of  examiners  may  issue  certificates  without  examination  to  holders  of  like  cer- 
tificates granted  by  other  county  and  city  boards  of  examiners. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


87 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

OHIO — Continued . 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

Same  as  high- 
school  life,  Plan 
II. 

State  board  of 
school  examin- 
ers. 

State  board  of 
school  examin- 
ers. 

do 

Same  as  high- 
school  life,  Plan 
II. 

do 

do 

None 

State  department. 
do 

State  department. 
do 

do 

do 

. . .do 

do 

40  months... 

State  commis- 

County board  of 
examiners. 

sioner. 

None 

do 

do 

Scholarship  requirements. 


(1)  Holder  of  provisional  elementary-school 
certificate  issued  by  State  commissioner 
and  examination  in  theory  and  practice.1 

(2)  Holder  of  professional  elementary  cer- 
tificate issued  by  county  board,  and  ex- 
amination in  theory  and  practice. 


Examination  in  special  branches  in  which 
certificate  is  desired  and  in  physiology 
and  hygiene,  including  effects  of  alcohol 
and  narcotics,  psychology,  theory  and 
practice,  history  of  education,  and  science 
of  education  as  prescribed  for  high-school 
life  certificates.1 * 

(1 ) Holder  of  provisional  special  certificate 
issued  by  State  commissioner  and  exami- 
nation in  theory  and  practice  and  in  spe- 
cial branch.  (2)  Holder  of  professional 
special  certificate  issued  by  county  board, 
and  examination  in  same  subject. 

Graduation  from  any  approved  normal 
school,  teachers’  college,  college,  or  uni- 
versity in  a 4 years’  academic  and  pro- 
fessional course  requiring  for  entrance 
graduation  from  a high  school  of  first 
grade  and  including  actual  secondary 
teaching  under  supervision  in  a training 
school.  Examination  in  same  subjects 
as  for  teacher’s  high-school  certificate.1 

Graduation  from  a 2-year  academic  and  pro- 
fessional course  in  approved  normal 
school,  college,  or  university  based  on 
graduation  from  high  school  of  first  grade, 
including  practice  teaching  under  super- 
vision and  examination  in  same  subjects 
as  for  teacher’s  elementary-school  cer- 
tificate. 

Completion  of  special  course  in  institutions 
named  above,  including  practice  teaching 
and  examination  in  same  subjects  as 
for  teacher’s  special  certificate. 1 


Examination  in  literature,  general  history, 
algebra,  physics,  physiology  including 
narcotics,  theory  and  practice  of  teach- 
ing, and  four  of  following:  Latin,  German, 
rhetoric,  civil  government,  geometry, 
physical  geography,  botany,  and  chem- 
istry. Minimum  average,  92  per  cent; 
minimum  grade,  85  per  cent.  These 
standings  do  not  apply  to  city  certificates. 

Examination  in  same  subjects;  average 
and  grade  required  notstipulated.4 


3 Discretion  of  board.  If  holder  has  taught  5 years  continuously  renewable  by  passing  examination  in 
theory  and  practice. 

4 After  September  1, 1912,  all  teachers  in  elementary  schools  in  village,  township,  and  special  school  dis- 
tricts must  have  passed  an  examination  in  elementary  agriculture  (Laws,  1911,  H.  B.  520). 


88 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 
OHIO — Cont  inued . 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by— 

Valid  in — 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Teachers’  elemen- 
tary school  cer- 
tificate: 

Professional 

County  or  city 
board  of  school 
examiners. 

State.  (See 

Elementary 

schools. 

profes- 
sional 
high- 
school 
c e r t i fi- 
cate.) 

Provisional1  2 

do 

County  2. . . 

do 

Teachers’  special 
certificate: 
Professional 

do 

State.  (See 
profes- 
sional 
high- 
school 
c e r t i fi- 
cate.) 

County 2 . 

Branches  named . . 

Provisional 2 

do 

.do 

Temporary  certifi- 
cates. 

do 

County  or 
city. 

As  designated 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

5 or  8 years . . 

Same  as  pro- 
fessional 
high  - school 
certificate. 

1,  2,  or  3 
years. 

(3 *) 

5 or  8 years. . 

Same  as  pro- 
fessional 
high  school. 

1,  2,  or  3 
years. 

Until  next 
examina- 
tion. 

Same  as  pro- 
visional ele- 
mentary. 

Nonrenew- 

able. 

OKLAHOMA. 

[Laws  and  Opinions  for  the  Regulation  and  Support  of  the  Common  Schools,  1908,  Articles  III  and  XXV 
1910,  Article  XV.  Oklahoma  Educational  Directory  and  Requirements  for  State  Certificates,  pp.  101- 
105.  Biennial  Report  of  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  1908,  pp.  134-146.  Circular  No.  6,  from 
State  department.] 


Life  diploma  5 

State  board  of 

State 

Any 

Life 

education. 

S u p e rintendent’s 

do 

do 

Superintend  o r 

Life,  10,  or 

Nonrenewable. 

certificate. 

teach  any  school. 

5 years. 

1 After  September  1, 1912,  all  teachers  in  elementary  schools  in  village,  township,  and  special  school  dis- 
tricts must  have  passed  an  examination  in  elementary  agriculture  (Laws,  1911, H.  B.  520). 

2 County  and  city  boards  of  examiners  may  issue  certificates  without  examination  to  holders  of  like  cer- 
tificates granted  by  other  county  and  city  boards  of  examiners. 

3 Discretion  of  board.  If  holder  has  taught  5 years  continuously  renewable  by  passing  examination  in 
theory  and  practice. 

* County  boards  of  examiners  may  issue  provisional  certificates  without  examination  (except  in  theory 
and  practice  and  science  of  education)  to  graduates  of  schools  for  training  of  teachers  having  a 2-year  course 

who  have  also  previously  graduated  from  a first-grade  high  school. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


89 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

OHIO  — Continued . 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by— 

County  board  of 
examiners. 

sioner. 

None 

do 

do 

40  months 

do 

do. 

None 

do 

do 

do 

County  examina- 
ers  when  exam- 
ination is  re- 
quired. 

County  board  of 
examiners  when 
examination  is 
required. 

Scholarship  requirements. 


Examination  in  orthography,  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  English  grammar 
and  composition,  geography,  history  of 
United  States,  including  civil  govern- 
ment, physiology  including  narcotics, 
literature,  theory  and  practice  of  teach- 
ing.1 Minimum  average,  92  per  cent; 
minimum  grade,  85  per  cent.  These 
standings  do  not  apply  to  city  certificates. 

Examination  in  same  subjects;  standings 
not  stipulated. 4 


Examination  in  subjects  to  be  taught  and 
in  theory  and  practice  of  teaching  with  a 
minimum  average  of  92  per  cent  and 
grade  of  85  per  cent.  These  standings  do 
no  apply  to  city  certificates. 


lated. 

Examination  at  discretion  of  county  board 
of  examiners. 


OKLAHOMA. 

[Laws  and  Opinions  for  the  Regulation  and  Support  of  the  Common  Schools,  1908,  Articles  III  and  XXV; 
1910,  Article  XV.  Oklahoma  Educational  Directory  and  Requirements  for  State  Certificates,  pp.  101- 
105-  Biennial  Report  of  the  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  1908,  pp.  134-140.  Circular  No.  0,  from 
State  department.] 


10  years,  5 years,  State  board 
or  1 year.  education. 


of 


State  board  of  ed- 
ucation. 


Issued  only  to  university  or  college  gradu- 
ates who  are  teachers  of  exceptionally  suc- 
cessful experience,  to  superintendents, 
presidents  of  institutions  of  learning,  and 
to  others  of  eminent  standing  who  pre- 
sent the  qualifications  for  high-school  or 
grammar  certificates. 

Examination  in  arithmetic,  elementary 
algebra,  agriculture,  bookkeeping,  com- 
position and  rhetoric,  civics,  domestic 
science,  drawing,  geography,  physical 
geography,  English  grammar,  history  of 
education,  United  States  history,  history 
of  Oklahoma,  general  history,  English 
literature,  music,  narcotics  and  stimu- 
lants, orthography,  penmanship,  physi- 
ology and  hygiene,  physics,  psychology, 
reading,  school  law,  school  supervision, 
and  theory  and  practice,  with  an  average 
of  90  per  cent  and  minimum  of  70  per  cent. 


6 Diplomas  from  educational  institutions  constitute  certificates,  as  follows: 

(a)  From  State  normal  school,  life  certificate  good  for  any  school;  ( b ) from  State  University  (at  Norman), 
life  certificate  when  countersigned  by  State  superintendent;  may  be  countersigned  upon  expiration  of  16 
months’  teaching  after  graduation.  Two  years  pedagogy  and  practice  teaching  accepted  in  lieu  of  expe 
rience;  (c)  from  Colored  Agricultural  and  Normal  University,  5-year  certificate;  ( d ) from  Oklahoma 
Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College,  permanent  certificate  of  grade  must  be  granted  by  State  super- 
intendent. 


90 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES, 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 
OKLAHOMA— Continued. 


Valid  in — 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by— 


Duration. 


Persistence. 


Territory. 


Schools. 


High-school  certifi- 
cate. 


State  board  of 
education. 


State 


Any  high  school. . . 


Life,  10,  or 


Nonrenewable 


5 years. 
(See  last 
column.) 


Grammar-school 

certificate. 


do 


...do 


First  to  eighth 
grade,  inclusive. 


do 


..do 


Primary  certificate 


.do. 


do. 


First  to  fourth 
grade,  inclusive. 


Life,  10  or  5 
years. 


do 


Kindergarten  cer- 
tificate. 


.do. 


do. 


Kindergarten 


.do. 


do. 


Special  certificate 
(drawing, manual 
training,  physical 
culture,  ancient 
and  modern  lan- 
guages, English 
history  and  civ- 
ics, mathematics, 
science , music, 
commercial  .tech- 
nical, and  indus- 
trial subjects). 


Branches  and 
grades  named. 


do. 


do 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


91 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

OKLAHOMA— Continued. 


Experience 

required. 


Questions 
prepared  by— 


Papers  exam- 
ined by— 


Scholarship  requirements. 


1 year  for  5-year 
certificate,  or  1 
year’s  work, 
10  hours  per 
week,  in  peda- 
gogy, one-third 
of  time  in  actual 
teaching  in 
training  school; 
for  10-year  certi- 
ficate, 5 years; 
for  life  certifi- 
cate, 10  years. 


State  board  of 
education. 


State  board  of 
education. 


Same,  except  al- 
ternative of  ped- 
agogy course  is 
omitted.  (See 
last  column.) 


.do. 


do. 


Same  as  for  gram- 
mar certificate. 


do. 


do. 


do. 


Not  granted  on  examination. 


Satisfactory  stand- 
ing as  a teacher. 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for  a 
grammar-school  certificate,  and  in  addi- 
tion advanced  algebra,  plane  geometry, 
history  of  education,  advanced  physics, 
psychology,  and  one  branch  each  of 
Groups  I,  V,  and  VII,  and  two  of  Groups 
II,  III,  IV,  and  VI: 

Group  /.—Astronomy,  calculus,  plane, 
solid,  and  spherical  geometry,  plane  and 
spherical  trigonometry,  mechanics,  and 
surveying. 

Group  II. — Advanced  agriculture,  botany, 
chemistry,  geology,  mineralogy,  zoology, 
biology,  entomology,  paleontology. 

Group  ///.—Ancient  history,  medieval 
history,  English  history,  modem  history, 
economic  history,  logic  or  ethics,  politi- 
cal economy,  sociology,  European  history. 

Group  I V. — Oklahoma  school  law,  philoso- 
phy of  education,  primary  teaching, 
kindergarten  training,  school  supervi- 
sion, commercial  law,  practice  teaching. 

Group  V. — 2 years’  work  in  French,  Greek, 
German,  Latin,  or  Spanish. 

Group  VI. — English  novelists,  English 
essays,  English  drama,  history  of  Eng- 
lish language,  rhetoric  (advanced),  liter- 
ary criticism. 

Group  VII.— Mechanical  drawing,  domes- 
tic art,  elocution,  history  of  art,  military 
science,  physical  culture,  manual  train- 

Grading. — For  life  certificate,  average  of  90 
per  cent,  minimum  of  80  per  cent;  for  10- 
year  certificate  average  of  85  per  cent, 
minimum  75  per  cent;  for  5-year  certifi- 
cate, average  of  80  per  cent,  minimum  70 
per  cent. 

Holder  of  first-grade  county  certificate  or 
graduate  of  a reputable  college  and  exami- 
nation in  subjects  required  for  superin- 
tendent’s certificate,  except  history  of 
education,  psychology,  school  law,  and 
school  supervision. 

Grading.— As  in  high-school  certificate 
above. 

Holder  of  first-grade  county  certificate  or 
graduate  of  a reputable  college  who  by 
examination  shows  familiarity  with  the 
methods  of  teaching  the  following:  Music, 
numbers,  nature  study,  drawing,  reading 
language,  penmanship,  physiology,  hy- 
giene, narcotics  and  stimulants,  agricul- 
ture, geography,  history,  domestic  sci- 
ence; also  how  to  originate  busy  work  and 
industrial  occupations. 

Grading. — As  in  high-school  certificate 
above. 

Graduation  from  the  kindergarten  training 
departments  of  Oklahoma  State  normal 
schools  and  other  schools  on  accredited 
list. 

Applicant  must  satisfy  board  as  to  his 
scholarly  attainments.  “Candidates 
for  a special  high-school  certificate  must 
be  a graduate  of  a reputable  college  and 
have  had  not  less  than  8 years  of  high- 
school  and  college  work  and  must  also 
have  had  not  less  than  3 years  of  special 
advanced  training  in  subjects  for  which 
certificate  is  desired,  including  not  less 
than  half  a year  of  post  graduate  work 
in  some  accredited  university;”  how- 
ever, as  an  equivalent,  board  may  con- 
sider any  evidence  of  scholarship,  edu- 
cation, experience,  training,  travel,  or 
culture  that  may  be  offered. 


92 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 
OKLAHOMA — Continued . 


Name  of  certificate. 

Valid  in— 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Elementary  certi- 

State  board  ofedu- 

State  

Elementary  grades 

Same  as  com 

;sponding  grade 

ficates  (first,  sec- 
ond, and  third 
grade). 

County  certificates: 
First  grade 

cation. 

County  board  of 
examiners. 

do 

S t a t e i n- 

Any 

of  county  c 
3 years 

ertificates. 
Renewed  for 

Second  grade 

dorse  - 
m e n t 
compul  - 
sory. 

County 

do 

2 years 

original  peri- 
od if  holder 
has  attended 
75  per  cent  of 
sessions  of 
i n s t i tutes 
and  has 
taught  3 
months 
each  year 
and  has  av- 
erage of  75 
per  cent. 

Third  grade 

do 

and  ad- 
joining 
counties. 
County .... 

do 

1 year 

Not  more 

Temporary  certifi- 

County superin- 

District 

Until  next 

than  two 
to  same  per- 
son. 

Not  given  a 

cate. 

tendent. 

d e s i g- 

examina- 

second time. 

nated. 

tion. 

OREGON. 

[Acts  of  1911,  Senate  bill  No.  101.] 


Life  State  certificate 


Superintendent  of 
public  instruc- 
tion. 


State. 


Any 


Life. 


State  certificate 


do 


5 years 


Renewable  if 
holder  has 
attended  an 
institut  i o n 
of  higher 
educ  a t i o n 
for  32  con- 
secu  ti ve 
weeks  with- 
in 6 years  of 
date  of  origi- 
nal issue 
upon  satis- 
factory 
work  in  at 
least  4 sub- 
jects, one  of 
which  shall 
be  educa- 
tion. May 
be  again  re- 
newed i n 
like  man- 
ner. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


93 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

OKLAHOMA — Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by— 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

Same  as  first,  sec- 

State  board  ofedu- 

State  board  of  edu- 

ond, and  third 

cation. 

cation. 

grade  county 

certificates. 

do 

Board  of  county 

examiners. 

8 months. . 

. _do 

do 

None 

do 

do 

do 

No  examination  re< 

juired 

Scholarship  requirements. 


Same  as  corresponding  grades  of  county 
certificates. 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for  sec- 
ond grade  and,  in  addition,  bookkeeping 
and  the  elements  of  natural  philosophy, 
with  an  average  of  90  per  cent  and  mini- 
mum of  70  per  cent. 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for  third 
grade  and,  in  addition,  civics,  with  an  av- 
erage of  80  per  cent  and  a minimum  of  60 
per  cent. 

Examination  in  orthography,  reading, 
writing,  English  grammar,  composition, 
geography,  arithmetic,  United  States 
history,  physiology  and  hygiene,  theory 
and  practice  of  teaching,  agriculture,  do- 
mestic science,  drawing,  music,  and  his- 
tory of  Oklahoma,  with  an  average  of  70 
per  cent  and  a minimum  of  50  per  cent. 

Upon  request  of  district;  fitness  determined 
by  examination.  Applicant  must  not 
have  failed  at  any  regular  examination. 


OREGON. 

[Acts  of  1911,  Senate  bill  No.  101.] 


60  months,  15  in 
State. 


12  months 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


..do 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


...do 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for  5-year 
State  certificate, and,  in  addition,  botany, 
plane  geometry,  general  history,  physics, 
bookkeeping,  geology,  history  of  educa- 
tion, and  English  literature,  with  average 
of  85  per  cent  and  minimum  of  70  percent. 

Examination  in  subjects  required  for  1-year 
State  certificate  and,  in  addition,  algebra, 
composition,  physiology , psychology,  and 
American  literature,  with  average  of  85 
per  cent  and  minimum  of  70  per  cent. 


94 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


'Fable  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 
OREGON — Continued. 


Valid  in — 

Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by — 

Duration, 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Special  certificate. 
(See  last  column 
for  subjects.) 

Superintendent  of 
public  instruc- 
tion. 

School  dis- 

Any;  subject 
named. 

Life 

trict. 

College  or  univer- 
sity graduates’ 
certificates: 

State 

High  s c h o o i s 
only  and  city 
superintendent. 

do 

cate. 

5-year  State  cer- 
tificate. 

do 

do 

5 years 

1-year  State  cer- 
tificate. 

do 

do 

1 year 

Normal-school 
graduates’  cer- 
tificates: 

State  life  certifi- 
cate. 

do. 

do. 

(1)  Grammar 
schools  and  1- 
year,  2-year, 
and  3-year  high 
schools,  and  city 
superintendent; 
(2)  any  school. 
(See  last  col- 
umn.) 

Life 

5-year  State  cer- 
tificate. 

do. 

do 

Same  as  (1)  above. 

5 years 

1-year  State  cer- 
tificate. 

1-year  State  certifi- 
cate: 

Upon  examina- 
tion. 

Without  exam- 
ination. 

do 

do 

do 

1 year 

do 

. .do 

Any 

do 

Renewable 

do 

do 

do . . 

do 

only  once  on 
evidence  of 
6 months 
successful 
teaching 
during  life 
of  certificate. 
do 

Primary  State  cer- 
tificate. 

-do 

. ..do 

Not  above  third 

5 years 

(1)  Same  as 
5-year  State 
certificat  e ; 
or  (2)  not 
less  than  32 
months  suc- 
c e s s f u 1 
teaching 
during  life 
of  certifi- 
cate; (3)  re- 
newable 
again  under 
same  condi- 
tions. 

grade. 

1 Districts  having  a population  of  more  than  100,000, 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


95 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

OREGON — Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by— 

Scholarship  requirements. 

No  examination 

Upon  request  of  local  board  of  directors 
superintendent  of  public  instniction  may 
issue,  at  his  discretion  without  examina- 
tion, to  teachers  of  library  science,  music, 
agriculture,  art,  manual  training,  pen- 
manship, kindergarten,  domestic  science 
and  domestic  art,  typewriting,  stenogra- 
phy, bookkeeping,  and  physical  culture. 
Applicant  must  present  to  superintendent 
of  public  instruction  credentials  showing 
special  fitness  for  subject  he  wishes  to 
teach. 

required. 

required. 

do 

Holder  of  a 5-year  State  high-school  certifi- 
cate and  recommendation  of  county 
superintendent  where  applicant  last 
taught. 

Holder  of  a 1-year  State  high-school  certifi- 
cate and  recommendation  of  county 
superintendent  where  applicant  last 
taught. 

Graduate  from  standard  college  or  univer- 
sity, having  completed  120  semester 
hours,  including  15  semester  hours  in 
education.^ 

do 

do 

30  months 

do 

Holder  of  a 5-year  normal  school  graduate’s 
State  certificate,  and  recommendation  of 
the  county  superintendent  where  appli- 
cant last  taught.  Completion  of  2 
years  of  work  in  a standard  college  or 
university  or  graduation  from  the  stand- 
ard college  course  of  the  Oregon  Normal 
School,  if  said  school  shall  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  standard  colleges,  render 
certificate  valid  in  any  of  the  schools  in 
the  State.1 

Holder  of  a 1-year  normal  school  graduate’s 
State  certificate  and  recommendation  of 
the  county  superintendent  where  appli- 
cant last  taught. 

Graduate  from  a standard  normal  school.1 

6 months 

do 

None 

do 

do 

State  board  of  ex- 

State board  of  ex- 

Examination in  arithmetic,  civil  govern- 
ment, geography,  grammar,  histdry, 
orthography,  physical  geography,  read- 
ing, school  law,  theory  and  practice  of 
teaching,  and  writing,  with  average  of 
75  per  cent  and  no  grade  less  than  60  per 
cent. 

aminers. 

aminers. 

do 

Completion  of  4 years  work  in  an  accredited 
high  school  or  other  accredited  institu- 
tion, including  completion  of  the  teach- 
ers’ training  course  in  said  institution. 

Examination  in  methods  in  reading, 
methods  in  arithmetic,  methods  in 
language,  methods  in  geography,  theory 
and  practice  of  teaching,  writing,  physi- 
ology, orthography,  and  psychology;  and 
in  addition  thereto  a thesis  on  a subject  to 
be  selected  from  list  prepared  by  superin- 
tendent of  public  instruction. 

12  months  in  the 
State. 

State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

State  board  of  ex- 
‘aminers. 

96 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers ’ 
OREGON — Continued. 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by— 

Valid  in— 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Temporary  permit. 

Special  district  cer- 
tificates.1 2 

County  superin- 
tendent. 

District  board  of 
examiners. 

State 

Any 

Until  next 
examin  a - 
tion. 

Optional  of 
d i s t r i ct 
board. 

Only  1 to  each 
person  with- 
in a period 
of  3 years. 

District 

do 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

[Act  1911,  No.  191.] 


Permanent  State 
certificate. 


Superintendent  of 
public  instruc- 
tion. 


State. 


Branches  named . . 


Life. 


College  certificates: 
Permanent 


.do. 


do. 


.do. 


.do. 


Provisional 


.do 


.do 


.do. 


3 annual 
school 
terms. 


State  normal  school 
diploma. 

State  normal  school 
certificate. 


State  normal 
school. 

....do 


do 


do 


do 


.do 


Special  certificates 
(kindergarten , 
drawing,  vocal 
music,  manual 
training,  physi- 
cal training,  etc.). 

Professional  certifi- 
cate. 


Provisional  certifi- 
cate. 


.do 


do 


.do 


County  or  district 
superintendent. 


.do, 


County  or 
dist  r i c t 
(indo  r s - 
able  by 
other 
county 
or  dis- 
trict su- 
p e r i n - 
tendent  s 
in  dis- 
tricts of 
second  or 
third 
class). 

County  or 
dist  r i c t 
(nonin- 
•dorsable). 


.do. 


.do 


Life 

2 annual 
school 
terms. 

Life  or  term 
of  years. 


3 years. 


1 year. 


Renewable  on 
examination 
in  2 of  the 
elective 
branches  for 
a p r o f e s- 
sional  certifi- 
cate not  be- 
fore offered 
by  the  appli- 
cant. Not 
rene  w a b 1 e 
more  than  3 
times.3 

May  not  teach 
more  than  5 
school  terms 
on  a provis- 
ional certifi- 
cate. 


1 See  Appendix,  p.  257. 

2 A county  or  district  superintendent  may,  after  satisfactory  examination,  add  additional  branches  to 
any  provisional  certificate  which  he  issues  or  may  grant  to  holders  of  State  or  professional  certificates,  after 
examination,  provisional  certificates  in  any  branches  additional  to  those  on  their  certificates,  subject  to 

all  provisions  relating  to  provisional  certificates. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


97 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

OREGON — Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
[prepared  by— 

Papers  exam- 
ined by— 

Scholarship  requirements. 

None 

County  superin- 
tendent, when 
necessary.  (See 
last  column.) 

District  board  of 
examiners. 

County  superin- 
tendent, when 
necessary.  (See 
last  column.) 

District  board  of 
examiners. 

(1)  Holder  of  a certificate  of  another  State 
or  (2)  an  examination  equivalent  to  that 
required  for  a 1-year  State  certificate. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

[Act  1911,  No.  191.] 


2 school  terms 

Examining  board . 

Examining  board. 

3 years  in  State 

No  examination  re< 

luired 

None 

do 

2 school  terms 

do 

do 

None 

State  board  of  nor- 

State board  of  nor- 

mal school  ex- 

mal school  ex- 

aminers. 

aminers. 

do 

(See  last  column) . . 

(See  last  column).. 

2 full  school  terms. 

County  or  district 

County  or  district 

superintendent. 

superintendent. 

None 

Holder  of  a professional  certificate,  for  2 
or  more  years,  and  certificates  of  success- 
ful teaching  during  2 school  terms  from 
proper  superintendents  and  boards  of 
school  directors;  proof  of  careful  reading 
of  at  least  4 books  on  pedagogy  approved 
by  the  State  superintendent;  and  exam- 
ination in  all  the  branches  enumerated 
under  requirements  for  professional  and 
provisional  certificates.2 

Graduation  from  a college  or  university 
approved  by  the  College  and  University 
Council  of  Pennsylvania,  and  of  approved 
departments  therein. 

Same  as  for  permanent  college  certificate  on 
evidence  of  having  completed  during  his 
college  or  university  course  not  less  than 
200  hours’  work  in  pedagogical  studies 
such  as  psychology,  ethics,  logic,  history 
of  education,  school  management,  and 
methods  of  teaching. 

Diploma  issued  by  a State  normal  school  of 
Pennsylvania. 

Certificate  from  a State  normal  school  of 
Pennsylvania. 

Graduate  of  an  approved  special  school  of 
such  subjects,  under  such  conditions  as 
State  superintendent  may  impose. 


Examination  in  all  branches  required  for  a 
provisional  certificate  and  in  addition  any 
two  of  the  following:  Vocal  music,  draw- 
ing, English  literature,  plane  geometry, 
general  history,  physical  geography,  ele- 
mentary botany,  elementary  zoology,  or 
elementary  physics.  Must  satisfy  said 
superintendent  of  intelligent  reading  of 
two  of  the  books  on  pedagogy  approved 
for  such  purposes  by  the  State  superin- 
tendent.2 


Examination  in  spelling,  reading,  writing, 
physiology  and  hygiene,  geography, 
grammar,  arithmetic,  elementary  algebra, 
history  of  the  United  States  and  of  Penn- 
sylvania, civil  government,  including 
State  and  local  government,  school  man- 
agement, and  methods  of  teaching.2 


* Teachers  who  have  held  professional  certificates  for  10  years  or  more  may  continue  to  teach  the  subjects 
embraced  in  their  certificates  in  the  districts  in  which  they  are  now  teaching  without  further  examination. 

10943°— 11 7 


98 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 

RHODE  ISLAND. 


[Laws  of  Rhode  Island,  relating  to  education,  1910,  chap.  68,  p.  25.  Rhode  Island  Education  Circulars, 
Examination  and  Certification  of  Teachers,  June  30  and  July  1, 1910;  The  Certification  of  Superintendents 
of  Schools,  1908.] 


Valid  in— 


Name  of  certificate. ! Issued  by— 


Duration. 


Persistence. 


Superintend  e n t s ’ 
certificates: 
First-class  perma- 
nent. 


Territory. 


State  board  of 
education. 


State. 


Any. 


Schools. 


Unlimited. 


First-class  tempo- 
rary. 


do 


.do. 


do. 


Second-class 

permanent. 

Second-class 

temporary. 


do. 

.do. 


do. 


do. 


do. 


do. 


Third-class  tem- 
porary (only). 


do. 


Town 


.do. 


5 years  or 
until  hold- 
er is  enti- 
tled  to 
perma- 
nent of 
first  class. 

Unlimited. . 


5 years  or 
until  hold- 
er is  enti- 
tled to  per- 
manent 
of  second 
class. 

1 year 


Nonrenewable. 


First-grade  certifi- 
cate: 

Upon  examina- 
tion. 


do 


State. 


.do 


3 years 


Renewable  6 
years  first 
and  second 
time;  third 
time  may  be 
permanent. 


Without  exami- 
nation. 


do 


.do 


do. 


.do 


.do 


Second-grade  cer- 
tificate: 

Upon  examina- 
tion. 


do 


.do 


.do. 


2 years. 


Renewable  4 
years  first 
time;  9 years 
second  time; 
third  time 
may  be  per- 
manent. 


Without  exami- 
nation. 


do 


.do 


.do 


do 


do 


1 Special  training  for  superintendence  consisting  of  1 year’s  course  in  supervision  and  administration 
at  an  approved  normal  school,  college,  or  university,  or  successful  experience  of  10  years  in  teaching  may 
be  accredited  as  the  equivalent  of  5 years’  experience  in  superintendence;  but  in  no  case  shall  a permanent 
certificate  be  granted  to  any  person  who  has  not  had  " least  5 years’  experience  in  superintendence. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


99 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

RHODE  ISLAND. 


[Laws  of  Rhode  Island,  relating  to  education,  1910,  chap.  08,  p.  25.  Rhode  Island  Education  Circulars 
Examination  and  Certification  of  Teachers,  June  30  and  July  1, 1910;  The  Certification  of  Superintendents 
of  Schools,  1908.] 


Experience  Questions  Papers  exam- 

required.  prepared  by — ined  by— 


Scholarship  requirements. 


10  years’  successful  N o examination  required 
experience  as 
superintendent.1 

5 years’  successful  do 

experience  as 
superintendent. 


Graduation  from  approved  college  or  nor- 
mal school,  or  equivalent  education.2 

Do. 


Same  as  first-class  do. 

permanent. 

Same  as  first-class  do. 

temporary. 


Secondary  education  or  equivalent.2 
Do. 


do. 


Qualifications  not  equal  to  above  but  sat- 
isfactory evidence  of  scholastic  and  pro- 
fessional qualifications  for  service  and 
approval  by  school  committee  employ- 
ing the  applicant. 


None  under  regu- 
lar rules.  Some- 
times required 
in  special  cases 
not  under  an  or- 
dinary rule. 


State  board  of  ed- 
ucation. 


State  board  of  ed- 
ucation. 


do 


Must  have  held  a second-grade  certificate 
and  have  passed  examination  for  the 
same,  and  in  addition  examination  in  the 
following  subjects:  Solid  and  spherical 
geometry,  trigonometry,  geology  and 
mineralogy,  chemistry,  history  of  me- 
diaeval and  modem  Europe,  Latin  or 
French,  advanced  algebra  or  analytical 
geometry,  physics,  political  and  constitu- 
tional history  of  the  United  States  or 
English  history,  botany  or  zoology,  Greek 
or  German,  history  of  education,  educa- 
tional psychology,  philosophy  of  educa- 
tion, methodology,  school  management, 
and  school  law.  Certification  of  comple- 
tion of  requirements  in  any  subject  in  an 
approved  institution  may  be  accepted. 

Graduation  from  approved  university  or 
college,  and  satisfactory  course  in  profes- 
sional subjects  or  5 years’  successful  expe- 
rience. 


do 


State  board  of  ed- 
ucation. 


State  board  of  ed- 
ucation. 


do 


Must  have  held  a third-grade  certificate  or 
have  passed  examination  for  the  same, 
and  in  addition  examination  in  the  fol- 
lowing subjects:  AlgeOra,  plane  geom- 
etry, elements  of  physics,  elements  of 
chemistry,  botany  or  zoology,  rhetoric, 
English  literature,  civics,  political  and 
constitutional  history  of  United  States 
or  Greek  history  to  death  of  Alexander, 
commercial  geography  or  Roman  history 
to  the  death  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  in 
professional  subjects  required  for  first- 
grade  certificate.  College  work  accepted 
as  above. 

Graduation  from  an  approved  normal 
school  from  course  of  2\  years  following 
high-school  course  of  4 years. 


2 In  lieu  of  other  evidence,  examination  may  be  .held  to  determine  scholastic  and  professional  qualifi- 
cations. 


100 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers ’ 
RHODE  ISLAND— Continued. 


Namo  of  certificate. 


Third-grade  certifi- 
cate: 

Upon  examina- 
tion. 


Without  exami- 
nation. 


Fourth-grade  cer- 
tificate. 


Temporary  certifi- 
cate. 

Evening-school  cer- 
tificate: 

First  grade 

Third  grade 


Fourth  grade 

Special  certificates 
(“any  special 
branch,”  includ- 
ing kindergarten). 

Conditional  certifi- 
cates. 


Valid  in — 


Issued  by — 


Duration. 


Persistence. 


Territory. 


State  board  of  ed- 
ucation. 


State 


Any 


Schools. 


2 years. 


Renewable  4 
years  first 
time;  6 years 
second  time. 


.do 


.do 


do 


do 


do 


do 


.do 


.do 

.do 


.do 

.do 


.do 


.do 


.do 

.do 


.do 

.do 


.do 


do 1 

E vening  schools. . . 3 
do 2 

do 

Subjects  named ...  2 


.do 


year  or  un- 
til next  ex- 
amination. 


R e n e w a ble 
only  as  a 
fourth-grade 
evening 
school  for  4 
years. 

Nonrenewable. 


years, 

years. 


Same  as  for 
same  grade 
of  regular 
certificate, 
except  no 
p e rmanent 
certificates. 


years . 


Same  as  for 
second  grade. 


.do 


.do 


Any 


Same  as  tem- 
porary. 


Nonrenewable. 


SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

[General  School  Law  of  South  Carolina  (containing  regulations  of  State  board  of  education),  1909, 

pp.  19-23,  57-63.] 


State  certificate 

Governor  and 

State 

Any 

2 years 

Renewable 

Licentiate  of  in- 

State  superin- 
tendent, con- 
firmed by  State 
board  of  educa- 
tion. 

Governing  board 
of  institution. 

County  board  of 
education. 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

struction  di- 
ploma. 

County  certificate 
(first,  second,  and 
third  grade). 

County  certificates 
without  exami- 

County; 
registra- 
tion  in 
any  other 
county 
per  mit- 
ted. 

do 

do 

do 

First  and  sec- 

 do 

do 

ond  grade 
r e n e wable 
at  option  of 
board  if  in- 
stitutes at- 
tended ; 
third  grade 
can  not  be 
renewed. 

Optional 

nation. 

STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


101 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

RHODE  ISLAND— Continued. 


Experience 

required. 


Questions 
prepared  by — 


Papers  exam- 
ined by — 


Scholarship  requirements. 


None  under  regu- 
lar rules.  Some- 
times required 
in  special  cases 
not  under  an  or- 
dinary rule. 

do 


do 


State  board  of  ed- 
ucation. 


State  board  of  ed- 
ucation. 


State  board  of  ed- 
ucation. 


State  board  of  ed- 
ucation. 


Issued  mainly  upon  examination  in  arith- 
metic, language,  geography,  history, 
physiology,  reading,  spelling,  penman- 
ship, methods,  school  management,  and 
school  law. 

Graduation  from  normal  schools  not  quite 
up  to  the  standard  for  second  grade.  Also 
upon  long  and  successful  experience,  with 
work  in  summer  schools  and  the  like. 

Simple  examination  in  the  same  subjects 
as  for  the  third  grade,  except  professional 
subjects. 


Successful  experi- 
ence. 


do 


do 


College  graduation  without  qualification  in 
professional  subjects  or  successful  expe- 
rience. 


None . . 
do. 


.do. 


.do. 


'Graduates  of  approved  colleges  and  uni- 
versities. 

Same  conditions  as  for  third  grade,  except 
professional  subjects  not  required. 


None 


No  examination  required 


do 


State  board  of  ed-  State  board  of  ed- 
ucation. ucation. 


Issued  only  as  a renewal  of  a fourth-grade 
certificate. 

Upon  presentation  of  satisfactory  evidence 
of  preparation  in  specialty.  Kindergar- 
ten certificates  may  be  made  valid  for 
first  and  second  grades  of  primary  schools. 

Granted  to  candidates  who  fail  to  pass  in 
one  or  two  subjects,  but  whose  general 
average  is  good. 


SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

[General  School  Law  of  South  Carolina  (containing  regulations  of  State  board  of  education),  1909, 

pp.  19-23,  57-63.] 


None 

No  examination  renuired 

Diploma  of  graduation  from  reputable  uni- 
versity or  college  in  some  other  State  of  as 
high  rank  as  the  leading  colleges  within 
the  State  or  completion  of  9 courses  at 
State  summer  school. 

do 

do 

Course  of  study  of  institution  must  have 
received  approval  of  State  board  of  edu- 
cation. 

Examination  in  following  subjects:  Alge- 
bra, arithmetic,  United  States  history, 
civics  and  current  events,  grammar, 
physiology,  geography,  pedagogy,  and 
agriculture.  Minimum  averages  and 
grades,  respectively,  as  follows:  First 
grade,  80  per  cent  and  50  per  cent;  second 
grade,  70  per  cent  and  45  per  cent;  third 
grade,  60  per  cent  and  40  per  cent. 

do 

State  board  of  ed- 

County board  of. 
education. 

ucation. 

do 

No  examination  reauired 

Completion  of  9 courses  at  county  ord  istrict 
summer  schools.  Diploma  of  graduation 
from  accredited  higher  institution  within 
the  State. 

102 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES, 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 

SOUTH  DAKOTA. 

[School  Laws  of  South  Dakota,  1909,  pp.  4-0, 15-17,  64-06,  81.] 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by- 


Valid  in- 


Territory. 


Schools. 


Duration. 


Persistence. 


Life  diploma: 

Upon  examina- 
tion. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


State. 


Any. 


Life. 


Upon  diploma 


.do. 


do. 


.do. 


do. 


State  certificate: 
Upon  examina- 
tion. 


do. 


.do. 


do. 


5 years, 


Renewable; 
successful 
experience 
and  full  at- 
tendance 
county  in- 
stitute dur- 
ing current 
year. 


Upon  diploma 


do. 


do. 


do. 


.do. 


.do. 


Provisional  State 
certificate. 
Regents’  certificate. 


.do. 


do. 


.do. 


Regents  of  educa- 
cation. 


do 


Elementary  grades 


2 years  1 

2 years Not  deter- 

mined. 


First-grade  certifi- 
cate. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


do 


do 


3 years 


Same  as  State 
certificate. 


Second-grade 

tificate. 


cer- 


do 


Third-grade  certifi- 
cate. 


do. 


County 
(may  be 
indorsed 
in  other 
counties). 


do 


District 

specified. 


.do. 


2 years 


Nonrenewable 


1 year. 


.do. 


Primary  certificate. 


do. 


County,  in 
cities  and 
towns 
only 
(may  be 
indorsed 
in  other 
counties). 


K inder  gar  ten, 
first  and  second 
grades. 


5 years 


Same  as  State 
certificate. 


1 Issued  for  necessary  probationary  period  for  a State  certificate. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


103 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA. 


[School  Laws  of  S.  Dak.,  1909,  pp.  4-6, 15-17,  64-66,  81.] 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by— 

40  months 

State  superintend- 

State  superintend- 

ent. 

ent. 

do 

No  examination  re< 

juired 

24  months 

State  superintend- 

State superintend- 

ent. 

ent. 

18  months 

No  examination  re< 

luired 

None 

do 

do 

do 

1 

do 

State  superintend- 

State superintend- 

ent. 

ent. 

i do 

do 

do 

1 do 

do 

do 

1 do 

.do 

do 

Scholarship  requirements. 


Proficiency  in  reading,  orthography,  pen- 
manship, arithmetic,  geography,  gram- 
mar, composition.  United  States  history, 
South  Dakota  history,  civics,  physiology 
and  hygiene,  and  examination  in  physi- 
cal geography,  physics,  algebra,  geome- 
try, general  history,  English  language 
and  rhetoric,  English  and  American  lit- 
erature, either  economics  or  sociology, 
and  any  two  of  botany,  zoology,  physi- 
ology, physics,  chemistry,  Latin,  Ger- 
man, geology  and  mineralogy,  astronomy, 
algebra,  and  trigonometry,  all  of  the  col- 
lege grade;  and  pedagogy,  including  prin- 
ciples, methods,  management,  psychol- 
ogy, and  history  of  education. 

Graduation  from  an  approved  college  or 
university  having  a regular  4-year  course 
above  a 4-year  high-school  course,  with  a 
course  of  pedagogical  studies  and  profes- 
sional training  comprising  at  least  one- 
fourth  work  during  at  least  18  months;  or 
graduation  from  an  approved  normal 
school,  having  at  least  a 2-year  course 
above  a 4-year  high-school  course. 

Proficiency  in  orthography,  reading,  pen- 
manship, arithmetic,  geography,  English 
grammar,  physiology  and  hygiene,  Unit- 
ed States  history,  including  South  Da- 
kota history,  and  examination  in  civil 
government,  American  literature,  draw- 
ing, algebra,  plane  geometry,  physical 
geography,  physics  or  botany,  general 
history,  pedagogy,  and  English  language, 
composition,  and  rhetoric. 

Graduation  from  approved  normal  school 
giving  1 year’s  work  above  4-year  high- 
school  course;  applicant  must  have  had 
at  least  one-fourth  work  during  at  least 
18  months  in  pedagogy  and  professional 
training. 

Do. 

Twenty-two  week’s  attendance  at  a State 
normal  school  and  an  examination  in  sub- 
jects prescribed  by  regents. 

Examination  in  orthography,  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  geography,  physical 
geography,  English  grammar,  physiology 
and  hygiene,  history  of  United  States, 
civil  government,  current  events,  Ameri- 
can literature,  South  Dakota  history, 
drawing,  and  didactics. 

Examination  in  orthography,  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  physiology  and  hy- 
giene, geography,  English  grammar,  his- 
tory of  United  States,  civil  government. 
South  Dakota  history,  didactics,  and 
drawing. 

Issued  in  discretion  of  State  superintendent 
to  those  unable  to  pass  second-grade  ex- 
amination. 

Examination  in  reading,  writing,  orthogra- 
phy, arithmetic,  physiology  and  hygiene, 
with  special  reference  to  effects  of  alco- 
holic drinks,  etc.,  geography,  English 
grammar,  United  States  history,  South 
Dakota  history,  drawing,  didactics,  and 
kindergarten  and  primary  methods. 


104 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers * 

SOUTH  DAKOTA— Continued. 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by — 

Valid  in — 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Special  temporary 
certificate  (first, 
second,  or  third 
grade). 

Local  certificate 
(cities  of  first 
class).1 

Special  certificate 
in  special  sub- 
jects.2 

County  superin- 
tendent. 

Examining  com- 
mittee (superin- 
tendent and  2 
others). 

District 

specified. 

City  as  dete 

Elementary 

schools. 

rmined  by  local  boai 

Until  next 
regular  ex- 
amination. 

*d  and  examin 

Nonrenewable 
ing  committee. . 

TENNESSEE. 

[Public  School  Laws  of  Tennessee,  1909,  pp.  6, 21, 78, 82.  Memorandum  from  office  of  State  superintendent. 
Circular  regulations  governing  the  examination  and  certification  of  high-school  teachers  in  Tennessee, 
1911.] 


County  high-school 
State  certifi- 
cate : 3 

Without  exami- 
nation. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


State. 


High  schools 


1 year. 


Renewable 
annually  for 
c o ntinuous 
service. 


Upon  examina- 
tion (1). 


do 


do 


.do 


5 years 


Renewable 
indefinitely 
for  continu- 
ous service. 


Upon  examina- 
tion (2). 


.do. 


.do 


High  schools  in 
subjects  named. 


3 years 


Renewable;  2 
years  for 
c o ntinuous 
service. 


Upon  examina- 
tion (3). 

State  normal  school 
graduates’  perma- 
nent license. 

State  normal  school 
certificate  of  grad- 
uation. 

Secondary  certifi- 
cate;® 

Upon  exami- 
nation (first 
and  second 
grades). 


do 

State  board  of  edu- 
cation. 

do 


County do. 

State Any.. 


do 


.do. 


County  superin- 
tendent. 


County 


do 


2 years 
Life.... 


Reissued  upon 
examination. 


4 years 


See  perma- 
nent license. 


1 year. 


Renewable; 
successful 
teaching; 
keeping  up 
reading-cir- 
cle course. 


1 The  superintendent  in  allother  independent  districts  must  indorse  certificate  of  county  superintendent 
in  order  to  make  it  valid  in  such  district.  He  may  require  such  additional  examination  as  he  desires. 

2 All  certificates  in  special  subjects,  music,  drawing,  penmanship,  bookkeeping,  foreign  languages,  kin- 
dergarten, etc.,  are  issued  by  local  examiners. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


105 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

SOUTH  DAKOTA— Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

Scholarship  requirements. 

None 

County  superin- 
tendent. 

County  superin- 
tendent. 

Examination  in  branches  required  for  such 
certificates  on  regular  examination. 

Examining  com- 
mittee. 

Examining  com- 
mittee. 

As  determined  by  local  board  and  examin- 
ing committee. 

do 

do 

Same  as  above,  for  local  certificate. 

TENNESSEE. 

[Public  School  Laws  of  Tennessee,  1909,  pp.  6, 21, 78, 82.  Memorandum  from  office  of  State  superintendent. 
Circular  regulations  governing  the  examination  and  certification  of  high-school  teachers  in  Tennessee, 

1911.1 


None 


do 


State  board  of  edu-  State  board  of  edu- 
cation. cation. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do 


do. 


15  months  after 
graduation. 


County  examining 
committee. 


None 


Holder  of  a bachelor’s  diploma  from  the 
University  of  Tennessee  or  an  equivalent 
institution,  who  has  taken  at  least  2 
courses  of  not  less  than  3 months  each  of 
professional  work,  or  who  has  passed 
satisfactory  State  examination  on  such 
subjects. 

Examination  in  following  5 groups,  spelling 
and  grammar  being  included  in  each 
group:  (1)  English — rhetoric  and  litera- 
ture; (2)  Latin — Latin  grammar,  Caesar, 
Cicero,  Vergil  (Greek,  German,  French, 
or  Spanish  may  be  taken  with  the  Latin); 
(3)  History — American,  English,  general, 
and  civil  government;  (4)  Biology,  phys- 
iology, physics,  physical  geography, 
chemistry,  agriculture,  and  geology  of 
Tennessee;  (5)  Mathematics — arithmetic, 
algebra,  geometry.  Minimum  average, 
80;  minimum  grade,  70. 

Examination  in  one  or  more  of  above 
groups  with  same  minimum  require- 
ments. Also  in  (6)  domestic  science  and 
(7)  commercial  branches — commercial 
arithmetic,  commercial  law,  stenography, 
and  typewriting. 

Examination  in  one  or  more  of  above  sub- 
jects with  same  minimum  requirements. 

Graduation  from  a State  normal  school  and 
examination  in  additional  courses  of 
reading  and  study. 

Graduation  from  one  of  the  State  normal 
schools. 


do 


County  superin-  County  superin- 
tendent. tendent. 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for  pri- 
mary certificate  and,  in  addition,  in  ele- 
ments of  algebra,  plane  geometry,  book- 
keeping, rhetoric,  civil  government, 
physics,  geology  of  Tennessee,  and  agri- 
culture. If  general  average  is  85  per  cent 
or  above,  certificate  is  called  first  grade; 
if  general  average  is  from  85  per  cent  to  70 
per  cent,  certificate  is  called  second  grade. 


3 The  term  “ secondary  school”  as  used  in  Tennessee  signifies  a school  consisting  “of  a principal  and 
when  necessary  an  assistant  or  assistants,”  in  which  in  addition  to  the  common  branches  the  following 
subjects  “shall  be  taught”:  Geology  of  Tennessee,  natural  philosophy,  bookkeeping,  civil  government, 
rhetoric  or  higher  English,  and  elocution.  The  term  “high  school”  signifies  the  usual  secondarv  school 
of  other  States. 


106 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 

Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers ’ 
TENNESSEE — Continued. 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by — 

Valid  in— 

Duration. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

County  superin- 
tendent (see  last 
column). 

do 

County 
(see  last 
column). 

do 

Any 

1 year  

do 

do 

do 

do 

Only  in  schools 
teaching  com- 
mon branches 
named  in  last 
column  (upon 
examination). 
do 

do 

County  superin- 
tendent. 

County.. . . 

do 

Persistence. 


Secondary  certifi- 
cate—Contd. 
Without  exami- 
nation (1). 


Without  exami- 
nation (2). 


Primary  certificate : 
Without  exami- 
nation. 


Upon  examina- 
tion (third 
grade). 


Renewed 
every  year 
during  life 
of  holder. 

Renewed  ev- 
ery year  for 
4 years,  or 
for  9 years  if 
“State  sec- 
ondary cer- 
tificate ” is 
renewed  (see 
last  column), 

Renewable  if 
“State  pri- 
mary” is  re- 
newed (see 
last  column). 

Same  as  sec- 
ondary cer- 
tificate upon 
examination 


TEXAS. 

[General  Laws,  1911,  chap.  96;  School  Laws,  1909,  secs.  83-107,  pp.  31-44.] 


Permanent  State 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

State 

Any 

Life,  or  dur- 
ing good 
behavior. 

certificate. 
Without  exami- 
nation. 

Upon  examina- 
tion. 

do 

do 

do 

i Prior  to  1909  a valid  certificate  could  be  issued  only  by  a county  superintendent.  The  State  superin- 
tendent had  authority  only  “ to  prescribe  the  mode  of  examining  and  licensing  teachers,  and  their  necessary 
qualifications.”  See  note  3,  p.  105. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


107 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

TENNESSEE — Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by— 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

juired 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

County  superin- 

County superin- 

tendent. 

tendent. 

Scholarship  requirements. 


Holder  of  degree  of  licentiate  of  instruction 
from  Peabody  Normal  College  is  en- 
titled to  a secondary  certificate  in  any 
county  in  the  State. 1 

Holder  of  “ State  secondary  certificate.  ’’ 
This  certificate  is  issued  upon  examina- 
tion. The  questions  are  prepared  in  the 
State  office  and  the  papers  are  graded  by 
the  State  institute  instructors.  The 
holder  is  entitled  to  a secondary  certifi- 
cate in  any  county  in  the  State.  Its  du- 
ration is  5 years,  renewable  for  5 years 
upon  15  days'  institute  attendance. 1 

Holder  of  a State  primary  certificate,  which 
is  obtained  in  same  manner  as  and  has 
corresponding  validity  to  the  “ State  sec- 
ondary certificate."  Its  duration  is  1 
year,  renewable  upon  15  days’  attendance 
upon  State  institute. 1 

Examination  in  spelling,  reading,  arithme- 
tic, grammar,  geography,  State  history, 
and  American  history.  Minimum  aver- 
age, 85  per  cent,  called  third-grade  certifi- 
cate. 


TEXAS. 

[General  Laws,  1911,  chap.  9G;  School  Laws,  1909,  secs.  83-107,  pp.  31-44.] 


None,  or  3 years  in 

No  examination  required 

State. 

None 

State  department 

State  board  of  ex- 

of education. 

aminers.2 

(1)  Holder  of  bachelor’s  degree  from  institu- 
tion of  “first  class’’  “who  has  completed  4 
full  courses  in  education  and  pedagogy." 
Those  who  can  not  meet  the  last  condi- 
tion may  present  in  lieu  thereof  3 years’ 
successful  experience  in  Texas. 

(2)  Holder  of  University  of  Texas  teachers’ 
diploma  showing  completion  of  4 full 
courses  in  department  of  education,  and 
satisfying  the  requirements  for  degree  of 
bachelor  of  arts. 

(3)  Holder  of  a diploma  from  the  Peabody 
Normal  College  at  Nashville,  Tenn. 

(4)  Holder  of  a valid  first-grade  certificate 
issued  to  those  completing  the  necessary 
requirements  at  the  College  of  Industrial 
Arts  (see  first-grade  certificate);  and  3 
years’  successful  experience  in  Texas. 

(1)  Examination  in  the  subjects  required 
for  a first-grade  certificate,  and,  in  addi- 
tion, history  of  education,  English  and 
American  literature,  chemistry,  solid  ge- 
ometry, physics,  plane  trigonometry,  and 
elementary  double-entry  bookkeeping. 
Minimum  average,  85  per  cent;  minimum 
grade,  50  per  cent. 

(2)  Holder  of  a State  permanent  primary 
certificate  who,  during  the  first  6 years  of 
its  validity  shall  pass  the  required  exami- 
nation in  the  following  additional  sub- 
jects: Algebra,  physics,  elementary  geom- 
etry, general  history,  chemistry,  solid  ge- 
ometry, plane  trigonometry,  and  ele- 
mentary double-entry  bookkeeping.3 4 

(3)  Holder  of  a valid  first-grade  certificate 
and  examination  in  the  required  addi- 
tional subjects  under  (2)  above. 


2 Summer  normal  institutes  in  Texas  are  authorized  to  hold  examinations  for  certification  of  teachers. 
Certificates  thus  obtained  shall  be  of  the  same  class  and  governed  by  the  same  laws  as  to  terms  of  validity 
as  are  other  State  certificates. 

3 If  the  State  permanent  primary  certificate  was  secured  by  building  on  a State  first-grade  certificate, 
reexamination  in  algebra,  physics,  elementary  geometry,  and  general  history  is  not  required. 


108  TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 

Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers* 
TEXAS — Con  fcinued . 


Valid  in — 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by- 


Territory. 


Schools. 


Duration. 


Persistence. 


Texas  State  Nor- 
mal College  di- 
ploma. 

State  permanent 
primary  certifi- 
cate. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 

do 


State  . 
do. 


Any 


Life,  or  dur- 
ini 


All  grades  below 
the  high  school. 


do 


May  build  to 
per  manent 
State  certif- 
icate during 
first  6 years. 


State  kindergarten 
certificates: 
Permanent 


do. 


.do. 


Kindergarten 


do. 


Temporary. 


do. 


.do. 


.do. 


4 years. 


Texas  State  Nor- 
mal College  cer- 
tificates: 

First-grade 

Second-grade 


State  board 
education. 
do 


First-grade  State 
certificate: 

Upon  examina-  State  superintend- 
tion.  ent. 


.do 


Any 

Any  grade  below 
high  school. 


Any. 


6 years 


4 or  6 years. 
(See  last 
column.) 


May  build  to 
perman  ent 
State  or  per- 
manent pri- 
mary State 
certificate.. 


Without  exami- 
nation. 


do. 

.do. 


.do. 

.do. 


do. 

do. 


6 years. 
4 years. 


Do. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


109 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

TEX  AS— Continued . 


Experience 

required. 


Questions 
prepared  by— 


Papers  exam- 
ined by — 


Scholarship  requirements. 


None 


.do, 


No  examination  

required. 

State  department  State  board  of  ex- 
of  education.  aminers. 


A diploma  from  a Texas  State  normal  col- 
lege shall  rank  as  a permanent  State  cer- 
tificate. 

(1)  Examination  in  subjects  required  for  a 
second-grade  certificate,  and,  in  addition, 
civil  government,  English  composition, 
physical  geography,  history  of  education, 
elementary  psychology  applied  to  teach- 
ing, and  English  and  American  litera- 
ture. 

(2)  Holder  of  a valid  first-grade  certificate, 
and  examination  in  the  following  addi- 
tional subjects:  History  of  education- 
elementary  psychology  applied  to  teach, 
ing,  and  English  and  American  litera- 
ture. Minimum  average,  85  per  cent, 
minimum  grade,  50  per  cent. 

(3)  Holder  of  a valid  second-grade  certifi- 
cate and  examination  in  the  required 
additional  subjects,  making  the  required 
grades. 


3 years  successful  No  examination  required 
experience  i n 
kindergartens  of 
State. 

None do 


Holder  of  a valid  temporary  State  kinder- 
garten certificate,  after  3 years’  experi- 
ence. 

(1)  Graduation  from  regular  course  of  a 
State  educational  institution  in  Texas 
maintaining  a department  for  training 
kindergarten  teachers,  and  completion 
of  the  kindergarten  course  consisting  of 
not  less  than  2 years’  training  with  daily 
practice  in  the  kindergarten. 

(2)  Graduation  from  kindergarten  training 
schools  and  departments  approved  by  the 
State  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do 


Completion  of  2 years’  work  in  a Texas 
State  Normal  College. 

Completion  of  1 year’s  work  In  a Texas 
State  Normal  College. 


do 


State  department 
of  education. 


State  board  of 
examiners. 


do. 


do. 


No  examination 
required. 

do 


(1)  Examination  in  all  subjects  required  for 
a second-grade  certificate,  and,  in  addi- 
tion, in  English  composition,  civil 
government,  algebra,  physical  geog- 
raphy, elements  of  geometry,  and  general 
history.  Minimum  average  of  85  per 
cent,  and  grade  of  50  per  cent,  render 
certificate  valid  for  6 years;  minimum 
average  of  75  per  cent,  and  grade  of  50 
per  cent  render  certificate  valid  for  4 
years. 

(2)  Holder  of  a valid  second-grade  certificate 
and  examination  in  the  prescribed  addi- 
tional subjects. 

Completion  of  regular  course  for  graduation 
in  the  College  of  Industrial  Arts,  and  in 
addition  two  full  courses  in  education. 

Completion  of  four  full  courses  in  the  College 
of  Arts,  and  one  full  course  in  the  depart- 
ment of  education  in  the  University  of 
Texas  or  in  any  university  or  college 
ranked  as  “first  class”  by  the  State  super- 
intendent, upon  recommendation  of  State 
board  of  examiners. 


110 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers’ 
TEXAS — Continued . 


Issued  by— 

Valid  in— 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

^S)ino  of  ccrtinc^tc* 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Second-grade  State 

State  superintend- 

State 

Grades  below  high 

6 years  or 

May  build  to 

certificate. 

ent. 

school. 

4 years. 

first-grade  or 

Second-grade  coun- 
ty certificate. 

County  board  of 
examiners. 

County 

do 

(See  last 
column.) 

do 

permanent 
primary  cer- 
tificate. 

Only  one  to 
same  indi- 
dividual. 

City  certificates: 1 

Permanent  (high 
school,  first- 

City  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

City 

As  board  of  trus- 
tees desires. 

During  good 
behavior. 

Varies 

grade,  pri- 
mary). 

Temporary  (high 
school,  first- 
grade.  second- 
grade). 

do 

do 

do 

Not  more 

As  determined 

than  4 
years. 

by  board  of 
trustee  s 
based  upon 
reading,  at- 
tendance 
upon  city  in- 
stitutes, or 
other  means 
of  profession- 
al growth. 

UTAH. 

[Laws  of  Utah,  1905,  chap.  71;  1907,  chap.  42;  1909,  chap.  45;  circular  letter  of  State  superintendent  (no  date).] 


State  professional 
high  - school  di- 
ploma. 

State  board  of  edu- 

State  

Anv 

Life;  lapses 
upon  ex- 
piration of 
5 years’ 
nonteach- 
ing period. 

cation. 

•/  ------- 

State  professional 
grammar  diplo- 
ma. 

do 

. . .do 

F.lemont.ary 

do 

State  grammar  cer- 
tificate. 

. . .do 

...do 

do 

5 years 

Rene  wable 

upon  pre- 
sentation of 
6 hours  of 
add  itional 
work  from  a 
rep  utable 
i nstitution, 
3 hours  of 
which  must 
be  of  college 
grade. 

“A  city  or  town  which  has  a scholastic  population  of  500  or  more  and  has  become  an  independent  district, 
and  which  levies  a local  tax  for  educational  purposes,  or  maintains  a system  of  free  schools  for  9 months  in 
each  year,  and  which  has  employed  a superintendent  of  city  schools,  may  have  a city  board  of  oxaminers, 
and  issue  certificates. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


Ill 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

TEXAS — Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by— 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

Scholarship  requirements. 

None 

State  department 
of  education. 

State  board  of  ex- 

Examination  in  spelling,  reading,  writing, 
arithmetic,  English  grammar,  geography, 
Texas  history,  elementary  physiology 
and  hygiene,  with  special  reference  to  nar- 
cotics, school  management,  and  methods 
of  teaching,  U nited  States  history , and  ele- 
mentary agriculture.  Minimum  average 
of  85  per  cent,  and  grade  of  50  per  cent, 
render  certificate  valid  for  6 years;  mini- 
mum average  of  75  per  cent,  and  grade  50 
per  cent  render  certificate  valid  for  4 

aminers. 

do 

do 

County  board  of 
examiners. 

years. 

Same  as  for  second-grade  State  certificate. 

3 years  in  Texas... 
None 

City  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

do 

City  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

do 

Requirements  can  not  be  lower  than  those 
prescribed  by  law  for  permanent  State  or 
county  certificates  of  corresponding 
grade. 

Same,  except  omit  "permanent.” 

UTAH. 

[Laws  of  Utah,  1905,  chap.  71;  1907,  chap.  42;  1909,  chap.  45;  circular  letter  of  State  superintendent  (no  date).] 


2 years’  experience 
in  State. 


do 


State  hoard  of  ed- 
ucation. 


do 


State  board  of  ed- 
ucation. 


ao 


do 


do. 


do. 


Graduation  from  a oollege  course,  including 
professional  subjects  and  credits2  in  arith- 
metic, United  States  history,  reading  and 
elocution,  orthography,  English  gram- 
mar, political  and  physical  geography, 
physiology,  algebra,  physics,  rhetoric, 
drawing,  plane  and  solid  geometry,  bot- 
any, English  literature,  general  history, 
civil  government,  history  and  science  of 
education,  and  psychology;  and  also  in 
three  of  following— chemistry,  geology, 
French,  German,  Latin,  Greek,  trigo- 
nometry, geology,  biology,  and  mineral- 
ogy. Holders  of  normal  diplomas  from 
University  of  Utah  are  entitled  to  this 
diploma  after  2 years’  successful  expe- 
rience. 

Completion  of  4 years  of  high-school  and  1 
year  of  college  work  and  credits 2 showing 
satisfactory  knowledge  of  required  sub- 
jects named  above,  except  solid  geometry 
and  the  three  electives. 

Credits2  covering  4 years  of  high-school 
work,  including  3 years  of  English,  alge- 
bra, physics,  civil  government,  botany, 
and  physical  geography;  also  credits  in 
psychology  and  history  of  education. 


2 Credits  may  be  based  upon  properly  authenticated  work  done  in  an  educational  institution,  upon 
grades  received  in  examinations  previously  taken,  or  upon  an  examination  conducted  by  the  State  board 
of  education. 


112 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers ’ 
UTAH — Continued. 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by- 


Valid  in- 


Terr  itory. 


Schools. 


Duration. 


Persistence. 


University  diploma 

Normal  grammar 
diploma. 


Normal  certificates . 


University 

School  of  educa- 
tion of  Univer- 
sity of  Utah. 


.do. 


Temporary  State 
high-school  cer- 
tificate. 


State  board  of  edu- 
cation. 


Normal  certificate . 


County  grammar 
certificate. 


.do 

.do 


State 
. . .do. 

. . .do. 
. . .do. 

. . .do. 
. . .do. 


County  primary 
certificate. 
Temporary  county 
certificate. 

City  certificates:  2 
1.  High  school . . . 


.do. 

.do. 


2.  Grammar. 

3.  Primary.. 


Board  of  education 


.do. 

.do. 


City. 

. .do. 
..do. 


High  and  elemen- 
tary schools. 
Elementary 


Life. 


.do. 


Grades  or  subjects 
specified. 

High  schools 


5 years . 
1 year. . 


Elementary 

Elementary,  ex- 
cept in  cities. 


2 years . 
do. 


Primary,  except 
in  cities. 

In  school  specified . 


High-school  teach- 
ers and  princi- 
pals of  grade 
schools. 

Fifth  to  eighth 


do 

Until  next 
examina- 
tion. 

Varies 


First  to  fourth 


do 

do 


See  State  pro- 
f e s s i o nal 
high -school 
diploma , 
last  column. 


Renewed  at 
discretion  of 
State  board 
for  1 year. 

Nonrenewable, 

May  be  re- 
newed year 
by  year  un- 
der such 
regulations 
as  the  board 
may  pre- 
scribe.* 1 


do 

Nonrenewable. 


Varies. 


. .do 

.do 


VERMONT. 

[General  laws  of  the  State  of  Vermont  relating  to  public  instruction,  in  force  August  1, 1907  (chaps.  44  and 
46),  pp.  267-271,  275;  Acts  of  1908,  chap.  37;  Acts  of  1910,  Nos.  61  and  64.1 


Unlimited  certifi- 
cate. 


Normal  school  cer- 
tificate of  grad- 
uation: 

Higher  course  — 
Lower  course 


State  superintend- 
ent of  educa- 
tion. 

State 

State  board  of  ed- 
ucation. 

do 

Any. 


do. 

do. 


Until  re- 
voked. 


10  years Original  pe- 

riod twice. 

5 years 10  years,  then 

permanent. 


1 In  1910  without  examination  to  teachers  whose  examination  record  for  1909  was  above  average  of  75  and 

grade  of  60  per  cent,  provided  school  work  was  indorsed  by  county  superintendent  and  if  6 units  of  summer- 
school  work  is  filed.  Those  not  filing  summer-school  units  exempt  from  reexamination  in  all  subjects 
having  grade  of  80  per  cent. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


113 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

UTAH — Continued . 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by— 

Papers  exam- 
ined by— 

None  specified 

No  examination  ret 

luired 

do 

do 

do 

do 

None 

Examination  not  necessarily  required  . . 

do 

No  examination  rennired 

do 

State  board  of  ed- 

State board  of  ed- 

ucation. 

ucation. 

do 

do 

do 

do 

No  examination  ret 

luired 

Varies 

City  board  of  ex- 

City board  of  ex- 

aminers. 

aminers. 

do 

....do 

Scholarship  requirements. 


Completion  of  prescribed  courses  in  school 
of  education  of  university. 

Discretion  of  school  of  education  of  uni- 
versity. 


Do. 

Credentials  covering  a college  course  ac- 
cepted; examination  may  be  required. 
Also  official  statement  showing  he  is  em- 
ployed in  a high  school  in  the  State. 

Graduation  from  a normal  training  school 
of  high  standard. 

Applicant  must  show  that  he  is  proficient 
in  pedagogy  and  qualified  to  teach  read- 
ing, writing,  spelling,  English  grammar, 
United  States  history,  arithmetic,  physi- 
ology and  hygiene,  nature  studies,  and 
drawing.  In  1911  and  thereafter  all  who 
have  not  had  3 years’  successful  expe- 
rience in  the  State  must  have  had  4 years’ 
high-school  education  or  its  equivalent 
to  be  eligible  to  enter  the  examination, 
and  must,  in  addition,  pass  a successful 
examination  in  psychology  and  history  of 
education. 

Same  as  for  county  grammar  certificate. 

Applicant  must  give  evidence  of  his  ability 
to  pass  the  regular  examination.  Appli- 
cation must  be  indorsed  by  county  super- 
intendent and  district  board. 

Varies. 


Do. 

Do. 


VERMONT. 


[General  laws  of  the  State  of  Vermont  relating  to  public  instruction,  in  force  August  1, 1907  (chaps.  44  and 
46),  pp.  267-271,  275;  Acts  of  1908,  chap.  37;  Acts  of  1910,  Nos.  61  and  64.] 


500  weeks;  may  be 
lessened  by  pos- 
session of  cer- 
tain scholastic 
requirements. 
(See  scholarship 
requirements.) 

1 

No  examination  rennired 

(1)  500  weeks’  experience  in  public  schools 
of  State;  (2)  graduation  from  approved 
college  and  8 years’  experience  in  State; 
(3)  graduation  from  a normal  school  and 
200  weeks’  experience  in  State  and  holder 
of  one  10-year  or  two  5-year  certificates; 
or  (4)  holder  of  first-grade  certificate  for 
10  years,  of  first  and  second  grade  certifi- 
cates for  12  years,  or  of  second  and  third 
grade  certificates  for  14  years,  and  200 
weeks’  experience  in  State. 

None 

do 

Graduation  from  higher  course  of  a normal 
school. 

Graduation  from  lower  course  of  a normal 

do 

do 

school. 

2 Cities  of  5,000  population  or  over  (4  in  1910). 


10943°— 11 8 


114 


teachers'  certificates. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 

VERM  ONT — Continued . 


Valid  in — 

Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by— 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

First-grade  certifi- 

cate: 

Upon  examina- 
tion. 

State  superintend- 
ent of  educa- 

State  

Any 

5 years 

Renewable 

for  original 

tion. 

period  after 
50  weeks’ ex- 

perience in 
State. 

Without  exami- 

do 

do 

do 

....  do 

Renewable  40 

nation. 

weeks’  expe- 
rience. 

Second-grade  cer- 
tificate, upon  ex- 

do 

do 

do 

2 years 

Remains  in 

. 

force  during 

amination. 

employ- 
ment in 
same  town. 

Third-grade  certifi- 
cate. 

do 

State;  may 
be  limit- 

do 

Not  exceed- 

Issued once 

ing  1 year. 

only,  unless 

ed  to  a 

holder  has 

p a rtieu- 

not  taught 

lar  school. 

28  weeks. 

Special  certificates : 

First  and  second 

do 

State 

Subjects  named .. . 

First  grade, 
5 years; 

Renewable. 

grade  (in  high- 

school  subjects, 

second 

music,  draw- 

grade, 2 

ing,  physical 
culture,  indus- 
trial arts  and 
sciences). 

years. 

Third  grade 

do 

Town  spec- 
ified. 

Any 

Not  exceed- 

Not reissued 

ing  1 year. 

until  holder 
has  received 

first  or  sec- 
ond grade 
certificate. 

Teacher  training- 
course  certificate. 

do 

State 

do 

3 years 

Primary  and  kin- 
dergarten certifi- 

do  

do 

Primary  and 
kind  e r g a r t en 

5 years 

Not  reissued 

until  holder 

cates. 

grades. 

has  received 
a certificate 
upon  public 
examina- 
tion. 

Permits 

do 

School  specified . .. 

Notexceed- 

Nonrenewable. 

ing  12 

Can  not  be 

weeks. 

given  a sec- 
ond time  to 

same  person 
until  a cer- 
tificate has 
been  earned. 

STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


115 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

VERMONT — Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

40  weeks 

State  superintend- 

State  superintend- 

ent. 

ent. 

12  weeks 

State  superintend- 

State  superintend- 

ent. 

ent. 

do 

do 

Indefinite  amount. 

No  examination  re< 

[juired 

50  weeks.  (See  last 

do 

column.) 

None 

do 

300  weeks  in  pri- 

do 

m a r y grades. 

(See  scholarship 

requirements.) 

None 

Town  or  union  su- 

Town or  union  su- 

perintendent. 

perintendent. 

Scholarship  requirements. 


Satisfactory  oral  examination.  Examina- 
tion of  greater  difficulty  in  subjects  re- 
quired for  second  grade,  and  in  addition 
in  psychology,  English  literature,  general 
history,  and  algebra. 

Graduation  from  a college  approved  by 
State  superintendent  or  of  a normal 
school  in  another  State. 

Examination  in  reading,  writing,  spelling, 
grammar,  geography,  arithmetic,  free- 
hand drawing,  history  and  Constitution 
of  United  States,  pedagogy,  elementary 
physiology  and  hygiene  including  the 
effects  of  alcoholic  drinks  and  narcotics. 

Same  as  for  second-grade  certificate. 


Holder  of  first  or  second  grade  certificate  or 
teacher  of  special  training.  Grade  of  cer- 
tificate same  as  grade  of  previous  certifi- 
cate. In  case  of  special  training,  State 
superintendent  determines  grade. 


If  applicant  has  held  a second-grade  certifi- 
cate or  its  equivalent,  20  weeks  instead 
of  50  weeks  experience  is  required. 


Graduate  from  a teacher-training  course; 
and  recommendation  of  the  principal 
and  of  the  special  training  teacher  of  the 
high  school,  or  academy,  in  which  such 
course  is  maintained. 

Graduate  of  recognized  kindergarten  train- 
ing school  without  experience  may  be 
granted  certificate. 


Not  more  than  one-third  of  the  terms 
taught  in  any  town  in  1 year  may  be 
taught  under  permits,  provided  total 
terms  must  not  exceed  five. 


116 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 

VIRGINIA. 


[Regulations  of  the  State  board  of  education,  1907,  in  Virginia  School  Laws,  1907,  pp.  122-128;  amended 
regulations,  in  Virginia  School  Laws,  1908,  pp.  35-38;  and  circular  of  information  concerning  certification 
of  teachers,  No.  63,  Mar.  1,  1911.] 


Name  of  certificate 


Issued  by — 


Valid  in- 


Terr  itory. 


Schools. 


Duration. 


Persistence. 


University  certifi- 
cate. 


Collegiate  certifi- 
cate. 

Academic  certifi- 
cate. 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


.do. 

.do. 


Any  school 
divisi  o n 
in  State 
when  in- 
dorse  d 
by  super- 
intend- 
ent  there- 
of. 

do 


Any. 


12  years. 


.do. 


10  years 

9,  7,  5,  or  3 
years. 


From  time  to 
time  for  sim- 
ilar period. 


do 

Nonrenewable. 


Professional  certifi- 
cate. 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers; divi- 
sion superin- 
t e n d e n t in- 
dorses. 


do 


do 


Full  normal  pro- 
fessional certifi- 
cate. 


.do. 


do 


.do, 


N ormal  professional 
certificate. 


.do. 


do 


do 


Professional  elemen- 
tary certificates: 
Grammar  grades. 


do... 


I 


do 


Elementary. 


7 years 


10  years. 


7 years 


Renewed  for  7 
years,  pro- 
vided teach- 
er has  been 
success  f u 1 
and  reading 
course  for 
each  year 
has  been 
completed. 

R e n e w a ble 
from  time  to 
time  for 
similar 
period. 

do 


do 


do 


Primary  grades . . 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


Any  school 
division 
in  State 
when  in- 
d o r s ed 
by  super- 
intendent 
thereof.  1 


.do. 


do. 


Renewable 
from  time  to 
time  for  sim- 
ilar periods. 


1 The  course  must  cover  the  following  subjects:  Principles  of  teaching,  including  how  to  study;  methods 
of  teaching  arithmetic,  civics  and  history,  geography,  language,  reading  and  literature;  hygiene,  drawing, 
practice  teaching  or  advanced  observation;  and  elementary  agriculture  and  school  gardenmg,  or  manual 
training  and  domestic  economy. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


117 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

VIRGINIA. 


[Regulations  of  the  State  board  of  education,  1907,  in  Virginia  School  Laws,  1907,  pp.  122-128;  amended 
regulations,  in  Virginia  School  Laws,  1908,  pp.  35-38;  and  circular  of  information  concerning  certification 
of  teachers.  No.  63,  Mar.  1,  1911.] 


Experience  Questions 

required.  prepared  by— 


Papers  exam- 
ined by— 


Scholarship  requirements. 


None  specified 


Holder  of  a degree  from  the  graduate  school 
of  a registered  university. 


do 

do 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers when 
examination  is 
required. 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers when  I 
examination  is 
required. 


Holder  of  a baccalaureate  degree  from  a 
registered  college. 

Graduation  from  an  institution  which  does 
not  fully  comply  with  definition  of  a 
college  but  which  offers  an  approved  four- 
year  course  in  literature  and  science  at 
least  1 year  in  advance  of  the  standard 
4-year  high  school.  Each  additional 
year  of  high  school  above  1 year  required 
for  admission  adds  2 years  to  the  dura- 
tion of  the  certificate  given  its  graduates. 

Diploma  of  graduation  from  normal  course 
of  State  university,  State  normal,  and 
other  specified  institutions. 


.do 


Completion  of  course  leading  to  a full 
diploma  in  the  State  normal  school  at 
Farmville,  Harrisburg,  or  Fredericks- 
burg. 


do 


Completion  of  course  leading  to  a profes- 
sional certificate  in  either  of  above  State 
normal  schools. 


9 or  6 months  (see 
last  column). 


9 months  in  pri- 
mary or  gram- 
mar grades. 


(1)  Holder  of  first-grade  with  9 months’  ex- 
perience or  of  high-school  certificate  with 
6 months’  experience;  and  (2)  completion 
of  a prescribed  course  in  the  State  normal 
schools  during  the  regular  term  or  in  the 
summer  sessions.  Equivalent  courses 
in  other  normal  schools  are  given  same 
credit.  Course  may  be  completed  in  a 
term  of  1 year,  or  in  two  sessions  of  6 weeks 
each,  or  in  three  sessions  of  4 weeks  each. 
In  the  second  case  the  work  must  be  com- 
pleted within  4 years;  in  the  last,  within 
5 years. 1 

Same  as  for  grammar-grade  certificate  ex- 
cept experience  (which  see)  and  course 
of  study. 2 


2 The  course  must  include  principles  of  teaching,  with  special  emphasis  on  how  to  study;  primary  meth- 
ods in  reading,  language,  arithmetic,  physical  nature  study,  and  home  geography;  hygiene,  music  and 
games,  primary  industrial  work,  drawing  and  observation  work,  and  practice  teaching. 


118 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers ’ 
VIRGINIA— Continued. 


Valid  in— 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Any  school 
divisi  o n 
in  State 
when  in- 
dor sed 
by  super- 
intendent 
thereof. 

Elementary 

do 

do 

Name  of  certificate. 


Summer  school  pro- 
fessional certifi- 
cate. 


High-school  certifi- 
cate. 


Normal  training 
certificates. 


Special  certificates 
(including  also 
kindergarten  and 
higher  branches). 


First-grade  certifi- 
cate: 

Upon  examina- 
tion. 


Without  exami- 
nation (1). 


Without  exami- 
nation (2). 


Without  exami- 
nation (3). 
Second-grade  cer- 
tificate. 


Issued  by- 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


In  1 and  2 room 
schools. 


Subjects  named. . 


Any. 


.do. 


.do. 


Duration. 


7 years . 


1 year. 


3 or  2 years. 


5 years. 


.do 


.do. 


4 years . 

2 years . 
do. 


Persistence. 


Renewable  if 
professional 
reading 
course  has 
been  pur- 
sued. 


May  be  ex- 
tended.1 


Nonrenewable 


Renewal  be 
from  time 
to  time  for 
similar  peri- 
od. Profes- 
sional read- 
ing course 
required. 


Re  n e w a b 1 e 

2 or  5 years; 

3 years’  suc- 
cessful expe- 
rience, com- 
pletion of 
prescri  bed 
reading. 

Renew  able 
indefinitel  y 
so  long  as 
reading 
course  is  pur- 
sued. 

Same  as  first 
grade  on  ex- 
amination. 

Nonrenewable. 

Rene  w a b 1 e 
for  1 year;  1 
year’s  suc- 
cessful expe- 
rience and 
completi  o n 
prescribed 
reading 
course. 


« May  be  extended  provided  holder  (1)  pursues  professional  course  of  study  and  passes  examinations  in 
2 subjects  thereof  each  year;  or'(2)  passes  in  2 courses  in  the  summer  school  of  the  University  of  Virginia, 
or  one  of  like  grade;  or  (3)  passes  required  number  of  subjects  in  examination  for  a professional  certificate. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


119 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

VIRGINIA— Continued . 


Experience 

required. 


Questions 
prepared  by — 


Papers  exam- 
ined by — 


Scholarship  requirements. 


9 or  6 months. 
(See  last  col- 
umn.) 


None 


do, 


See  last  column. . . 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers when 
examination  is 
required. 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers when 
examination  is 
required. 


9 months 


6 years’  successful 
experience  im- 
mediately prior 
to  July,  1907. 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


Holder  of  first-grade  or  of  a high-school 
certificate  who  has  taught  6 months,  and 
who  has  attended  summer  schools  of 
University  of  Virginia  or  another  of 
equal  rank  for  2 sessions  of  6 weeks  each, 
and  has  made  a grade  of  at  least  75  per 
cent  in  both  class  work  and  examination 
in  6 courses  in  other  than  the  elementary 
subjects  and  in  at  least  4 different  sub- 
jects, 1 of  which  shall  be  English  and 
another  education.  The  other  4 courses 
may  be  taken  from  the  following  groups 
(not  more  than  2 courses  may  be  from 

1 group):  Industrial  education,  science, 
mathematics,  history,  education  and 
philosophy,  and  language. 

Graduation  from  4- year  high-school  course 
of  study,  approved  by  board  of  examin- 
ers; indorsement  by  division  superin- 
tendent. 

Graduation  from  a 4-year  high-school 
course  in  which  the  training-class  work 
is  taken  in  the  last  year  and  based  on 
preceding  3 years’  work.  Graduates  from 
3-year  high-school  course  in  which  train- 
ing-class work  is  based  on  preceding 

2 years’  work  receive  2-year  certificates. 

(1)  Holder  of  valid  first-grade  certificate  or 

equivalent  thereof  (but  exception  may 
be  made  in  the  cases  of  music,  drawing, 
and  domestic  sciences),  who  has  attended 
the  University  of  Virginia  summer  school 
for  2 sessions  of  6 weeks  each  and  com- 
pleted at  least  1 course  in  educational 
psychology  and  3 courses  in  any  one  sub- 
ject in  the  university  department  will  be 
given  certificate  to  teach  such  subject. 

(2)  Graduation  from  kindergarten  de- 
partment of  a State  normal  or  other 
recognized  kindergarten  training  school 
and  evidence  of  required  scholarship. 

(3)  Examination  in  higher  branches 
which  applicant  desires  to  teach  unless 
he  is  a graduate  of  a university  or  college 
of  approved  standing. 

Examination  in  subjects  required  for  a sec- 
ond-grade certificate  and  in  algebra 
(through  quadratics),  one  branch  of 
science  (either  physical  geography,  phys- 
ics, or  agriculture),  and  one  division  of 
history  (either  general  or  English),  with  a 
minimum  average  of  85  per  cent  and 
grade  of  70  per  cent. 

Holder  of  first-grade  certificate  for  6 years 
immediately  prior  to  July,  1907,  and 
recommendation  of  division  superin- 
tendent. 


9 months  under 
second  grade. 


None. , 
do 


State  board  of  ex-  State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. aminers. 


Holder  of  examination  credits  required  for 
first  grade,  but  who  was  given  second- 
grade  certificate  because  of  lack  of  expe- 
rience. 

Completion  of  certificate  course  at  State 
normal  school. 

Examination  in  subjects  required  for  third- 
grade  certificate  and  in  drawing  and 
theory  and  practice  of  teaching,  with 
minimum  average  of  75  per  cent  and 
grade  of  60  per  cent. 


120 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers ’ 
VIRGINIA— Continued. 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by— 

Valid  in— 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Third-grade  certifi- 

State  board  of  ex- 

Any  school 

Any,  when  no 

1 year 

Nonrenewable. 

cate. 

aminers. 

divisio  n 

teachers  holding 

Granted 

in  State 

first  or  second 

once  to 

when  in- 

grade  certifi- 

same per- 

do r sed 

cates  are  avail- 

son. 

by  super- 

able. 

intend- 

ent  there- 

of. 

Fourth-grade  cer- 

do 

do 

Any  colored  school 

2 years 

do 

tificate. 

Summer  school  cer- 

do  

do 

do 

5 years 

Renewable 

t i f i c a t e— first 

from  time  to 

grade. 

time  for  sim- 

ilar period. 

Provisional  certifi- 

 do 

do 

Depends  on  grade 

1 year 

Nonren  ew- 

cates. 

of  certificate  is- 

able. 

sued. 

Emergency  certifi- 

 do 

Special  sch 

ool  that  can  not 

Until  a li- 

 do 

cate. 

otherwise  secure  a teacher. 

ce  n s e d 

teacher 

can  be  se- 

cured. 

WASHINGTON. 

[Code  of  Public  Instruction,  1909,  pp.  84-91;  Session  Laws,  1909,  chap.  97,  Acts  1911,  H.  B.  80.] 


Life  certificate 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

do 

State  regis- 
tration in 
county 
required. 

do 

Any 

Life 

Permanent  certifi- 
cates: 

(a)  Professional . . 

do 

do 

(6)  First  grade. . . 

do 

do 

do 

do 

(c)  First  grade, 
primary. 

Professional  certifi- 

.do  

do 

Primary  grades . . . 

do 

do 

do 

Any 

5 years 

Renewable  (a) 
1 year's  at- 
tendance 
higher  insti- 
tution com- 
pleting 3 
subjects;  (b) 
24  months' 
teaching. 
Any  renewal 
may  be  re- 
newed. 

cate. 

1 The  course  must  cover  at  least  three  terms  of  four  weeks  each  or  two  terms  of  six  weeks  each,  and  must 
occupy  a minimum  of  240  recitation  periods  of  40  minutes  each.  It  includes  the  following  subjects:  The 
common  branches;  methods  of  teaching  reading  to  beginners;  hygiene,  public  and  private;  civics,  with 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


121 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

VIRGINIA— Continued . 


Experience 

required. 


Questions 
prepared  by— 


Papers  exam- 
ined by — 


Scholarship  requirements. 


None 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


Examination  in  orthography  (including 
punctuation),  reading,  writing,  arith- 
metic (including  business  forms),  gram- 
mar, geography,  United  States  history, 
history  of  Virginia,  civil  government 
(including  Virginia),  and  physiology  and 
hygiene,  with  a minimum  average  of  65 
per  cent  and  grade  of  50  per  cent. 


.do 


do. 


do 


9 months. 


See  last  column 


None. 


No  examination  required. 


Negro  applicants  who  make  an  average  of 
50  per  cent  with  no  branch  below  40  per 
cent  on  third-grade  subjects. 

Completion  of  prescribed  course  at  Hamp- 
ton or  Petersburg  within  a period  of  5 
years  by  holder  of  second-grade  or  higher 
certificate.1 

A teacher  holding  a certificate  who  did  not 
take  spring  examination,  but  attended  a 
State  summer  normal  school  for  20  days, 
and  passed  on  at  least  one-half  of  the  sub- 
jects, including  arithmetic  and  grammar, 
is  given  such  provisional  certificate  as  the 
grades  warrant.  When  other  branches 
are  passed,  full  certificate  bears  same  date 
as  original.  A teacher  who  attended  a 
summer  institute  and  made  required 
grades  in  one-half  of  subjects  for  either 
first  or  second  grade  certificate,  and  satis- 
fied all  other  requisites,  is  granted  a pro- 
visional certificate,  which  can  not  be  re- 
newed. Provisional  certificates  of  the 
third  and  fourth  grades  are  not  issued. 

Recommendation  of  a division  superin- 
tendent. 


WASHINGTON. 

[Code  of  Public  Instruction,  1909,  pp.  84-91;  Session  Laws,  1909,  chap.  97,  Acts  1911,  H.  B.  80.] 


45  months;  27 
months  in  State. 

State  board  of  edu- 
cation. 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

Credits  required  for  professional  certificates 
and  examination  in  psychology,  history 
of  education,  bookkeeping,  composition, 
general  history.  Other  subjects  may  be 
substituted. 

72  months;  36  in 
State. 

do 

do 

do 

Holder  of  professional  certificate  for  at  least 
18  months.  Indorsement  of  county  su- 
perintendent. 

Holder  of  first-grade  certificate  for  at  least 
18  months.  Indorsement  of  county  su- 
perintendent. 

Holder  of  first-grade  primary  certificate  for 
at  least  18  months.  Indorsement  of 
county  superintendent. 

All  requirements  of  a first-grade  certificate, 
also  examination  in  plane  geometry,  ge- 
ology, botany,  zoology,  civil  government. 
Other  subjects  may  be  substituted  in 
lieu  of  any  or  all  of  these  by  State  board 
upon  request  of  applicant. 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

24  months;  8 in 
State. 

do 

do 

special  reference  to  community  life;  agriculture,  principles  of  teaching;  and  any  three  of  the  following: 
Sewing,  cooking,  bench  work,  poultry  raising,  and  household  handicrafts,  including  glazing,  mending  tin- 
ware, whitewashing,  chair  caning,  and  cobbling. 


122 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 
WASHINGTON— Continued. 


Valid  in — 

Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by— 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

- 

University  life  di- 
ploma. 

University  normal 
diploma. 

State  college  life  di- 
ploma. 

State  college  nor- 
mal diploma. 

Regents  upon  rec- 
ommendation of 
faculty. 

do 

State 

Any 

Life 

do ... . 

do 

5 years 

.do 

do. . . 

Life. . 

..do 

5 years 

do. . 

. ..do 

Life 

diploma. 

do 

do 

do 

5 years 

ploma. 

Secondary  normal- 
school  certificate. 

do 

do 

do 

3 years 

Nonrenewable. 

Elementary  normal- 
school  certificate. 
First-grade  certifi- 
cate. 

do 

do 

Elementary 

2 years 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

do 

Any 

5 years 

Same  as  pro- 

fessional. 

First-grade  prima- 
ry certificate. 

do 

Primary 

do 

do 

Second-grade  com- 
mon-school cer- 
tificate. 

do 

do 

Any 

2 years 

Renewable  (a) 

Semes  t e r ’s 
a t tendance 
higher  insti- 
tution, or  1 
summer  ses- 
sion 6 weeks; 
satisfac- 
tory stand- 
ing in  3 sub- 
jects; (b)  16 
months’  suc- 
cessful teach- 

Third-grade  com- 
mon-school cer- 
tificate. 

City  certificates: 1 

do 

do 

do 

1 year 

mg. 

Renewable.  1 

Board  of  directors 

Citv 

do 

do 

year’s  at- 
tendance 
higher  insti- 
tution se- 
cures second- 
grade  certifi- 
cate. 

Fixed  by  reg- 
ulations  of‘ 
board  of  di- 
rectors. 



Grammar  school 

do 

do 

Grammar  or  pri- 
mary school  as 
teacher;  pri- 
mary school  as 
principal. 

do 

do 

Primn.ry 

T do 

do 

Primary  school  as 
teacher. 

do 

do 

1 Cities  having  over  100  teachers  (4  in  1910). 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


123 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

W ASHIN  GTO  N— Conti  nued . 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

Scholarship  requirements. 

24  months 

12  semester  hours  in  department  of  educa- 
tion and  graduation  in  liberal  arts  course. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

Completion  of  advanced  course  in  a State 

normal  school. 

Completion  of  advanced  course  in  a State 
normal  school  and  demonstrated  ability 
to  teach  and  govern  by  successful  practice 
in  training  department  of  18  weeks. 

Completion  of  secondary  course  and  prac- 
tice teaching  as  required  for  normal-school 
diploma. 

Completion  of  elementary  course  in  a State 
normal  school. 

Must  pass  the  examination  in  all  subjects 
required  for  a second-grade  certificate, 
and  in  algebra,  physics,  literature,  and 
physical  geography.  Substitutes  for  two 
subjects  allowed. 

Credits  in  subjects  for  second-grade  certifi- 
cate and  examination  in  nature  study, 
drawing,  literature,  and  physical  geogra- 
phy. Substitutes  for  two  subjects  al- 
lowed. 

Credits  in  subjects  for  third-grade  certifi- 
cates and  examination  in  music . May  be 
granted  once  to  teachers  from  other  States 
with  10  years’  successful  experience;  ex- 
amination in  State  manual  only  required. 

do 

9 months 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

45  months  in  pri- 
mary grades. 

None 

do 

do 

..  ..do 

do 

do. 

do 

Examination  in  reading,  grammar,  pen- 
manship, and  punctuation,  United  States 
history,  geography,  arithmetic,  physiol- 
ogy and  hygiene,  theory  and  art  of  teach- 
ing, orthography,  and  Washington  State 
manual. 

Fixed  by  regula- 
tions of  board  of 
directors. 

Board  of  examin- 
ers. 

Board  of  examin- 
ers. 

Must  pass  examination  required  for  gram- 
mar certificates  and,  in  aa  Jition,  in  civil 
government,  physical  geography,  ele- 
mentary physics,  algebra,  botany,  and 
such  other  subjects  as  board  of  directors 
may  determine. 

Applicant  must  have  been  found  “upon 
examination  to  have  a practical  knowl- 
edge of  pedagogics,  school  management, 
and  the  general  school  system  of  the  State 
of  Washington,  and  to  be  proficient  in 
and  qualified  to  teach  the  following 
branches:  Reading,  writing,  spelling, 
English  grammar,  geography,  arithmetic, 
physiology  and  hygiene,  United  States 
history,  and  such  other  English  branches 
as  board  of  directors  may  prescribe.” 

Same  as  for  city  grammar  school  certificate. 

do 

do 

do 

124 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES, 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers 1 
WASHINGTON— Continued. 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by— 

Valid  in — 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Special  certificate.. 

Temporary  certifi- 
cate.1 

County  or  city  su- 
perintendent. 

County  or 
city. 

Special  subjects . . . 

Indefinite— 
so  long  as 
holder 
teaches. 

WEST  VIRGINIA.2 


[Rev.  School  Laws  of  W.  Va.,  1908,  pp.  41-46,  56-59;  Acts  of  W.  Va.,  1909,  pp.  350-352.  Handbook  relatin 
to  examination  for  teachers’  certificates,  Department  of  free  schools,  W . Va.,  1910.  Acts  1911,  S.  B.  139.] 


First-class  State  State  board  of  ed- 
professional  cer-  ucation. 
tificate. 


State. 


Any 


Second-class  State 
professional  cer- 
tificate: 

Upon  exami- 
nation. 


.do 


.do. 


.do 


Without  exam- 
ination. 


do 


do. 


do 


12  years 


Renewable  for 
like  period, 
if  holder  has 
taught  8 
years  under 
original. 


6 years 


do 


Renewable  as 
first-class 
State  profes- 
sional cer- 
tificate, pro- 
vided holder 
has  taught  4 
years  there- 
on, other- 
wise 6 years. 
do 


Graduates’  certifi- 
cate. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


do 


do 


5 years 


Renewable  for 
5 years. 


High-school  teach- 
ers’ certificate. 


do 


do 


do 


do 


Primary  teachers’ 
certificate. 


do. . 


..do 


Primary  grades . . . 


. .do 


Renewable  5 
years,  if 
taught  1 
year. 

Same  as  first- 
grade  uni- 
form certifi- 
cate. 


1 Temporary  certificates  shall  be  issued  in  accordance  with  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  State  board 
of  education. 

2 See  appendix,  p.  258. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


125 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

WASHINGTON— Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by— 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

Scholarship  requirements. 

None 

County  or  city  su- 
perintendent. 

County  or  city  su- 
perintendent. 

Must  show  “by  examination  or  otherwise 

satisfactory  evidence  of  fitness  to  teach 
special  subjects.”  No  limitation  placed 
upon  subjects  for  which  certificates  may 
be  granted. 

WEST  VIRGINIA. 


[Rev.  School  Laws  of  W.  Va.,  1908,  pp.  41-46,  56-59;  Acts  of  W.  Va.,  1909,  pp.  350-352.  Handbook  relating 
to  examination  for  teachers’  certificates,  Department  of  free  schools,  W.  Va.,  1910,  Acts  1911,  S.  B.  139.] 


I 

4 years  under  sec-  No  examination  required 
ond  - class  State 
professional. 


3 years 


State  board  of  ed- 
ucation. 


State  board  of  ed- 
ucation. 


Holder  of  first-grade  uniform  certificate  or 
equivalent.  E xamination  in  educational 
psychology  and  method;  history  of  edu- 
cation and  school  management;  rhetoric 
and  composition;  English  and  American 
literature;  algebra;  and  in  five  other  sub- 
jects.3 


3 years  under  first- 
grade  uniform 
certificates,  1 
year  immedi- 
ately preceding. 

None 


do 


do 


No  examination  required 


I 


do 


State  board  of  ed- 
ucation. 


State  board  of  ed- 
ucation. 


Graduation  from  State  university  or  State 
normal  school  and  its  branches  or  other 
school  whose  grade  of  work  is  considered 
equal  in  all  respects  to  the  work  of  the 
state  normal  school. 

Graduation  from  West  Virginia  University 
including  six  courses  in  education;  from 
normal  department  of  State  normal 
school  and  its  branches;  from  normal  de- 
partment of  any  other  school  in  State 
which  in  the  judgment  of  the  State  board 
of  education  is  equivalent  in  amount, 
kind,  and  quantity  to  that  of  the  Statenor- 
mal  school;  or  from  normal  department 
of  the  West  Virginia  Colored  Institute. 

Same  as  for  second-class  State  professional 
certificate. 


2 years  under  first 
or  second  grade 
uniform  certifi- 
cate. 


do 


do 


Examination  in  elementary  literature, 
child  study,  and  school  management, 
school  hygiene  and  sanitation,  primary 
reading,  number  work,  nature  study, 
and  in  two  of  following  subjects:  History 
for  children,  story-telling,  drawing,  and 
music.  “This  certificate  is  designed  for 
those  who  have  made  special  preparation 
for  primary  work.”  Minimum  average, 
85  per  cent;  minimum  grade,  65  per  cent. 


3 Applicant  must  choose  five  of  the  following  subjects:  American  history  and  civics;  English,  ancient, 
and  mediaeval  history;  Latin,  through  Virgil;  Greek,  through  Xenophon;  German,  2 years;  French,  2 
years;  plane  geometry;  solid  geometry;  trigonometry;  physics;  chemistry;  physical  geography;  botany; 
agriculture;  zoology;  physiology;  and  elementary  geology.  Minimum  average,  85  per  cent;  minimum 
grade,  65  per  cent. 


126 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 
WEST  VIRGINIA— Continued. 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by — 

Valid  in — 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

First-grade  graded 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

do 

State  

In  rural  and 

5 years. . 

Renewab  le 

school  certificate. 

Second-grade 
graded  school  cer- 

 do 

graded  schools; 
and  in  high 
schools,  if  local 
authorities 
agree. 

do 

3 years 

once  for  like 
period  if 
holder  h as 
taught  1 
year  there- 
on, or  has 
served  as 
county  su- 
p erintend- 
ent  while 
certificate 
was  in  force. 
Exam  ina- 
t.ion  in  agri- 
c u 1 ture,  if 
original  did 
not  include 
this  subject. 

N o n r e n ew- 
able. 

tificate. 

Third-grade  graded 
school  certificate. 

First-grade  elemen- 
tary school  cer- 
tificate. 

Second-grade  ele- 
mentary school 
certificate. 

do 

do 

do 

1 year  . 

Not  issued 
more  than  2 
years  in  suc- 
cession  to 
same  appli- 
cant. 

Same  as  first- 
grade  graded 
school  cer- 
tificate. 

Nonrenewable. 

.do. 

do.. . 

In  1-room  schools 

5 years 

do 

do 

and  in  graded 
schools  up  to 
and  including 
the  room  in 
which  the  third 
reader  is  taught. 

do 

3 years 

Third-grade  e 1 e - 
mentary  school 
certificate. 

do  

do 

do 

1 year 

Issued  not 

more  than 
twice  to 
same  person 
in  2 years. 

Kindergarten  cer- 

tificate.1 

Emergency  certifi- 

State superintend- 

County 

According  to  grade 

Until  June 

Nonrenewable. 

cates. 

ent. 

designa- 

of certificate. 

30  follow- 

Issued only 

ted. 

ing  issu- 
ance. 

once  to  same 
person. 

WISCONSIN. 


[Laws  of  Wis.,  relating  to  common  schools,  1909,  pp.  71-90,  106,  161,  198-199.] 


Unlimited  State 
certificate: 
Upon  examina- 
tion. 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

State 

Any..  

Life 

Without  exami- 

do 

.do 

do 

do 

nation. 

1 “No  person  maybe  employed  as  a teacher  in  a regularly  established  kindergarten  unless  she  holds  a 
diploma  from  a kindergarten  college,  or,  in  addition  to  holding  such  a certificate  as  is  required  of  other 
persons  employed  as  teachers  in  the  schools  of  this  State,  be  duly  examined  in  kindergarten  methods  and 
theories  in  such  manner  as  the  board  of  education  which  establishes  said  kindergarten  may  prescribe." 


STATE  DAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


127 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

WEST  VIRGINIA— Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by— 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

None 

State  superintend- 

State  superintend- 

ent. 

ent. 

do  . 

do. . . 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do... 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

None 

No  examination  re 

quired 

Scholarship  requirements. 


Same  as  for  first-grade  elementary  certifi- 
cate, and  examination  in  general  history 
and  single-entry  bookkeeping. 


Same  as  for  second-grade  elementary  certifi- 
cate; and  examination  in  general  history 
and  single-entry  bookkeeping. 

Same  as  for  third-grade  elementary  certifi- 
cate; and  examination  in  general  history 
and  single-entry  bookkeeping. 


Examination  in  orthography,  reading,  pen- 
manship, arithmetic,  English  grammar 
and  language,  physiology  and  hygiene, 
United  States  history,  State  history , geog- 
raphy, civil  government,  agriculture,  and 
theory  and  art  of  teaching.  Minimum 
average,  90  per  cent;  minimum  grade,  75 
per  cent. 

Same  as  for  first-grade  elementary  certifi- 
cate, except  minimum  standing,  80  per 
cent  and  68  per  cent. 

Same  as  for  first-grade  elementary  certifi- 
cate, except  minimum  standing,  70  pe 
cent  and  60  per  cent. 


Issued  on  recommendation  of  county  super- 
intendent. State  superintendent  deter- 
mines grade  of  such  certificate. 


WISCONSIN. 

[Laws  of  Wis.,  relating  to  common  schools,  1909,  pp.  71-90,  106,  161,  198-199.] 


24  months. 


1 year  after  grad- 
uation; 2 years, 
if  from  institu- 
tion outside 
State. 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for  a 
limited  certificate,  and  in  addition  in 
botany,  political  economy,  history  of 
education,  zoology,  chemistry,  or 
astronomy.  Latin  may  be  substituted 
for  English  literature. 

Holder  of  Wisconsin  University  or  normal 
school  diploma  and  graduate’s  license. 
University  course  must  have  included 
completion  of  pedagogical  work. 


128 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  'principal  features  of  teachers’ 
WISCONSIN— Continued. 


Valid  in — 

Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by— 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Limited  State  cer- 
tificate: 

Upon  examina- 
tion. 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

State  

Any 

5 years 

None 

Without  exami- 
nation. 

do 

do 

Any,  except  as 
principal  of  4- 
year  high  school. 

do 

do 

University,  college, 
and  normal- 
school  graduate’s 
license. 

do 

do 

do 

1 year;  2 
years  if 
from  insti- 
tution out- 
side State. 

See  unlimited 

and  limited 
c e rtificates 
without  ex- 
amination. 

Unlimited  special 
certificate. 

do 

do 

Subjects  specified. 

Life. . . 

do 

District 

One  subject,  as 
specified. 

Kindergarten  or 
first  three  grades. 

Varies 

Renewed  for 

Unlimited  State 
kindergarten  cer- 
tificate. 

.do 

specified. 
State 

Life 

not  more 
than  1 year 
upon  recom- 
m e ndation 
of  State 
board. 

State  kindergarten 
license. 

Unlimited  State 
manual  - training 
certificate.1 

Unlimited  State 
domestic  - science 
certificate.1 

State  manual-train- 
ing license.2 

State  domestic-sci- 
ence license.2 

High-school  teach- 
er’s certificate. 

Emergency  h i g h- 
school  principal’s 
certificate. 

Milwaukee  h i g h- 
school  diploma.1 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

State 

Kindergarten  or 
first  three  grades. 

1 year 

See  unlimited 

State  kinder- 
garten cer- 
tificate. 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

do  ... 

Varies 

Locality 
d e s i g - 
nated. 

State 

Branches  specified 

High-school  prin- 
cipal. 

Anv 

Varies;  life 
or  5 years. 

1 year 

5-year  certifi- 
cate is  non- 
renewable. 
Renewed  for 

do 

Life 

not  more 
than  1 year, 
upon  recom- 
mendat  i o n 
of  State 
board. 

J 

Special  license 

do 

District 

School  specified. . . 

Next  meet- 

Renewed on 

specified. 

ing  of  State 
b o a r d of 
examiners. 

recomme  n- 
dation  of 
State  board 
of  examiners 

1 Same  as  for  unlimited  State  kindergarten  certificates  upon  completion  of  a like  technical  course,  except 

2 years’  experience  required  of  graduates  of  private  schools.  * . . . , 

2 Same  as  for  State  kindergarten  license  upon  completion  of  a like  technical  course,  except  granted  for 
2 years  to  graduates  of  private  schools 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


129 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

WISCONSIN— Continued. 


Experience 

required. 

Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by— 

State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

1 year  after  gradu- 
ation; 2 years,  if 
from  institution 
outside  State. 

No  examination  rec 

State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

do 

juired 

State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 

do 

1 year  after  gradu- 
ation; 2 years  if 
from  institution 
outside  State. 

None 

No  examination  re< 
No  examination  re< 

plired 

luired 

None 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

do 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

do 

do 

5 years 

do 

do..  . 

Must  meet  re- 
quirements 
of  one  kind  of 
certificate  issued 
by  State  super- 
intendent. 

No  examination  re 

quired 

Scholarship  requirements. 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for  a 
first-grade  certificate,  and  in  addition  in 
mental  philosophy,  English  literature, 
and  psychology. 

Holder  of  normal  school  elementary  certifi- 
cate and  a graduate’s  license. 


Holder  of  certificate  from  president  of  uni- 
versity showing  completion  of  pedagog- 
ical course  or  holder  of  certificate  from 
president  of  a State  normal  school  show- 
ing completion  of  full  or  elementary 
course  or  from  institution  giving  equiva- 
lent courses  located  either  within  or 
without  the  State. 

Vary  to  meet  conditions  under  which  ap- 
plicant desires  to  teach.  More  especially 
for  high-school  positions  and  principal- 
ships  of  State  graded  schools. 

Vary  to  meet  conditions  under  which  ap- 
plicant desires  to  teach. 


Holder  of  State  kindergarten  license  issued 
under  conditions  described  below;  or 
satisfactory  proof  of  equal  knowledge  and 
ability. 

Holder  of  a diploma  from  a State  normal 
school  or  from  a private  normal  school  of 
equivalent  rank  who  has  completed  kin- 
dergarten training  course. 


This  certificate  is  issued  only  for  such 
branches  as  are  not  covered  by  local 
certificates,  usually  for  life. 

This  certificate  is  issued  to  a superintend- 
ent of  schools  who  has  been  elected  prin- 
cipal of  the  high  school  in  the  same  sys- 
tem. No  requirements  are  specified.3 


Such  examination  as  to  moral  character, 
learning,  and  ability  to  teach  as  State 
superintendent  deems  proper  and  rea- 
sonable. When  diploma  is  counter- 
signed, it  has  effect  of  unlimited  State 
certificate. 

Granted  only  for  urgent  reasons.  Must 
satisfy  State  superintendent  of  possession 
of  scholarship  requirements  for  one  kind 
of  certificate  issued  by  him. 


3 This  statute  was  enacted  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  a quick  adjustment  of  an  emergency  situation. 
It  is  seldom  necessary  to  resort  to  its  provisions. 

4 This  provision  of  the  law  is  practically  inoperative.  But  one  diploma  has  been  countersigned  in  the 
past  7 years.  The  normal  department  of  the  Milwaukee  high  school  was  abolished  in  1875. 

10943°— 11 9 


130 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 
WISCONSIN— Continued. 


Valid  in— 


Name  of  certificate. 


Issued  by— 


Duration. 


Persistence. 


Territory. 


County  superin- 
tendents’ certifi- 
cate. 


State  superintend- 
ent. 


State. 


E 


Schools. 


1 e m e n t a r 
schools.1 


y 


Until  re- 
voked. 


First-grade  certifi- 
cate. 


County,  district, 
or  city  superin- 
tendent.2 


County,  su- 
perin- 
tendent’s 
d i strict, 
or  city; 
can  not 
be  i n - 
dorsedin 
another 
c o u nty, 
d i strict, 
or  city.3 


do. 


5 years. 


Second-grade  cer- 
tificate. 


do 


.do 


Elementary 

schools. 


3 years. 


Third  - grade  cer- 
tificate. 


County,  district, 
or  city  superin- 
tendent. 


County,su- 
p e r i n- 
tendent’s 
district, 
or  city; 
can  not 
b e in- 
dorsed in 
another 
county, 
district, 
or  city.3 


Elementary 

schools. 


1 year. 


Renewable 
one  or  more 
times  if 
holder  has 
taught  10 
years.  Coun- 
ter s i g n a - 
ture  of  a di- 
ploma from 
a free  high 
school  held 
by  h o 1 der, 
e q u i valent 
to  renewal 
for  5 years. 

Renewable  if 
holder  has 
taught  2 
years  and 
attended 
profession  a 1 
schools  6 
weeks,  re- 
c e i v i n g 
credits  in 
two  subjects. 

Renewable  (1) 
if  holder 
attends  pro- 
fession  al 
s ch  o o 1 s 6 
weeks.  Not 
more  than 
three  to  one 
person,  o r 
(2)  if  satis- 
factory 
standings 
are  secured 
in  two  of 
additional 
subjects  re- 
quired for 
second- 
grade  certif- 
icate. 


Special  third-grade 
certificate. 


First-grade  kinder- 
garten certificate. 


Second-grade  kin- 
dergarten cer- 
tificate. 


do 


do 


.do 


do 


do 


E lementary 
schools.  (May 
be  limited  to  a 
particluar  rural 
school  or  a de- 
partment there- 
of.) 

Kindergarten 


do 


do 


Not  more 
than  1 
year. 


Not  more  than 
one  issued 
to  same  per- 
son. 


4 years;  or  1 
year,  and  3 
years  after 
6 months’ 
teaching. 

2 years 


Nonrenewable. 


do 


1 Holder  may  teach  in  a high  school  any  of  the  branches  covered  by  the  certificate,  or  may  serve  as  prin- 
cipal of  a State  graded  school  of  the  second  class,  if  granted  a special  license. 

2 67  cities  in  1910. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS. 


131 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

WISCONSIN— Continued. 


Experience 

Questions 

Papers  exam- 

required. 

prepared  by— 

ined  by — 

State  board  of  ex- 

State  board  of  ex- 

aminers. 

aminers. 

do 

County,  district, 

County,  district, 

or  city  superin- 

or  city  superin- 

tendent. 

tendent. 

...do  .. 

do 

None 

County,  district, 
or  city  superin- 

County, district, 
or  city  superin- 

tendent. 

tendent. 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do. . . 

. do 

do 

do 

do 

Scholarship  requirements. 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for  a 
first-grade  certificate  and  in  school  law, 
and  the  organization,  management,  and 
supervision  of  district  schools. 

Examination  in  all  subjects  required  for 
second-grade  certificate,  and,  in  addition, 
English  literature,  theory  and  art  of 
teaching,  algebra,  physics,  and  English 
history. 4 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for  third- 
grade  certificate,  and,  in  addition,  phys- 
ical geography,  American  literature,  Eng- 
lish composition,  and  cataloguing  and  use 
of  school  libraries.4 


Examinations  in  orthoepy,  spelling,  read- 
ing, penmanship,  arithmetic,  elemen- 
tary composition  and  grammar,  geog- 
raphy, history  of  United  States  and 
civil  government  of  the  United  States 
and  of  Wisconsin,  physiology  and 
hygiene  with  special  reference  to  stimu- 
lants and  narcotics,  school  management, 
manual  of  elementary  course  of  study 
for  common  schools  of  Wisconsin,  ele- 
ments of  agriculture.  Applicant  must 
have  attended  a professional  school  for 
teachers  at  least  6 weeks,  and  also  re- 
ceived in  such  school  standings  in  school 
management  and  in  methods  of  teach- 
ing reading  and  language,  arithmetic, 
and  geography.  Standard  to  be  adopted 
by  each  county  superintendent  and 
approved  by  State  superintendent- 
must  be  higher  for  first  than  second  and 
higher  for  second  than  for  third  grade 
certificates.4 

Issued  only  when  supply  of  legally  quali- 
fied teachers  is  exhausted,  and  only  to 
as  many  persons  as  are  required.  Same 
examination  as  for  third  grade. 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for 
second-grade  kindergarten  certificate  and, 
in  addition,  in  history  of  education  as 
related  to  the  development  of  the  kin- 
dergarten and  in  the  elements  of  zoology. 

Examination  in  subjects  required  for 
third-grade  kindergarten  certificate,  and 
in  general  literature  and  elements  of 
botany. 


3 Certificates  may  be  issued  by  a county  superintendent  upon  papers  of  an  examination  held  in  another 
county.  Must  be  of  same  grade  as  original  certificate  and  coterminous  with  it. 

4 Standings  in  State  normal  schools  and  county  training  schools  may  be  accepted  by  county  superintend- 
ents and  other  officers  in  lieu  of  examination  in  these  subjects. 


132 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers' 
WISCONSIN— Continued. 


Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by— 

Valid  in— 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Third  - grade  kin- 
dergarten c e r- 
tificate. 

County,  district, 
or  city  superin- 
tendent. 

County,  su- 
perin- 
tendent’s 
district, 
o r city, 
unless 
limited; 
can  not 
be  in- 
dorsed in 
another 
county, 
district, 
or  city.1 

Kindergarten 

1 year  or  less. 

Nonrenewable. 

County  training- 

County  training- 

Same  as 

Elementary 

3 years,  or 

1-year  certifi- 

school certificate. 

school  board. 

for  first- 
grade  cer- 
tificate.1 

schools. 

maybe 
limited  to 
1 year. 

cate  extend- 
ed after  8 
months’  ex- 
perience. 

Special  certificate . . 

Temporary  certifi- 
cate.2 

City  superintend- 
ent. 

City 

Branches  specified. 

1 year 

Nonrenewable. 

WYOMING. 

[School  Laws,  1909,  122-130.  Session  Laws,  1909,  chap.  33.] 


Professional  first- 
class  certificate: 
Upon  examina- 
tion. 

Without  exami- 

State superintend- 
ent. 

.do 

State 

Any  school;  super- 
intendent o r 
principal  of  any 
school. 

. .do 

Life 

do 

do 

nation. 

Professional  sec- 
ond-class cer- 
tificate: 

Upon  examina- 
tion. 

Without  exami- 

 do 

do 

Any  school;  super- 
iriten  dent  or 
principal  of  any 
school  having 
not  over  2-year 
h i g h-s  c h o o 1 
course. 

do 

. . .do 

. .do 

do 

do 

nation. 

First-class  certifi- 
cate: 

Upon  examina- 
tion. 

Without  exami- 

.do  

. .do 

Any  elementary 
school,  assist- 
ant in  high 
school  for  sub- 
jects covered  in 
examin  a t i o n , 
superintendent 
or  principal  of 
schools  having 
no  high  school. 

do 

4 years 

Renewable 

do 

.do 

do 

upon  com- 
pletion o f 
reading -cir- 
cle course ; 
not  longe r 
than  term  of 
certificate 
nor  more 
than  2 years 
at  a time. 
do 

nation. 

1 Certificates  may  be  issued  by  a county  superintendent  upon  papers  of  an  examination  held  in  another 
county.  Must  be  of  same  grade  as  original  certificate  and  coterminous  with  it. 


STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


133 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

WISC  ONSIN— Continued . 


Experience 

required. 


Questions 
prepared  by — 

Papers  exam- 
ined by — 

County,  district, 

County,  district, 

or  city  superin- 

or  city  superin- 

tendent. 

tendent. 

City  superintend- 

City superintend- 

ent. 

ent. 

Scholarship  requirements. 


None 


None  for  1-year 
limited  certifi- 
cate; 8 months 
for  3-year  cer- 
tificate. 

None 


Examination  in  orthoepy,  orthography, 
reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  English 
grammar,  physiology,  and  hygiene  with 
special  reference  to  childhood,  drawing, 
music,  juvenile  literature,  theory  and 
art  of  kindergarten  teaching. 


Completion  of  prescribed  course  in  a county 
training  school  for  teachers. 


Examination  provided  by  city  school 
board  and  approved  by  State  super- 
intendent. 


WYOMING. 

[School  Laws,  1909,  122-130.  Session  Laws,  1909,  chap.  33.] 


3 years 

State  board  of  ex- 

State board  of  ex- 

Holder of  a professional  second-class  cer- 
tificate and  an  examination  in  advanced 
psychology  and  school  supervision. 

None  or  2 years 
(see  last  col- 
umn). 

aminers. 

aminers. 

Graduation  from  University  of  Wyoming 
with  major  in  psychology  and  pedagogy 
amounting  to  one-fifth  entire  course;  or 
examination  in  professional  subjects  for 
second-class  certificate  and  2 years'  suc- 
cessful experience. 

2 years 

State  board  of  ex- 

State board  of  ex- 

Examination in  subjects  required  for  first- 
class  certificates  and  2 additional  sub- 
jects elected  from  following:  School  man- 
agement, pedagogy,  methods,  and  history 
of  education.  Minimum  average  80  per 
cent,  grade  60  per  cent. 

aminers. 

aminers. 

1 year 

Graduation  from  State  normal  school  of 

University  of  Wyoming,  or  other  school 
of  equivalent  rank,  as  determined  by 
State  board  of  examiners. 

do 

State  board  of  ex- 

State board  of  ex- 

Examination in  subjects  required  for  second 
grade  and,  in  addition,  elementary 
algebra,  English  and  American  literature, 
elementary  psychology,  physical  geog- 
raphy, and  two  or  more  of  following: 
Plane  geometry,  botany,  zoology,  chem- 
istry, general  history,  Latin,  German, 
political  economy,  bookkeeping,  and 
shorthand.  Minimum  average  80  per 
cent,  grade  60  per  cent. 

aminers. 

aminers. 

do 

Graduation  from  the  preparatory  school  of 
the  University  of  Wyoming  or  from  a 
4-year  high-school  course,  and  1 year  in 
normal  course  at  university. 

- 

2 Temporary  certificates  may  be  issued  by  county,  district,  and  city  superintendents  with  the  consent  of 
the  State  superintendent. 


134 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  1. — The  principal  features  of  teachers’ 
WYOMING— Continued. 


Valid  in— 

Name  of  certificate. 

Issued  by— 

Duration. 

Persistence. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Second-class  certifi- 
cate: 

Upon  examina- 
tion. 

Without  exami- 

State  superintend- 
ent. 

do 

State 

Elementary 

schools. 

do 

2 years 

Renewable 

do 

do 

upon  com- 
pletion of 
reading -cir- 
cle course; 
not  longer 
than  term  of 
certificate 
nor  more 
than  2 years 
at  a time. 
do 

nation. 

Third-class  certifi- 
cate: 

Upon  examina- 
tion. 

. .do 

. . .do 

. .do 

1 year 

Nonrenewable. 

Without  exami- 

 do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

nation. 

Special  primary 
certificate. 

.do 

do 

Primary  and  kin- 
dergarten. 

4 years 

Reissued  upon 
examination. 

Special  technical 
certificate: 
Upon  examina- 
tion. 

Without  exami- 

.do  

do 

Technical  subjects 
do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

do 

Renewable  for 

nation. 

Diploma  certificate . 

do 

do 

(See  last  column).. 

(See  last  col- 
umn.) 

life  to  gradu- 
ates of  tech- 
nical school 
of  Univer- 
sity of  Wyo- 
ming (see 
last  column). 

(See  last  col- 
umn.) 

Temporary  certifi- 
cate. 

Permit 

do 

do 

Any 

Until  next 

Renewable 

County  superin- 
tendent. 

County 

do 

e x anima- 
tion (see 
last  col- 
umn). 

.do 

only  under 
e x c eption- 
al  circum- 
stances (see 
last  column). 

STATE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS, 


135 


certificates  in  the  various  States — Continued. 

WYOMING— Continued. 


Experience 

required. 


Questions 
prepared  by— 


Papers  exam- 
ined by — 


Scholarship  requirements. 


None. 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


.do. 


.do. 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


do.. 

4 years . 


None.. 
do. 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


.do. 


State  board  of  ex- 
aminers. 


.do. 


(See  last  column) 


None. 


No  examination  required 


.do. 


No  examination  required . 


Examination  in  subjects  required  for  third- 
class  certificates  and,  in  addition,  rhetoric 
and  composition,  and  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  teaching.  Minimum  average  80 
per  cent,  grade  00  per  cent. 


Same  as  first  class  (without  examination), 
except  18  weeks  in  normal  course. 


Examination  in  orthography,  reading, 
penmanship,  arithmetic,  English  gram- 
mar, geography,  United  States  history, 
civil  government  of  United  States  and  of 
Wyoming,  and  physiology  and  hygiene. 
Minimum  average  70  per  cent,  grade  50 
per  cent. 

Same  as  first  class  (without  examination), 
except  no  normal  course  required. 

Two  certificates  of  as  high  class  as  second 
grade  and  an  examination  in  primary  and 
kindergarten  methods,  elementary  psy- 
chology, methods,  and  school  manage- 
ment. Minimum  average  75  per  cent, 
grade  60  per  cent. 


Examination  in  special  branches  applicant 
expects  to  teach. 

Graduation  from  technical  school  of  Uni- 
versity of  W yoming.  Renewable  for  life 
if  holder  passes  examination  in  profes- 
sional subjects  required  for  second-class 
professional  certificate. 


Granted  to  graduates  of  State  normal 
school  and  of  college  of  liberal  arts  of 
University  of  Wyoming  for  period  neces- 
sary for  them  to  gain  experience  required 
for  life  certificate.  Granted  also  to  grad- 
uates of  other  normal  schools  and  colleges, 
of  equivalent  rank,  as  determined  by 
board  of  examiners. 

Applicant  must  have  been  engaged  to  teach 
and  a member  of  school  board  engaging 
him  must  have  forwarded  request  for 
granting  of  such  certificate  indorsed  by 
county  superintendent. 

Issued  by  county  superintendent  until 
such  time  as  State  board  of  examiners 
can  act  upon  application  for  temporary 
certificate. 


136 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


NUMBER  OF  CERTIFICATES. 

The  table  given  on  page  153  shows  the  number  of  different  kinds  of 
certificates,  the  number  of  certificates  issued  by  central,  county, 
and  local  agencies,  and  the  number  of  certificates  issued  by  each  class 
of  agencies  that  are  valid  in  State,  county  and  town  or  district. 

The  States  in  the  South  Atlantic  Division  issue  fewer  kinds  of 
certificates  than  the  States  in  the  other  groups;  the  States  of  the 
South  Central  group  are  next  in  order,  then  the  North  Atlantic  and 
the  Western,  while  the  North  Central  States  have  the  largest  number 
of  certificates  in  their  schemes  of  certification.  The  medians  or 
averages  for  these  groups  are  7,  10,  11,  11,  and  14,  respectively, 
while  the  median  number  of  certificates  for  all  the  States  is  1 1 . One- 
half  of  the  States  issue  from  8 to  15  certificates  each. 

Of  the  total  number  of  different  kinds  of  certificates  issued  by  the 
several  States,  amounting  in  all  to  588,  68  per  cent  are  issued  by 
central  agencies  (State  officers  or  educational  institutions),  24  per 
cent  by  county  boards  and  superintendents,  and  8 per  cent  by  local 


146 


3 40 

Figure  2. — Number  of  certificates  issued  by  central,  county,  and  local  agencies:  1,  central  agencies; 

2,  county  agencies;  3,  local  agencies. 

agencies.  The  number  of  city  certificates  given  in  the  table  are 
those  provided  for  in  the  laws.  But  the  laws  are  frequently  so 
framed  as  to  permit  the  multiplication  of  the  number  provided  for 
by  the  issuance  of  several  certificates  under  the  head  of  each  named 
in  the  laws.  Thus  in  Nebraska  4 are  mentioned  in  the  law  and  17 
are  issued.  It  would  be  practically  impossible  to  ascertain  the  num- 
ber of  different  kinds  of  city  certificates  actually  issued  in  all  of  the 
States. 

These  figures  are  an  illuminating  commentary  upon  the  extent  to 
which  centralization  in  the  authority  to  grant  licenses  to  teach  has 
occurred.  However,  it  must  not  be  inferred  from  this  that  even  a 
majority  of  the  teachers  in  the  United  States  are  .holding  certificates 
issued  by  State  authority.  The  large  number  of  rural  teachers 
holding  certificates  of  the  lower  grades  in  States  where  county  or 
town  superintendents  issue  the  certificates  is  sufficient  to  bring  the 
number  holding  certificates  issued  by  State  authority  below  one- 
half  the  entire  number  of  teachers.  It  is  true  in  all  probability, 
nevertheless,  that  the  certificates  of  over  one-half  of  the  teachers 


NAMES  OF  CERTIFICATES. 


137 


have  met  the  requirements  of  the  State  offices  at  some  stage  in  the 
process  of  securing  a certificate,  if  not  in  the  issuance,  then  in  the 
grading  or  most  probably  in  the  preparation  of  the  examination 
questions  and  in  the  regulations  governing  the  examinations.  As 
only  4 States  give  the  county  superintendents  full  authority  in  all 
these  matters,  and  only  4 others  do  the  same  for  the  town  superin- 
tendents, it  is  likely  that  from  85  to  95  per  cent  of  the  certificates 
now  in  force  in  the  United  States  have  been  shaped,  in  part  at  least, 
by  State  education  officers. 

NAMES  OF  CERTIFICATES. 

Each  State  has  employed  its  own  set  of  terms  to  designate  its  cer- 
tificates. In  many  States  the  names  were  not  given  at  one  time  but 
were  evolved  during  a long  period  of  time  to  meet  differing  condi- 
tions. In  other  States  a nomenclature  has  been  adopted  at  the  time 
of  a revision,  as  in  New  Jersey',  Indiana,  and  California.  But,  taking 
the  country  as  a whole,  a very  great  variety  of  terms  is  used.  The 
word  “ license”  is  used  instead  of  “ certificate ” in  a fairly  large  pro- 
portion of  the  States,  but  notwithstanding  “license”  is  the  more  precise 
term,  it  is  not  nearly  so  prevalent.  The  highest  certificate  in  some 
States  is  called  a “diploma,”  and  the  word  “permit”  has  been 
adopted  in  a number  of  States  for  the  temporary  certificate.  In 
Connecticut  there  are  “statutory”  and  “honor”  certificates  and 
“certificates  of  special  preparation.” 

Commonly  a certificate  is  designated  by  the  extent  of  territory 
which  it  covers,  the  kind  of  school  in  which  it  is  valid,  or  the  number 
of  years  or  months  for  which  it  is  granted.  The  terms  “State  cer- 
tificates,” “county  certificates,”  “life  certificates,”  and  “primary 
certificates”  are  familiar  to  all  teachers.  Frequently  a combination 
of  these  terms  is  made,  as  “State  life  certificate,”  “State  primary 
certificate,”  “36-months’  certificate.”  Differentiation  between  cer- 
tificates of  the  same  general  class  are  also  made,  as  “first-grade 
county,”  “second-grade  county,”  etc.,  which  are  alike  in  the  kinds 
of  school  and  in  the  territory  in  which  they  are  valid,  but  differ  in 
duration.  Permanent  and  provisional,  or  probationary,  certificates 
constitute  a similar  distinction.  Finally,  in  certain  States  the  term 
“professional”  is  used  for  a higher  grade  of  certificate. 

Because  of  the  heterogeneity  in  the  naming  of  certificates,  it  is 
usually  impossible  for  a person  not  acquainted  with  the  State  sys- 
tems to  know  by  their  names  the  provisions  of  the  certificates.  For 
example,  what  rights  are  conferred  upon  a holder  of  a first-grade 
certificate  in  Alabama,  a professional  certificate  in  Montana,  a col- 
lege certificate  in  Michigan,  or  an  academic  certificate  in  New  York? 
A uniform  nomenclature  is  needed  for  all  the  States,  or  at  least  the 
adoption  of  principles  which  shall  control  the  naming  of  certificates 


138 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 

AGENCIES  THAT  ISSUE  CERTIFICATES. 


Certificates  to  teach  are  issued  by  State,  county,  and  district  (city 
and  town)  education  officers.  In  certain  States  all  of  the  certificates 
are  issued  by  the  officers  of  one  of  these  units  of  government,  but  it 
is  much  more  common  to  find  two  or  even  all  three  of  these  classes 
of  officers  represented  in  the  scheme  of  administration,  the  terms 
“State  certificates,”  “county  certificates,”  and  “city  certificates” 
being  used  to  designate  the  classes  of  certificates  issued  by  each. 
Within  each  of  these  classes  of  education  officers,  each  State  almost 
invariably  makes  one  office  most  prominent,  that  of  the  board  of 
education,  the  board  of  examiners,  or  the  superintendent.  The  fol- 
lowing list  shows  the  number  of  States  in  which  each  of  these  offices 
predominates  in  each  class: 


State  board  of  education 16 

State  board  of  examiners 9 

State  superintendent 22 

COUNTY. 

County  board  of  education 2 

County  board  of  examiners 5 

County  superintendent 22 

LOCAL  (city,  town). 

City  or  town  board  of  education 10 

City  or  town  board  of  examiners 6 

City  or  town  superintendent 4 


States  differ  widely  in  the  distribution  of  the  certificating  power 
among  these  various  classes  of  officers.  No  less  than  five  distinct 
systems  of  administrative  organization  exist.  They  are  (1)  the  State 
system,  (2)  the  State-county  system,  (3)  the  State-county  local  sys- 
tem, (4)  the  State-local  system,  and  (5)  the  county  system.  A sixth, 
the  local  or  town  system,  might  also  be  said  to  exist  if  we  throw 
aside  the  certificates  granted  superintendents  of  union  districts  in 
Massachusetts,  as  all  the  other  certificates  to  teach  issued  in  that 
State  are  given  by  the  town  school  committees  or  boards  of  educa- 
tion. Delaware  is  the  only  State  in  the  Union  in  which  all  the  cer- 
tificates are  issued  by  the  county  authorities,  but  even  there  the  State 
board  of  education  issues  regulations  for  the  guidance  of  the  county 
superintendents.  In  6 States,  certificates  are  issued  by  both  State 
and  local  officials ; in  8 States  the  authority  is  distributed  among  the 
State,  county,  and  local  officers;  in  16,  between  the  State  and  county 
officers  only,  while  in  as  many  as  17  States  practically  the  entire 
certificating  power  is  lodged  in  the  State  officers. 


AGENCIES  THAT  ISSUE  CERTIFICATES. 


139 


The  following  list  enumerates  the  States  having  each  of  the  above- 
named  administrative  systems  for  the  issuance  of  licenses  to  teach: 

STATE  SYSTEM. 

North  Atlantic:  Vermont,.  Rhode  Island,  New  Jersey. 

South  Atlantic:  Virginia,  West  Virginia. 

South  Central:  (None.) 

North  Central:  Iowa,  North  Dakota,  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  South  Dakota. 

Western:  Wyoming,  Arizona,  Utah,  Nevada,  Idaho,  Washington,  Oregon. 

STATE-COUNTY  SYSTEM. 

North  Atlantic:  (None). 

South  Atlantic:  Maryland,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida. 

South  Central:  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  Oklahoma. 
North  Central:  Indiana,  Illinois,  Missouri. 

Western:  Montana,  Colorado. 

STATE-COUNTY-LOCAL  SYSTEM. 

North  Atlantic:  New  York,  Pennsylvania. 

South  Atlantic:  (None.) 

South  Central:  Texas. 

North  Central:  Ohio,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Kansas. 

Western:  California. 

STATE-LOCAL  SYSTEM. 

North  Atlantic:  Maine,  New  Hampshire  Connecticut,  Massachusetts. 

South  Atlantic:  (None.) 

South  Central:  Alabama. 

North  Central:  (None.) 

Western:  New  Mexico. 

COUNTY  SYSTEM. 

South  Atlantic:  Delaware. 

Respecting  this  classification,  it  is  to  be  said  that  from  a strictly 
legal  point  of  view  a number  of  the  States  placed  under  the  State 
systems  belong  in  other  divisions.  These  States  are  given  below, 
together  with  the  legal  objection  to  such  classification. 

New  Jersey. — City  and  county  superintendents  may  issue  tem- 
porary permits,  valid  for  30  days. 

North  Dakota. — County  superintendents  may  issue  temporary  per- 
mits, valid  until  next  examination.  A high-school  diploma  (training 
school)  is  a license  to  teach. 

Minnesota. — County  superintendent  countersigns  certificates  issued 
by  State  superintendent  and  issues  third-grade  certificates,  valid  for 
one  year  and  renewable  once,  but  limited  to  a single  district.  The 
county  superintendent  also  passes  upon  the  professional  qualifications 
and  the  moral  character  of  applicants. 

Nebraska. — County  superintendent  signs  all  county  certificates 
and  passes  upon  each  candidate’s  ability  to  teach  and  govern,  but 
State  superintendent  prepares  all  questions  and  grades  all  papers. 

South  Dakota. — County  superintendent  issues  temporary  certifi- 
cates, valid  until  next  examination.  Two  cities  issue  local  certificates. 


140 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


Wyoming. — County  superintendent  issues  temporary  permit,  valid 
until  next  examination. 

Oregon. — County  superintendent  may  issue  temporary  permit, 
valid  until  next  examination.  Portland  may  issue  its  own  certificates. 

Washington. — County  superintendent  may  issue,  special  certifi- 
cates of  indefinite  validity.  Four  cities  may  issue  local  certificates 
under  limitations  prescribed  in  State  laws. 

Utah.— Four  cities  may  issue  local  certificates. 

It  does  not  seem  that  the  issuance  of  a temporary  permit  by  a 
county  superintendent  is  sufficient  ground  to  place  a State  under  the 
State-county  or  State-county-local  system;  nor  does  the  issuance  of 
certificates  in  a small  number  of  school  districts  give  sufficient  war- 
rant for  placing  these  North  Central  and  Western  States  in  the  same 
class  with  the  State-local  systems  of  New  England.  Nebraska,  Min- 
nesota, and  Washington  are  nearer  the  border  line,  but  the  State 
superintendent  seems  practically  to  control  the  situation  in  Nebraska, 
and  the  third-grade  certificate  of  Minnesota  differs  from  the  tem- 
porary permits  of  the  other  States  only  in  the  matter  of  duration, 
while  the  number  of  certificates  issued  by  county  superintendents  to 
teach  special  branches  within  any  county  in  Washington  must  be 
very  small,  since  the  superintendent  of  any  city  has  the  authority  to 
issue  such  certificates  for  his  city.  So  the  above  classification  seems 
to  present  most  fairly  the  real  facts  in  each  case. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  two  States  that  might  be  considered 
as  belonging  to  the  State  group,  but  which  have  been  assigned  to  the 
State-local  group.  These  States,  together  with  the  situation  in  each 
case,  are  as  follows: 

Alabama. — 42  cities  and  towns  may  issue  their  own  certificates 
without  limitation  by  the  State  law. 

New  Mexico. — 9 cities  and  towns  may  issue  their  own  certificates 
without  limitation  by  State  law. 

It  is  believed  that  in  each  case  the  number  of  cities  and  towns  which 
may  issue  certificates  as  compared  with  the  number  which  can  not  is 
sufficiently  large  to  warrant  their  classification  under  this  head.  In 
no  case  in  the  first  group  does  a State  have  nearly  so  many  as  5 per 
cent  of  its  cities  and  towns  issuing  its  own  certificates,  while  in  both 
of  these  States  the  percentage  is  far  above  this  amount. 

Texas,  which  is  included  under  the  State-county-local  group,  could 
be  classified  under  the  State-local  system  were  it  not  that  the  only 
certificate  issued  by  the  county  board  of  examiners — second  grade — 
is  valid  for  so  long  a period,  4 or  6 years,  and  is  without  doubt  issued 
to  a large  number  of  teachers. 

Cities  in  the  States  included  in  the  State-county  group  may  in 
certain  instances  issue  local  certificates  under  special  acts.  It  is 
possible  also  that  in  practice  only  a comparatively  small  number  of 


AGENCIES  THAT  ISSUE  CERTIFICATES. 


141 


the  cities  in  certain  States  included  in  the  State-county-local  group 
issue  their  own  certificates,  depending  entirely  upon  the  State  and 
county  to  certificate  their  teachers.  The  proportion  of  5 per  cent 
which  was  used  above  as  a basis  of  differentiation  between  the  State 
and  State-local  group  has  been  followed  likewise  here  to  separate 
the  State-county  from  the  State-county-local  group.  In  each  State 
included  in  the  latter  group  far  more  than  5 per  cent  of  the  cities 
and  towns  have  the  authority  to  issue  local  certificates.  It  should 
be  added  also  that  the  New  England  towns  found  in  the  State-local 
group  include  both  rural  and  urban  communities,  while  in  the  other 
States  the  word  “town”  means  a large  collection  of  houses  and 
other  buildings  grouped  closely  together  and  does  not  include  the 
open  country.  Thus  rural  New  England  has  the  right  of  certifying 
its  own  teachers,  a privilege  not  enjoyed  by  country  districts  in  any 
other  portion  of  the  country. 


Table  2. — Number  of  States  in  each  geographical  division  included  under  each  form  of 

administrative  system. 


Divisions. 

State 

system. 

State- 

county. 

State- 

county- 

local. 

State- 

local. 

County. 

Total. 

North.  Atlantic 

3 

2 

4 

9 

South  Atlantic 

2 

5 

1 

8 

South  Central  . 

6 

1 

1 

8 

North  Central 

5 

3 

4 

12 

Western 

7 

2 

1 

1 

11 

Total 

17 

16 

8 

6 

1 

48 

Local  certificates  prevail  to  'the  greatest  extent  in  New  England, 
and  as  we  go  west  the  centralization  of  authority  in  the  State  officers 
increases.  Four  of  the  State-local  systems  are  in  New  England;  5 of 
the  8 State-county-local  systems  and  11  of  the  16  State-county 
systems  are  in  the  South  Atlantic  and  South  Central  States;  while  12 
of  the  16  State  systems  are  west  of  the  Mississippi,  7 being  in  the 
Western  States. 

The  tendency  in  the  development  of  the  administration  of  teachers’ 
certificates  has  been  and  is  toward  centralization  of  authority  in 
State  agencies.  Within  the  last  6 years  at  least  18  States  have 
passed  legislation  which  produced  this  effect,  and  in  two-thirds  of 
these  a new  era  was  entered  upon.  Iowa,  Louisiana,  New  Mexico, 
Utah,  Virginia,  Wyoming,  Vermont,  and,  within  the  past  year,  New 
Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Georgia,  Texas,  Nebraska,  and  Oregon  stand 
out  as  conspicuous  examples. 

As  to  the  effect  of  centralizing  the  authority  to  certificate  teachers 
in  State  agencies,  there  seems  to  be  a general  agreement  that  much 
good  has  come  from  it.  Higher  standards  in  the  examination  of 
teachers  have  generally  prevailed,  and  the  profession  has  been 


142 


teachers'  certificates. 


advanced  through  the  wider  validity  of  certificates.  The  present 
movement  toward  recognition  of  certificates  issued  by  State  agencies 
in  other  States  will  have  the  effect  of  strengthening  the  tendency 
toward  centralization.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  not  apparent 
just  now  such  a development  in  the  office  of  superintendent  of  rural 
schools  as  would  indicate  a probability  that  such  officers  will  soon 


make  a successful  demand  for  the  strengthening  of  the  authority 
of  the  county  agencies  in  granting  certificates  to  their  own  teachers. 
The  authority  of  cities  in  the  certification  of  their  teachers  has  been 
diminished  during  the  past  two  years  in  two  States.  In  fact,  it  has 
been  removed  altogether  in  both  Nebraska  and  New  Jersey.  In  the 
former  State  the  State  superintendent  will  issue  city  certificates;  in 


PREPARATION  OF  QUESTIONS,  ETC. 


143 


the  latter  they  have  been  abolished  altogether  and  the  city  teachers 
are  required  to  hold  the  regular  State  certificates.  On  the  other 
hand,  in  Michigan  the  number  of  cities  that  has  the  right  to  examine 
and  certificate  teachers  has  been  increased.  It  seems  that  the  larger 
cities  will  retain  their  authority  in  this  respect  because  of  the  dif- 
ferences in  the  conditions  which  must  be  met  by  State  offices,  as  now 
constituted,  and  city  offices.  Possibly  with  the  development  of  the 
State  education  office  there  may  be  a diminution  in  the  authority 
enjoyed  by  cities.  At  least  the  increase  in  the  power  of  the  State 
office  in  New  Jersey  was  concomitant  with  increased  power  and 
dignity  given  to  that  office,  while  in  Nebraska  it  seems  that  the 
former  authority  given  cities  was  too  liberal  and  needed  correction. 

PREPARATION  OF  QUESTIONS  AND  EXAMINATION  OF  PAPERS. 

The  preparation  of  questions  and  examination  of  papers  are  part 
of  the  administrative  routine  and  are  closely  associated  with  the 
issuance  of  certificates.  With  the  development  of  centralizing  ten- 
dencies the  authority  either  to  make  out  the  questions  or  to  grade 
the  papers  has  been  taken  from  the  county  superintendents  and  simi- 
lar officers  and  lodged  in  the  higher  authorities.  It  has  been  shown 
in  the  preceding  section  that  of  the  48  States  all  but  1 have  teachers’ 
certificates  issued  by  State  agencies.  Of  these  47  States,  34  have 
certificates  issued  by  county  agencies;  but  in  9 of  them  the  functions 
of  the  county  superintendent  are  either  almost  entirely  controlled  by 
the  State  superintendent — in  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  and  Idaho,  or  are 
confined  to  the  issuance  of  permits  or  like  certificates — in  New  Jersey, 
North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Wyoming,  Oregon,  and  Washington. 
In  the  25  States  remaining  in  which  the  county  superintendent  has 
more  power,  2 give  to  the  central  agencies  the  authority  both  to  pre- 
pare the  questions  and  to  examine  the  papers,  but  in  one  of  these 
States — New  York — the  State  regents  may  waive  their  rule,  and  in 
another — Missouri — it  applies  only  to  the  first-grade  county  certifi- 
cate, except  as  other  papers  may  be  forwarded  for  grading  by  the 
State  superintendent,  who  prepares  all  questions.  In  16  other  States 
the  central  office  prepares  the  questions  and  the  county  officers  grade 
the  papers — South  Carolina,  Kentucky,  Oklahoma,  and  Kansas  (in 
these  States  the  questions  are  prepared  by  the  State  board  and  the 
papers  graded  by  the  county  board);  Delaware  and  Indiana  (ques- 
tions by  State  board,  grading  by  county  superintendent);  Florida, 
Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Ohio,  Michigan,  and  Montana  (ques- 
tions by  State  superintendent,  grading  by  county  board);  Georgia, 
Arkansas,  and  Colorado  (questions  by  State  superintendent,  grading 
by  county  superintendent).  In  only  7 States  are  the  county  officers 
free  from  any  interference  by  State  education  officers  in  the  examina- 
tion of  teachers.  These  States  are  California  (board  of  examiners), 


144 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Illinois,  and 
Wisconsin  (county  superintendents).  In  2 of  these  States  so  many 
certificates  are  granted  upon  credentials  issued  by  State  authorities 
that  the  field  of  activity  of  the  county  boards  is  somewhat  circum- 
scribed— California  and  Tennessee.  And  in  Wisconsin  the  standards 
of  examination  fixed  by  each  county  superintendent  must  have  the 
approval  of  the  State  superintendent.  Thus,  in  fact,  there  remain 
only  4 States  in  which  all  the  county  certificates  are  entirely  under 
the  control  of  county  boards  or  superintendents,  3 among  the  South 
Atlantic  and  1 among  the  North  Central  States. 

State  officers  participate  either  directly  or  through  county  and 
local  agencies  in  the  certification  of  teachers  outside  of  cities  in  all 
States  but  8,  viz,  4 New  England  States,  Maine,  New  Hampshire, 
Massachusetts,  and  Connecticut;  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  North 
Carolina,  and  Illinois. 

The  following  table  presents  these  facts  relating  to  certificates 
issued  by  county  agencies  in  a form  adapted  to  ready  reference: 

Table  3. — Preparation  of  questions  and  examination  of  papers  for  certificates  issued  by 

county  agencies. 


Questions  prepared  by — 

Papers  examined  by — 

State 

board. 

State 

super- 

intend- 

ent. 

County 

board. 

County 

super- 

intend- 

ent. 

State 

board. 

State 

super- 

intend- 

ent. 

County 

board. 

County 

super- 

intend- 

ent. 

North  Atlantic  Division: 

New  York 

x 

1 X 

Pennsylvania 

X 

X 

South  Atlantic  Division: 

Delaware 

X 

x 

Maryland 

x 

x 

North  Carolina 

X 

X 

South  Carolina 

x 

x 

Georgia 

x 

X 

Florida 

x 

x 

South  Central  Division: 

Kentucky 

X 

x 

Tennessee 

X 

X 

Mississippi 

x 

x 

Louisiana 

x 

X 

Texas 

x 

x 

Arkansas 

X 

X 

Oklahoma 

X 

x 

North  Central  Division: 

Ohio 

x 

x 

Indiana 

x 

X 

Illinois 

X 

x 

Michigan 

X 

X 

W isconsin 

x 

X 

Missouri 

X 

1 X 

Kansas 

x 

x 

Western  Division: 

Montana . 

x 

x 

Colorado 

x 

X 

California 

X 

x 

North  Atlantic  Division 

1 

1 

1 

1 

South  Atlantic  Division 

2 

2 

2 

2 

4 

South  Central  Division 

2 

4 

1 

5 

2 

North  Central  Division 

2 

3 

2 

1 

3 

3 

Western  Division 

2 

1 

2 

1 

United  States 

6 

12 

1 

6 

2 

12 

11 

1 See  page  143. 


PROVISIONS  OF  CERTIFICATES. 


145 


PROVISIONS  OF  CERTIFICATES. 

Every  kind  of  certificate  must  contain  three  specifications  which 
describe  it  and  at  the  same  time  differentiate  it  from  all  other  kinds  of 
certificates.  These  are  (1)  the  territory  within  which  the  holder  may 


SUPERVISORS  HIGH  SCHOOL  ELEMENTARY  SPECIAL 


Figure  4. — The  horizontal  system  in  New  Jersey.  1,  limited  certificate;  2,  permanent  certificate  obtained 
after  3 years’  successful  experience  under  limited  certificate.  Each  is  valid  in  the  school  indicated  beneath. 

teacli;  (2)  the  kinds  of  positions  he  may  fill,  (3)  the  length  of  time 
the  certificate  is  valid. 

The  difference  in  the  relative  importance  which  the  various  States 
place  upon  these  three  provisions  have  developed  two  distinct  sys- 
tems of  certification.  Those  States  which  issue  certificates  for  differ- 
ent kinds  of  schools  and  make  this  distinction  between  various  certifi- 
cates of  greater  importance  than  those  relating  to 
territory  and  duration  have  usually  two  or  three  cer- 
tificates for  each  class  of  school.  The  corresponding 
certificates  in  each  class  are  coordinate  in  rank,  and 
all  are  valid  throughout  the  entire  State.  On  the 
other  hand,  those  States  which  make  the  terri- 
torial basis  superior  to  the  other  two  provisions 
usually  have  from  four  to  six  or  more  certificates 
in  an  ascending  series,  most  of  which  are  valid  in 
any  kind  of  school  or  position.  The  lowest  certifi- 
cates in  such  States  are  valid  only  in  a single 
county  and  the  highest  are  valid  throughout  the 
entire  State.  The  first  type  may  be  called  the 
horizontal  system;  the  second,  the  vertical.  In 
most  States  a combination  of  these  two  systems 
exists  at  present.  The  latter  was  the  first  in  point 
of  time.  Elements  of  the  second  have  been  intro- 
duced now  and  then;  the  primary  and  kin- 
dergarten certificates  and  special  certificates  are 
examples. 

The  figures  on  this  page,  representing  graphically 
the  certificate  systems  of  New  Jersey  and  of  Ken- 
tucky, show  the  differences  between  the  two  systems  and  incidentally 
suggest  the  origin  of  the  terms  used  to  designate  each.  Temporary, 
university,  and  normal-school  certificates  and  diplomas  are  omitted. 

10943°— 11 10 


ANY  SCHOOL 

Figure  5.— The  vertical 
system  in  Kentucky. 

1,  third-grade  county; 

2,  second-grade  county; 

3,  first-grade  county; 

4,  State  certificate;  5, 
State  diploma.  All  are 
valid  in  any  school. 


146 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


The  following  tables  (Tables  4 to  10)  show  the  provisions  of  every 
certificate  issued  in  each  State.  Before  classifying  the  certificates 
according  to  (1)  and  (2),  they  were  previously  separated  under  the 
heads  of  the  authorities  issuing  them  in  order  that  the  relative  num- 
ber of  certificates  issued  by  each  agency  might  be  shown,  and  also  the 
relation  between  the  territory  covered  by  the  certificate  and  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  officer  granting  it. 

In  these  tables  supervisor’s  certificates  are  included  under  “any 
school/’  while  under  “subjects  named”  appear  all  special  certificates. 
The  columns  headed  “No”  contain  the  number  of  certificates, 
meeting  the  conditions,  while  opposite  each  number  under  “Dura- 
tion” are  given  the  terms  for  which  each  of  the  certificates  is 
granted.  Certificates  valid  in  rural  schools  only  are  listed  under 
elementary  schools.  L,  signifies  life;  T,  temporary;  V,  varies. 


Table  4. — Certificates  issued  by  central  agencies  that  are  valid  throughout  the  State,  distribution  among  the  respective  classes  of  schools,  and  duration  of 

such  certificates. 


PROVISIONS  OF  CERTIFICATES. 


147 


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Table  4. — Certificates  issued  by  central  agencies  that  are  valid  throughout  the  State , distribution  among  the  respective  classes  of  schools , and  duration  of 

such  certificates — Continued. 


148 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


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1 Varies;  may  be  for  life. 

2 City  certificates  of  five  different  grades  shall  be  granted  as  State  certificates  under  rules  to  be  prescribed  by  the  State  superintendent. 

3 Two  are  for  teaching  in  institutes. 

* Not  valid  to  teach  in  eighth  grade. 

6 One  supervisor's  certificate  and  two  institute  certificates  are  not  included  in  the  distribution. 


Table  5. — Certificates  issued  by  county  agencies  that  are  valid  throughout  the  county , distribution  among  the  respective  classes  of  schools,  and  duration  of 

such  certificates. 


PROVISIONS  OF  CERTIFICATES. 


149 


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Table  5. — Certificates  issued  by  county  aqencies  that  are  valid  throuqhout  the  county,  distribution  amonq  the  respective  classes  of  schools,  and  duration  of 

such  certificates — Continued. 


150 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES, 


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PROVISIONS  OF  CERTIFICATES, 


151 


Table  6. — Certificates  issued  by  central  agencies  that  are  valid  in  a single  county , dis- 
tribution among  the  respective  classes  of  schools,  and  duration  of  such  certificates. 


No. 

Any  school. 

High  school. 

Elementary. 

Primary  and 
kindergarten. 

No. 

Duration. 

No. 

Duration. 

No. 

Duration. 

No. 

Duration. 

North  Atlantic  Division:  New  Jersey... 
South  Atlantic  Division:  West  Virginia. 
South  Central  Division : 

Tennessee 

2 

2 

T,T 

1 

1 

T 

1 

1 

2 

Alabama 

1 

1 

T 

Mississippi 

1 

1 

G 

North  Central  Division: 
Minnesota 

i 2 

12 

2,1 

Iowa 

1 

1 

T 

South  Dakota 

2 

1 1 

2 

1 

15. 

North  Atlantic  Division 

2 

2 

— 

South  Atlantic  Division 

1 

1 

South  Central  Division 

3 

2 

1 

North  Central  Division 

5 

2 

2 

1 

United  States 

11 

7 

1 

2 

1 

1 Valid  in  any  other  county  when  indorsed  by  county  commissioner. 


Table  7. — Certificates  issued  by  central  agencies  that  are  valid  in  a single  town  or  district. 


No. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Duration. 

North  Atlantic  Division: 
Vermont 

2 

Town  and  school  specified . . . 
Town 

Any,  and  school  specified 

Any 

1,  T. 

Rhode  Island 

1 

1. 

Connecticut 

1 

do 

Branches  named 

1. 

New  York 

1 

Any 

1. 

South  Atlantic  Division: 
Virginia 

1 

Special  school 

Special  school 

T. 

North  Central  Division: 
Wisconsin 

3 

District 

Subject  specified;  high  school 
principal,  and  school  speci- 

Elementary 

Varies,  1, 

South  Dakota 

1 

do 

T. 

1. 

Nebraska 

1 

do 

Common  school  districts 

T. 

Western  Division: 

Utah 

1 

..  ..do 

School  specified 

T. 

Nevada 

2 

do 

Any 

T,  T. 

North  Atlantic  Division 

5 

South  Atlantic  Division 

1 

North  Central  Division 

5 

Western  Division 

3 

United  States 

14 

152 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  8. — Certificates  issued  by  county  agencies  that  are  valid  in  a single  district , dis- 
tribution among  the  respective  classes  of  schools,  and  duration  of  such  certificates. 


No. 

Territory. 

School. 

Duration. 

North  Atlantic  Division: 

2 

Special  school . 

2,2. 

T. 

South  Central  Division: 

1 

North  Central  Division : 
Ohio 

1 

do 

T. 

1 

do 

T. 

1 

do 

T. 

1 

do 

1. 

South  Dakota 

1 

do 

Elementary 

T. 

Western  Division:  Montana 

1 

do 

Special  branches 

3. 

North  Atlantic  Division... 

2 

1 

5 

Western  Division 

1 

United  States 

9 

Table  9. — Certificates  issued  by  local  agencies. 

1 

No. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Duration. 

North  Atlantic  Division: 
Maine 

1 

Town.. 

Branches  named 

1. 

New  Hamphsire 

1 

District 

do 

1. 

Massachusetts 

1 

Town 

1. 

Connecticut 

2 

do 

Branches  named. . 

Varies. 

New  York 

1 

do 

Varies 

Do. 

South  Atlantic  Division: 
West  Virginia 

1 

City 

Kindergarten 

Do. 

South  Central  Division: 
Alabama 

1 

Separate  districts 

(i) 

0) 
Lor  4. 

Texas 

6 

City 

Any 

North  Central  Division: 
Ohio 

7 

(2) 

(2) 

(1 2) 

3 or  1,1. 

Wisconsin 

9 

City  or  county 

Elementary  and  branches 
named. 

Elementary 

North  Dakota 

1 

State 

2. 

South  Dakota 

2 

City 

Varies. 

Kansas 

3 

City,  district,  county..  . 

High  school 

Do. 

Western  Division: 

Colorado 

1 

District 

Any 

Do. 

New  Mexico 

1 

Do. 

Utah 

3 

do 

High  school,  grammar  or 
primary. 

High  school,  grammar,  pri- 
mary, special. 

Do. 

Washington 

5 

do 

L,  1,1,1, T. 
T. 

Oregon 

1 

District 

California 

2 

City,  or  city  and  county 

Elementary  or  special 

6. 

North  Atlantic  Division... 
South  Atlantic  Division .... 

6 

1 

South  Central  Division 

7 

North  Central  Division 

22 

Western  Division 

13 

United  States. 

49 

1 No  detailed  provisions. 

2 Same  as  county  certificate — valid  in  other  cities. 


PROVISIONS  OF  CERTIFICATES, 


153 


Table  10. — Summary  of  certificates  issued  by  central , county , and  local  agencies — 

Tables  4-9. 


Grand 

total. 

Central  agencies. 

County  agencies. 

Local 

agen- 

cies. 

Total. 

Valid  in- 

Total. 

Valid  in— 

State. 

County. 

Town 
or  dis- 
trict. 

County. 

Dis- 

trict. 

North  Atlantic  Division: 

Maine 

11 

10 

10 

1 

New  Hampshire 

7 

6 

6 

1 

Vermont.! 

13 

13 

11 

2 

Massachusetts 

2 

1 

1 

1 

15 

15 

14 

1 

10 

8 

7 

1 

2 

New  York 

16 

10 

9 

1 

5 

3 

2 

1 

15 

15 

13 

2 

11 

7 

7 

2 

2 

South  Atlantic  Division: 

4 

4 

4 

8 

4 

4 

4 

4 

21 

21 

20 

1 

West  Virginia 

13 

12 

11 

1 

1 

North  Carolina 

6 

3 

3 

3 

3 

5 

2 

2 

3 

3 

5 

1 

1 

4 

4 

Florida 

10 

5 

5 

5 

5 

South  Central  Division: 

Kentucky 

10 

7 

7 

3 

3 

Tennessee 

11 

9 

8 

1 

2 

2 

Alabama 

6 

5 

4 

1 

1 

Mississippi 

10 

5 

4 

1 

5 

5 

Louisiana 

6 

2 

2 

4 

4 

Texas 

16 

9 

9 

1 

1 

6 

Arkansas 

6 

3 

3 

3 

3 

Oklahoma 

22 

18 

18 

4 

3 

1 

North  Central  Division: 

Ohio  

29 

6 

6 

16 

15 

1 

7 

Indiana 

27 

18 

18 

9 

9 

Illinois 

8 

5 

5 

3 

3 

Michigan 

16 

10 

10 

6 

5 

1 

Wisconsin 

36 

17 

13 

3 

10 

9 

1 

9 

Minnesota 

13 

12 

10 

2 

1 

1 

Iowa 

10 

10 

9 

1 

Missouri 

8 

4 

4 

4 

4 

North  Dakota 

12 

10 

10 

1 

1 

1 

South  Dakota 

10 

7 

4 

2 

1 

1 

1 

2 

Nebraska 

18 

14 

13 

1 

4 

4 

Kansas 

16 

9 

9 

4 

4 

3 

Western  Division: 

Montana 

11 

5 

5 

6 

5 

1 

Wyoming 

10 

9 

9 

1 

1 

Colorado 

6 

2 

2 

3 

3 

1 

New  Mexico. 

9 

7 

7 

1 

1 

1 

Arizona 

6 

6 

6 

Utah 

14 

11 

10 

1 

3 

Nevada 

11 

11 

9 

2 

Idaho 

8 

3 

3 

5 

5 

Washington 

24 

17 

17 

2 

2 

5 

Oregon  

13 

11 

11 

1 

1 

1 

California 

16 

4 

4 

10 

10 

2 

North  Atlantic  Division 

98 

85 

78 

2 

5 

7 

5 

2 

6 

South  Atlantic  Division 

72 

48 

46 

1 

1 

23 

23 

0 

1 

South  Central  Division 

87 

58 

55 

3 

0 

22 

21 

1 

7 

North  Central  Division. 

203 

122 

111 

5 

5 

59 

54 

5 

22 

Western  Division 

128 

86 

83 

0 

3 

29 

28 

1 

13 

United  States 

588 

399 

373 

11 

14 

140 

131 

9 

49 

154  TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 

TERRITORY  COVERED  BY  CERTIFICATE. 

Analyzing  the  statistics  presented  in  the  foregoing  7 tables  from 
the  standpoint  of  the  territory  within  which  the  holder  is  authorized 
to  teach,  we  find  that  of  the  588  different  kinds  of  certificates  included 
in  this  study  (see  Table  10)  64  per  cent  are  valid  throughout  the  entire 
State  in  which  they  are  issued,  24  per  cent  are  valid  in  a single  county, 
some  of  which  may  be  indorsed  in  other  counties  (e.  g.,  Oklahoma),  or 
grades  may  be  certified  to  other  counties  (e.  g.,  Nebraska),  and  12  per 
cent  are  valid  only  in  the  city,  town,  or  school  district  specified. 

The  States  are  divided  into  4 groups  from  this  point  of  view,  after 
eliminating  the  certificates  issued  in  cities  and  the  temporary  permits, 
which  are  in  most  cases  issued  by  local  officers  and  have  their  validity 
limited  to  a single  school  or  district. 

These  groups,  together  with  the  State  composing  each,  are  as 
follows: 

1.  States  in  which  all  certificates  except  those  noted  above  are 


valid  throughout  the  entire  State: 

North  Atlantic  Division:  Vermont,  Rhode  Island,  New  Jersey 3 

South  Atlantic  Division:  Virginia,  West  Virginia 2 

South  Central  Division:  Alabama 1 

North  Central  Division:  Iowa,  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota 3 

Western  Division:  Wyoming,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Utah,  Nevada,  Oregon 6 

Total 15 


2.  States  having  certificates  some  of  which  are  valid  throughout 
the  entire  State  and  others  valid  only  in  a specified  county  (omitting 


those  certificates  noted  above) : 

North  Atlantic  Division:  New  York,  Pennsylvania 2 

South  Atlantic  Division:  Maryland,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia, 

Florida 5 

South  Central  Division:  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas, 

Arkansas,  Oklahoma 7 

North  Central  Division:  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota, 

Missouri,  Nebraska,  Kansas 9 

Western  Division:  Montana,  Colorado,  Idaho,  Washington,  California 5 


Total 28 

3.  States  having  certificates  all  of  which  are  valid  only  in  a specified 
county : 

South  Atlantic  Division:  Delaware 1 

4.  States  having  certificates  some  of  which  are  valid  throughout 
the  entire  State  and  others  only  in  a specified  town: 

North  Atlantic  Division:  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Connecticut,  Massachusetts. . 4 

It  is  thus  seen  that  in  one-third  of  the  States  the  validity  of  all 
certificates  issued,  except  city  and  temporary,  is  State-wide,  and  that 
not  quite  three-fifths  of  the  States  still  retain  the  dual  territorial 


TERRITORY  COVERED  BY  CERTIFICATE. 


155 


system  of  State  and  county  certificates,  while  one-twelfth  have  the 
dual  State-town  system.  State-wide  validity  is  most  prevalent  in 
the  western  States,  State- town  validity  in  the  North  Atlantic  division, 
and  State-county  validity  in  the  South  Central,  North  Central,  and 


South  Atlantic  divisions,  the  last  named  having  seven-eighths,  three- 
fourths,  and  five-eighths  of  the  States  in  each  division,  respectively. 
Delaware  is  the  only  State  in  the  Union  having  no  certificates  valid 
throughout  the  entire  State. 


156 


TEACHERS 9 CERTIFICATES. 


VALIDITY  OF  CERTIFICATES— SCHOOLS  OR  POSITIONS. 

A study  of  Tables  4 to  9,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  schools  in 
which  the  different  kinds  of  certificates  authorize  their  holders  to 
teach,  reveals  a number  of  interesting  facts.  As  the  data  relating 
to  city,  town,  and  district  certificates  under  this  head  are  not  avail- 
able they  are  not  included  in  this  analysis. 

A comparison  of  the  proportion  of  certificates  valid  throughout 
the  State  and  in  a single  county  for  each  of  the  various  types  of 
schools  (Tables  4 to  9)  results  as  follows: 


Table  11. — Percentage  of  certificates  valid  in  each  type  of  school.  A.  Valid  in  State. 

B.  Valid  in  county. 


Number  of  certifi- 
cates. 

Percentage. 

State. 

County. 

State. 

County. 

Differ- 

ence. 

Total 

354 

129 

100 

100 

Any  school 

191 

72 

54 

55.8 

+1.8 

High  school 

19 

6 

5.4 

4.6 

- .8 

Elementary  schools 

69 

31 

19.5 

24 

+4.5 

Primary  and  kindergarten 

32 

10 

9 

7.8 

—1.2 

Special 

43 

10 

12.1 

7.8 

-4.3 

The  small  proportion  of  primary  and  kindergarten  and  special 
certificates  in  the  county  list  is  due  partially  to  the  fact  that  many 
States  have  extended  differentiation  of  certificates  between  various 
classes  of  schools  only  in  those  issued  through  the  State  office.  Only 
4 States — Indiana,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  California — authorize 
the  issuance  of  primary  and  kindergarten  certificates,  and  only  7 — 
Pennsylvania,  Georgia,  Louisiana,  Ohio,  Illinois,  Washington,  and 
California — grant  special  certificates,  through  county  agencies.  The 
larger  proportion  of  elementary  certificates  in  the  counties  is  due  in 
large  measure  to  the  desire  of  the  States  to  build  up  their  high  schools 
by  preventing  those  holding  lower  grades  of  certificates  from  teaching 
in  them.  Some  of  these  elementary  certificates  are  limited  to  the 
rural  schools. 

Every  State  issues  one  or  more  certificates  valid  in  any  school  in 
the  State. 

The  following  States  issue  one  or  more  certificates  valid  only  in 


high  schools : 

North  Atlantic:  New  Hampshire,  New  York 2 

South  Atlantic:  (None) 0 

South  Central:  Tennessee,  Oklahoma 2 

North  Central:  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Nebraska 4 

Western:  Utah,  Oregon 2 

Total 10 


VALIDITY  OF  CERTIFICATES.  157 

The  following  States  issue  one  or  more  certificates,  valid  only  in 
the  elementary  or  rural  schools: 


North  Atlantic:  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey..  5 

South  Atlantic:  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida 5 

South  Central:  Tennessee,  Texas,  Oklahoma 3 

North  Central:  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  North 

Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Nebraska 9 

Western:  Montana,  Wyoming,  Arizona,  Utah,  Nevada,  Washington,  Oregon,  Cal- 
ifornia   8 

Total 30 


The  following  States  issue  one  or  more  certificates,  valid  only  in 
the  primary  grades  or  in  the  kindergarten,  or  in  both: 

North  Atlantic:  Vermont,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania..  5 


South  Atlantic:  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Florida 3 

South  Central:  Texas,  Oklahoma 2 

North  Central:  Ohio,  Indiana,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  South  Dakota 6 

Western:  Wyoming,  Arizona,  Utah,  Washington,  Oregon,  California 6 

Total 22 


The  following  States  issue  one  or  more  certificates  authorizing  the 
holder  to  teach  only  the  branches  specified  (drawing,  music,  manual 
training,  domestic  science,  foreign  languages  and  other  high-school 
subjects,  and  in  similar  States  primary  and  kindergarten  subjects): 


North  Atlantic:  Vermont,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New  York,  New  Jersey, 

Pennsylvania 6 

South  Atlantic:  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Florida 3 

South  Central:  Oklahoma 1 

North  Central:  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Iowa, 

North  Dakota,  Kansas 9 

Western:  Wyoming,  Arizona,  Utah,  Nevada,  Idaho,  Oregon,  California,  Washing- 
ton   8 

Total 27 


The  States  which  have  one  or  more  certificates  for  every  kind  of 
school,  and  also  one  or  more  certificates  valid  in  any  school,  are  6 in 
number — New  York,  Oklahoma,  Ohio  (elementary  and  special  issued 
in  county  and  valid  in  county),  Indiana,  Utah,  and  Oregon.  All  the 
Pennsylvania  certificates  are  granted  for  “ branches  named.”  Three 
others  have  every  kind  in  fact — New  Jersey,  Nevada,  and  California, 
but  in  the  first  two  the  high-school  certificate  is  valid  in  any  school 
and  in  the  latter  the  kindergarten  certificate  is  included  in  the  special 
certificate.  Nebraska,  under  the  revised  system,  may  also  be  added. 
(See  appendix,  p.  258.)  Illinois  has  every  kind  but  the  primary  and 
kindergarten. 

The  following  7 States  have  every  kind  but  the  high-school  certifi- 
cate— Connecticut,  Virginia,  Florida,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Wyoming, 


158 


TEACHERS 9 CERTIFICATES. 


and  Washington  (special  certificate  is  a county  certificate).  North 
Dakota  should  also  be  included,  for  its  primary  and  kindergarten 
certificates  are  issued  as  special  certificates. 

Five  States  have  only  elementary  school  certificates  in  addition  to 
the  certificate  valid  in  any  school — Maine,  New  Hampshire,  South 
Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Tennessee. 


Five  other  States  have  the  primary  or  kindergarten  certificate,  or 
both,  in  addition  to  the  certificate  valid  in  any  school — Vermont, 
Rhode  Island,  North  Carolina,  Iowa,  Idaho. 

Three  States  have  the  primary  or  kindergarten  certificate,  or  both, 
and  the  elementary  certificate  in  addition  to  the  certificate  valid  in 
any  school — West  Virginia,  Texas,  and  South  Dakota. 


DURATION  OF  CERTIFICATES. 


159 


One  State  has  the  special  and  elementary  certificate  in  addition  to 
the  certificate  valid  in  any  school — Minnesota. 

Thirteen  States  issue  no  certificates  other  than  those  valid  in  any 
school — Massachusetts,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Kentucky,  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Arkansas,  Missouri,  Kansas,  Montana,  Colo- 
rado, New  Mexico. 

DURATION  OF  CERTIFICATES. 

The  length  of  time  for  which  certificates  of  different  kinds  are 
granted  does  not  vary  to  any  great  extent  between  the  different 
classes  of  schools  in  which  they  are  valid.  The  only  noticeable 
exception  to  a fairly  even  distribution  of  varying  terms  is  in  the 
relatively  large  number  of  life  certificates  valid  in  any  school.  This 
is  due  to  the  natural  tendency  to  make  the  highest  certificates  issued 
in  any  State  valid  in  all  schools  and  to  the  opportunities  provided 
for  obtaining  life  certificates  upon  the  basis  of  several  different  sets 
of  conditions,  as  graduation  from  college  or  normal  school,  and  long 
service,  thereby  making  a relatively  large  number  of  permanent 
certificates. 

The  following  table  shows  the  relation  between  duration  of  certifi- 
cates and  the  territory  in  which  the  certificates  are  valid.  The  first 
division  shows  the  duration  of  certificates  issued  by  central  agencies 
that  have  State- wide  validity;  the  second  shows  those  issued  by 
county  agencies  that  have  county  validity.  Temporary  certifi- 
cates are  excluded,  as  well  as  those  whose  terms  are  variable,  thus 
accounting  for  the  differences  in  the  totals  from  those  in  Tables  4 
and  5 from  which  the  reckoning  was  made.  As  there  are  but  11 
certificates  issued  by  State  agencies  where  validity  is  limited  to  a 
county  and  as  there  are  but  23  certificates  issued  by  State  and  county 
where  validity  is  limited  to  a town  or  district,  most  of  which  are 
temporary,  the  figures  given  in  the  table  may  be  taken  as  represent- 
ing the  essential  facts  in  regard  to  duration  of  all  certificates  issued  in 
the  several  States  other  than  those  issued  by  local  agencies. 


160 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  12. — Duration  of  certificates:  A,  issued  by  central  agencies  and  valid  throughout 
the  State;  B,  issued  by  county  agencies  and  valid  in  county  only. 


States. 

Life. 

Duration,  in  years. 

Total. 

12 

11 

10 

9 

8 

7 

6 

5 

•4 

3 

2 

1 

A. 

North  Atlantic  Division 

22 

1 

13 

1 

10 

13 

17 

77 

South  Atlantic  Division 

6 

2 

2 

1 

5 

2 

11 

2 

5 

5 

5 

46 

South  Central  Division 

21 

3 

1 

5 

4 

7 

3 

5 

6 

55 

North  Central  Division 

40 

1 

12 

4 

18 

14 

20 

109 

Western  Division 

28 

2 

2 

18 

7 

5 

9 

7 

78 

Total 

117 

2 

6 

1 

4 

5 

9 

58 

21 

41 

46 

55 

365 

B. 

North  Atlantic  Division 

2 

2 

1 

5 

South  Atlantic  Division 

1 

1 

7 

1 

2 

6* 

4 

22 

South  Central  Division 

1 

2 

1 

3 

4 

9 

20 

North  Central  Division 

1 

4 

2 

12 

11 

17 

47 

Western  Division 

5 

4 

1 

4 

3 

4 

21 

Total 

6 

3 

1 

5 

14 

4 

23 

24 

35 

115 

Grand  total 

123 

2 

9 

1 

5 

5 

14 

72 

25 

64 

70 

90 

480 

Generally  speaking  Sta-te  certificates  are  issued  for  longer  terms 
than  county  certificates.  Of  the  former  the  most  frequent  duration, 
as  they  are  distributed  in  the  above  table,  is  life;  then  5 years,  1 year, 
2 years,  3 years,  4 years,  and  6 years;  while  of  the  latter  the  most  fre- 
quent duration  is  1 year;  then  2 years,  3 years,  5 years,  life,  6 years,  and 
4 years.  Four-ninths  of  the  former  are  for  4 years  or  under,  while  one- 
half  of  the  latter  are  for  2 years  or  under.  Five-ninths  of  the  former 
are  for  5 years  or  over,  while  but  one-fourth  of  the  latter  are  for  the 
same  period.  This  marked  difference  is  due,  to  be  sure,  to  the  large 
number  of  life  certificates,  but  eliminating  them  entirely  from  consid- 
eration the  same  difference  exists,  although  not  in  so  large  measure. 

Analyzing  the  grand  totals  for  each  period  in  the  table,  we  find  that 
certificates,  from  the  standpoint  of  duration,  can  be  divided  into 
three  classes — two  large  classes  at  opposite  ends  of  the  range  of  dis- 
tribution and  a small  one  between — first,  the  life  certificate,  which 
comprises  almost  exactly  one-fourth  the  total  number;  second,  those 
whose  duration  is  5 years  or  less,  amounting  to  a little  over  two- 
thirds  (67.6  per  cent)  of  the  entire  number  issued;  and,  third,  those 
whose  duration  is  from  6 to  12  years,  containing  about  one-fourteenth 
of  the  total  number. 

Of  the  36  certificates  issued  for  periods  varying  from  6 to  12  years, 
inclusive,  13  are  in  the  South  Atlantic,  10  in  the  South  Central,  8 in 
the  Western,  3 in  the  North  Atlantic,  and  2 in  the  North  Central 
Division;  1 twelve-year  certificate  is  issued,  each,  in  Virginia  and 
West  Virginia;  2 ten-year  certificates  each  in  New  York,  Virginia, 
and  Oklahoma,  and  1 each  in  Vermont,  Louisiana,  and  Delaware;  1 
nine-year  certificate  is  issued  in  Virginia;  2 eight-year  certificates  are 


DURATION  OF  CERTIFICATES. 


161 


issued  in  Idaho,  and  1 each  in  Kentucky,  Ohio,  and  Indiana;  5 seven- 
year  certificates  are  issued  in  Virginia;  4 six-year  certificates  are 
issued  each  in  California  and  Texas,  2 in  West  Virginia,  and  1 each  in 
Alabama,  Arkansas,  Montana,  and  Arizona.  Virginia  issues  the 
greatest  number  of  certificates  of  this  long  duration,  having  9 such 
certificates;  California  and  Texas  have  4 each,  and  Wyoming  and 
West  Virginia  3 each,  the  remaining  13  States  having  but  1 or  2 each. 

Arranged  by  geographical  divisions  the  States  issuing  certificates 
ranging  in  duration  from  6 to  12  years,  are  as  follows: 


.North  Atlantic:  Vermont,  New  York 2 

South  Atlantic:  Delaware,  Virginia,  West  Virginia 3 

South  Central:  Kentucky,  Alabama,  Louisiana,  Texas,  Arkansas,  Oklahoma 6 

North  Central:  Ohio,  Indiana 2 

Western:  Montana,  Wyoming,  Arizona,  Idaho,  California 5 

Total 18 


The  relatively  small  number  of  four-year  certificates  is  worthy  of 
note.  Of  the  25  issued,  18  are  in  the  Southern  and  Western  States; 
Wyoming,  Arizona,  and  Ohio  have  3 each;  Texas,  Kentucky,  Florida, 
and  Michigan,  2 each;  Rhode  Island,  Virginia,  Tennessee,  Alabama, 
Louisiana,  Arkansas,  Wisconsin,  and  Nevada,  1 each. 

The  States  the  term  of  whose  certificates  are  confined  to  the  most 
prevalent  periods — life,  5,  3,  2,  and  1 years — are  as  follows: 

North  Atlantic:  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  New  Jersey, 


Pennsylvania 6 

South  Atlantic:  Maryland,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia 4 

South  Central:  Mississippi 1 

North  Central:  Illinois,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Missouri,  North  Dakota,  South  Dakota, 

Nebraska,  Kansas 8 

Western:  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Utah,  Washington,  Oregon 5 

Total 24 

The  following  States  could  be  included  in  the  above  list  if  the 
4-year  certificates  were  added  to  the  others: 

North  Atlantic:  Rhode  Island v 1 

South  Atlantic:  Florida 1 

South  Central:  Kentucky,  Tennessee 2 

North  Central:  Michigan,  Wisconsin 2 

Western:  Nevada 1 

Total 7 


Practically  all  of  the  life  certificates  are  issued  by  central  authority 
(State  board,  State  office,  or  State  educational  institutions)  and  are 
valid  throughout  the  State.  Of  the  6 issued  by  county  agencies  5 
are  in  California  and  1 in  Florida,  and  in  the  case  of  the  former 
State  many  of  the  individual  certificates  are  based  upon  credentials 
10943°— 11 11 


162 


TEACHERS 9 CERTIFICATES. 


approved  by  the  State  board  or  upon  graduation  from  institutions 
approved  by  said  board. 

Judging  by  the  relative  frequency  of  the  different  periods  for 
which  certificates  are  issued  in  the  various  groups  of  States  the  5-year 
certificate  is  in  greater  favor  than  any  other  in  the  Western  and  also 
in  the  South  Atlantic  division;  the  4-year  in  the  South  Central  and 


the  1-year  in  the  North  Central  and  North  Atlantic  divisions.  The 
3-year  and  2-year  certificates  exist  in  greatest  numbers  in  the  North 
Central  States,  although  there  are  not  so  many  of  them  as  of  the 
1-year  certificate. 

The  following  8 States  do  not  issue  life  certificates : Delaware,  Vir- 
ginia, West  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Massachusetts, 


SCHOLARSHIP  AND  EXPERIENCE  REQUIREMENTS. 


163 


Louisiana,  and  Colorado.  All  but  two,  however — Delaware  and 
North  Carolina — make  provision  for  renewal  of  their  highest  cer- 
tificates. In  Colorado  the  second  renewal  must  be  for  life,  while  in 
the  remaining  States  the  certificates  are  renewed  for  the  original 
period,  from  time  to  time,  provided  the  conditions  for  renewal  have 
been  met. 


SCHOLARSHIP  AND  EXPERIENCE  REQUIREMENTS. 

While,  as  was  said  above,  any  kind  of  certificate  is  described  and 
differentiated  from  all  other  kinds  by  the  territory  in  which  it  is  valid, 
the  schools  in  which  its  holder  may  teach,  and  the  term  of  years  it 
covers,  it  is  just  as  true  that  its  intrinsic  merit  is  determined  by  a 
wholly  different  set  of  conditions.  What  a certificate  is  really  worth 
is  fixed  by  the  scholarship,  the  experience,  and  the  attainments  to 
which  it  bears  witness. 

This  study  of  scholarship  requirements  has  one  large  and  important 
limitation.  All  examinations  in  the  same  subject,  all  courses  of  the 
same  length  or  of  the  same  number  of  subjects,  are  presumed  to  be 
equal  in  content  and  in  value.  Every  requirement  made  in  the  laws 
and  regulations,  and  in  the  cases  of  requirements  of  graduation  from 
State  colleges,  universities,  and  normal  schools  of  the  respective 
States,  every  statement  made  in  the  catalogue  or  register  of  such 
institutions  is  accepted  at  its  face  value.  A further  study  of  the 
examination  questions,  of  the  method  and  results  of  the  grading  of 
the  papers,  and  of  the  quality  of  the  work  done  in  the  various  educa- 
tional institutions  concerned  is  much  to  be  desired. 

Four  different  kinds  of  scholarship  requirements  are  stipulated,  as 
follows:  (1)  Completion  of  hours,  studies,  or  courses  in  educational 
institutions — high  schools,  training  schools,  summer  schools,  county 
institutes,  State  normal  schools,  and  colleges  and  universities. 

(2)  Examinations  in  certain  school  or  college  studies  or  subjects. 

(3)  Possession  of  a prior  certificate.  (4)  Professional  reading  and 
similar  means  for  promoting  or  maintaining  professional  efficiency. 

Varying  degrees  of  each  of  these  classes  of  requirements  are  adjusted 
to  the  capacities  of  persons  that  seek  to  enter  or  to  continue  in  the 
work  of  teaching.  In  consequence,  they  can  be  best  studied  by 
segregating  the  requirements  that  are  intended  to  apply  to  each  of 
certain  large  classes  of  persons:  (1)  College  graduates,  (2)  normal- 
school  graduates  and  those  completing  certain  courses  in  normal 
schools,  (3)  high-school  graduates,  (4)  nongraduates  with  long  expe- 
rience, (5)  nongraduates  with  little  or  no  experience,  (6)  those  who 
desire  to  do  supervisory  work,  (7)  those  who  desire  to  teach  in  primary 
schools  and  kindergartens,  (8)  those  who  desire  to  teach  special 
subjects. 


164 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


In  order  to  facilitate  comparison  the  certificates  held  by  each  of 
such  classes  of  persons  have  been  arranged  in  tables.  The  certifi- 
cates of  each  State  are  grouped  together,  the  order  of  the  States 
being  determined  by  their  geographical  position.  All  of  the  facts 
relating  to  scholarship  requirements  are  given  as  well  as  such  other 
facts  as  would  assist  in  determining  the  comparative  value  of  the 
different  certificates.  Sufficient  indication  of  the  provisions  of  each 
certificate  to  make  possible  an  easy  identification  of  it  in  the  basal 
table  (Table  1)  is  also  furnished. 

Scholarship  requirements  are  stated  in  such  ways  as  permit  their 
measurement  whenever  possible.  Time  of  study  in  educational  insti- 
tutions is  indicated  in  years ; 4 years  is  considered  the  standard  time 
required  for  graduation  from  a standard  college  and  also  for  gradua- 
tion from  a standard  high  school;  and  either  2 or  4 years  for  grad- 
uation from  a normal  school.  The  amount  of  professional  work  in  a 
college  course  is  given  in  semester  hours  in  all  possible  cases. 

Examination  requirements  are  stated  in  the  form  of  numbers  of 
subjects  in  which  examination  is  required.  But  to  ascertain  more 
accurately  the  practice  of  the  different  States  in  this  regard,  the 
examination  subjects  are  divided  into  four  classes: 

(I)  Traditional  elementary  school  subjects. — (1)  Reading;  (2)  writ- 
ing; (3)  orthography,  punctuation,  orthoepy;  (4)  language,  compo- 
sition; (5)  grammar;  (6)  arithmetic,  mental  and  written,  number 
work;  (7)  geography;  (8)  United  States  history,  elementary  civics, 
local  history;  (9)  physiology,  hygiene,  nature  and  effects  of  alcohol, 
stimulants,  and  narcotics. 

(II)  Newer  elementary  school  subjects. — (1)  Drawing;  (2)  music; 
(3)  nature  study;  (4)  agriculture;  (5)  manual  training;  (6)  household 
arts,  domestic  science,  etc.;  (7)  physical  training;  (8)  current  events. 

(III)  Higher  subjects  ( secondary  and  higher  schools). — Rhetoric, 
literature/algebra,  geometry,  languages,  history,  physics,  chemistry, 
biology,  economics,  and  such  other  branches  as  compose  the  standard 
high  school  and  college  curricula,  and  also  cataloging  and  use  of 
school  libraries. 

(IV)  Professional  subjects. — Philosophy  of  education,  history  of 
education,  psychology,  school  administration,  theory  and  practice, 
methods,  school  law  and  State  manuals,  and  such  other  professional 
subjects  as  may  be  named. 

CERTIFICATES  BASED  PRIMARILY  ON  GRADUATION  FROM  COLLEGE. 

In  the  following  table,  dealing  with  certificates  based  on  college 
graduation,  those  which  require  a professional  course  are  set  over 
against  those  which  do  not.  Within  each  State  the  certificate  with  the 
highest  requirements  is  given  firsts  The  persistence  of  certificates  is 


CERTIFICATES  BASED  ON  COLLEGE  GRADUATION. 


165 


included  in  this  table  also,  in  order  that  the  relation  of  the  certificates 
which  usually  form  a progressive  series,  may  be  seen;  the  discussion 
of  persistence  is  reserved,  however,  for  a later  section.  The  subjects  in 
which  examinations  are  required  are  divided  into  three  classes  only, 
the  new  elementary  and  higher  subjects  as  given  above  being  com- 
bined into  one  class  and  designated  “higher.”  Only  graduates  of 
standard  colleges  (4-year  course  based  on  a 4-year  high-school  course) 
are  dealt  with  in  this  table. 


166  TEACHERS 9 CERTIFICATES. 

Table  13.— Certificates  based  upon  graduation  from  standard  colleges , including  state- 


Professional  course. 

States. 

Amount  of 

Certificates  valid 
in — 

Subjects 
exam- 
ined in — 

Years 

experience 

required. 

Term  and  condi- 

profes- 

sional 

work. 

Terri- 

tory. 

Schools. 

U 

g 

a 

<u 

S 

a> 

W 

u 

a; 

rC 

bjO 

a3 

a 

.2 

*co 

c/i 

s 

p-i 

Years 

valid. 

tions  of  renewal 
or  of  granting 
higher  certifi- 
cates. 

North  Atlantic  Divi- 
sion: 

Maine 

New  Hampshire. 

Vermont 

Massachusetts 

Rhode  Island 

/“Satisfac- 
\ tory.” 

1 year 

Istate.. 

Any 

0 .. 

3 

[6  years  first  and 
second  time; 
< third  renewal 
may  be  perma- 
l nent. 

/ 

. . .do. . 

fSupervi- 
\ sor. 

15 

Life... 

Connecticut 

) 

("Not  speci- 

Istate.. 

Any 

Life 

New  York 

) 

[Permanent  certif- 
< icate,  3 years’ 
[ experience. 

New  Jersey 

1 — do 

...do. . 

..  .do 

0 

3 

3 

1 200  hours. . 

1  do 

2 years 

State.. 

Any 

3 

Life. . . 

Pennsylvania 

South  Atlantic  Divi- 
sion: 

Maryland 

. . . do . . 

...  do 

0 

(3) 

3 

(3).... 

[Permanent  certif- 
{ icate,  3 years’ 
[ experience. 

(3) . . . 

Virginia 

West  Virginia 

North  Carolina. . . 

6 courses. . 

State.. 

Any 

0 

5 

Obtains  6-year  cer- 
tificate after  3 
years  experi- 
ence; then  12- 
year,  after  4 ad- 
ditional years’ 
experience,  12- 
year  certificate 
renewable  for 
like  period  if 
holder  teaches  8 
years  under  it. 

South  Carolina. . . 

Georgia 

Florida. . . 

South  Central  Divi- 
sion: 

Kentucky 

Not  speci- 
fied. 

2 courses, 

State.. 

Any 

0 

Life... 

Tennessee 

. ..do... 

Second- 

0 

1 

Annually  for  con- 
tinuous service. 

Alabama 

3 months 
each. 

ary. 

Mississippi 

Louisiana . 

Texas. . . 

4 full 

State.. 

Any  . 

0 

Life... 

Arkansas 

courses. 

Oklahoma. 

2 years 

State.. 

Any 

0 

Life... 

1 As  superintendent. 


2 Examination  in  subjects  to  be  taught. 


CERTIFICATES  BASED  ON  COLLEGE  GRADUATION, 


167 


s Varies;  at  discretion  of  State  board. 


168 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 

Table  13 — Certificates  based  upon  graduation  from  standard  colleges , 


Professional  course. 


States. 

Amount  of 

Certificates  valid 
in — 

Subjects 
exam- 
ined in— 

Years. 

experience 

required. 

Term  and  condi- 
tions of  renewal 
or  of  granting 
higher  certifi- 
cates. 

profes- 

sional 

work. 

Terri- 

tory. 

Schools. 

| Elementary. 

Higher. 

Professional.) 

Years 

valid. 

North  Central  Divi- 
sion: 

[Not  speci- 
< fled. 

State.. 

Any 

1 

8 

4 

2§ 

Life... 

l..do 

. ..do... 

. . .do 

1 

8 

1 

0 

4 

Life  certificate,  2§ 
years*  experi- 
ence. 

State.. 

Any 

o 

Life... 

•{  ter  hours.1 2 

[l  year 

. ..do... 

. . .do 

o 

4 

Life  certificate 

[ 12  semes- 

. ..do... 

. . .do 

3 1 

Life... 

after  3 years’ 
experience. 

Wisconsin 

< ter  hours. 

[..do 

. ..do... 

. . .do 

o 

1 

Life  certificate  aft- 

er 1 year’s  ex- 
perience. 

Life  certificate 

Minnesota 

15  semes- 

2  or  0 

Life 

Iowa  

ter  hours. 
(4) 

...do... 

do 

o 

or  2. 
5 

after  2 years’ 
experience. 

Life;  3 years’  ex- 
perience. 

Missouri 

(■ 20  semes- 

State.. 

Any 

1 

Life... 

North  Dakota 

1 ter  hours. 
1 16  semes- 

.. .do... 

. . .do 

0 

2 

5 years;  6 months’ 
experience. 
For  life,  5 years’ 
experience. 

ter  hours. 
15  semes- 

.. .do... 

do 

2 

Life... 

ter  hours. 

. .do 

...do 

[15  semes- 
ter hours 
in  educa- 
tion, 6 in 
psychol- 

...do... 
. . .do... 

do 

5 

Life  certificate 

South  Dakota — 

. . .do 

0 

3 

2 

issued  after  4£ 
years’  experi- 
ence. 

5 years’  certificate 
issued  after  2 
years’  experi- 
ence. 

...do... 

...do 

Life. . . 

Nebraska 

ogy- 

..do 

15  semes- 
ter hours. 

do... 

do 

o 

3 years. 
Life. . . 

do 

do 

2 

Kansas 

. .do 

. ..do... 

. . .do 

0 

3 

Life;  2 years’  expe- 
rience. 

1 A thesis  is  required  also. 

2 11  semester  hours  in  University  of  Michigan, 


CERTIFICATES  BASED  ON  COLLEGE  GRADUATION. 


169 


including  statement  of  additional  requirements , etc. — Continued. 


No  professional  course. 

Certificates  valid  in — 

Subjects 

examined 

in— 

Years 

experience 

required. 

Years 

valid. 

Term  and  conditions  of  renewal 
or  of  granting  higher  certifi- 
cates. 

Territory. 

School. 

Elementary. 

Higher. 

Professional. 

Reissued  upon  examination. 

Similar  period;  successful  expe- 
rience. 

8 

8 

0 

0 

8 

5 

0 

4 
2 
i 3 
i 2 

3£  

Life 

\.  .do 

do 

5$  

8 

/..do 

\..do 

Secondary 

1°  

Life 

Supervisor 

2 

do 

/State^ 

Any 

0 

4 

0 

0 

3 

2 

41  

Life 

\..do 

do 

I3 

5 years 

3 After  graduation. 

4 6 semester  hours  in  psychology  and  14  semester  hours  in  education. 


170 


teachers’  certificates. 


Table  13. — Certificates  based  upon  graduation  from  standard  colleges , 


States. 


Western  Division; 
Montana 

Wyoming 

Colorado 

Arizona 

Utah 

Nevada 

Idaho 

Washington.. 


Oregon. 


Calilornia. 


Amount  of 
profes- 
sional 
work. 


f.  .do 

U-do 

30  semes- 
ter hours. 

20  semes- 
ter hours. 

1 year 

16  semes- 
ter hours. 
18  semes- 
ter hours. 

. .do 

16  semes- 
ter hours. 


12  semes- 
ter hours. 

. .do 


15  semes- 
ter hours. 


..do 

. .do 

1 year  of 
graduate 
work. 

..do 

..do 


Certificates  valid 
in — 


Professional  course. 


Subjects 
exam- 
ined in— 


Terri- 

tory. 


. ..do... 
...do... 


.do... 


.do. 


.do. 


.do. 


...do... 

...do... 

...do... 

...do... 

...do... 

...do... 

County 

...do... 


Schools. 


...do 

...do 


S u p er- 
visor  or 
any. 
..do 


.do. 


.do. 


..do. 

..do. 


Super- 

visor; 

second- 

ary. 

Second- 

ary. 

...do 

Any  or 
el  e- 
men- 
tary. 

Any 


Elemen- 

tary. 


C) 


(0 


C1) 


Years 

experience 

required. 


2§ 


Years 

valid. 


Life. 

5.... 


Life. 


4.... 

Life. 


..do... 


5.... 

Life. 


8 years. 

Life... 
5 years. 


Life. 


1.... 

Life. 


Term  and  condi- 
tions of  renewal 
or  of  granting 
higher  certifi- 
cates. 


Life;  3 years’  expe- 
rience. 


5 years,  then  for 
life,  discretion  of 
State  board. 


Life  diploma;  5 
years’  expe- 
rience. 


Life  certificate  5 
years’  expe- 
rience. 


Life  certificate;  2 
years’  expe- 
rience. 


Life  certificate;  3§ 
years’  expe- 
rience. 

5-year  certificate; 
§-year  experience. 


Life;  2%  years’  ex- 
perience. 

do 


1 Examination  as  required  by  State  board  of  education. 


CERTIFICATES  BASED  ON  COLLEGE  GRADUATION. 


171 


including  statement  of  additional  requirements , etc. — Continued. 


No  professional  course. 

Certificates  valid  in — 

Subjects 

evamined 

in— 

Years 

experience 

required. 

Years 

valid. 

Term  and  conditions  of  renewal 
or  of  granting  higher  certifi- 
cates. 

Territory. 

School. 

Elementary. 

Higher. 

j Professional. 

State 

. ..do 

Any 

5 

Life 

Life;  5 years’  experience. 

Life  certificate;  5 years’  expe- 
rience. 

Do. 

do 

2 

6 

...do 

Supervisor  or 
any. 

0 

0 

2 

2 

Life 



State 

Any 

0) 

C1) 

C1) 

5 

Life 

...do 

1 do 

do 

do 

2 

8 

f 



172 


teachers'  certificates. 


The  States  readily  fall  into  four  groups. 

Group  I.  Nine  States  do  not  have  college  graduation  as  a quali- 
fication for  a certificate,  seven  of  which  are  in  the  two  groups  of 
Southern  States  and  two  in  New  England.  They  are  Maine,  Massa- 
chusetts, Delaware,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisi- 
ana, and  Arkansas.1 

1 Group  II.  The  North  Atlantic  States  are  the  most  prominent  for 
having  no  provision  for  professional  studies  in  any  of  their  certificates 
issued  to  college  graduates,  although  there  are  three  States  making 
no  such  provision  in  both  the  South  Atlantic  and  North  Central  divi- 
sions. The  10  States  included  in  this  group  are: 

North  Atlantic:  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Connecticut,  New 
Jersey. 

South  Atlantic:  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina. 

North  Central:  Indiana,  Illinois,  Missouri. 

Group  III.  Ten  other  States,  in  which  every  division  but  the  North 
Central  is  represented,  issue  both  certificates  which  require  profes- 
sional study  and  those  which  do  not.  The  Western  States  are  the 
most  prominent  in  this  group,  which  is  composed  of  the  following 
States : 

North  Atlantic:  Rhode  Island,  New  York,  Pennsylvania. 

South  Atlantic:  West  Virginia. 

South  Central:  Texas,  Oklahoma. 

Western:  Montana,  Wyoming,  Idaho,  Washington. 

Group  IV.  The  remaining  19  States,  the  largest  of  the  five  groups, 
require  that  certain  amounts  of  professional  study  be  pursued  either 
during  the  college  course  or  in  postgraduate  study.  All  but  three 
of  these  States  lie  in  the  North  Central  and  Western  divisions. 

South  Atlantic:  Maryland. 

South  Central:  Kentucky,  Tennessee. 

North  Central:  Ohio,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  North 
Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Kansas. 

Western:  Colorado,  New  Mexico,  Arizona,  Utah,  Nevada,  Oregon, 
California. 

The  amount  of  professional  study  required,  as  well  as  the  method 
of  stating  the  requirements,  varies  greatly.  The  following  amounts 
were  gathered  either  from  the  laws  or  regulations,  in  which  case  they 
may  be  found  also  in  Table  1,  or  from  the  requirements  for  graduation 
printed  in  the  catalogues  or  registers  of  the  State  universities  in  the 
respective  States. 


1 Probably  in  some  of  the  States  the  diplomas  of  certain  educational  institutions  are  valid  as  certificates 
to  teach,  but  no  detailed  provisions  regarding  such  have  been  found  in  the  school  laws. 


CERTIFICATES  BASED  ON  COLLEGE  GRADUATION. 


173 


Table  14  — Amounts  of  professional  study  required  for  certificates  based  primarily  upon 
college  graduation  in  certain  States. 


Amount. 

States. 

Number 
of  States. 

Tennessee 

1 

Texas 

1 

West  Virginia 

1 

4 credits 

New  Mexico 

1 

200  hours  (11£  semester  hours) 

Pennsylvania 

1 

11  semester  hours 

Michigan 

12  semester  hours 

Wisconsin,  Washington 

2 

14  semester  hours  in  education 

jlowa 

1 

6 semester  hours  in  psychology 

15  semester  hours 

South  Dakota,  Kansas,  Montana,  Oregon,  Minnesota. 

5 

15  semester  horns  in  education 

6 semester  hours  in  psychology 

jNebraska 

1 

16  semester  hours 

North  Dakota,  Utah,  Idaho 

3 

18  semester  hours 

N evada 

1 

20  semester  hours 

Colorado 

30  semester  hours 

Wyoming 

1 

2 years 

Maryland,  Oklahoma 

2 

lyear 

Arizona 

1 

1 year’s  post  graduate 

Rhode  Island,  California 

3 

Not  specified 

New  Jersey,  Kentucky,  Ohio 

3 

It  is  interesting  to  note  the  large  number  of  strong  educational 
States  in  the  North  Central  and  Western  divisions  that  have  sever- 
ally fixed  upon  amounts  of  work  which  vary  but  little,  the  most 
frequent  being  15  semester  hours. 

But  very  few  States  require  either  an  examination  or  practical 
experience  in  addition  to  graduation  and  completion  of  professional 
work;  Ohio  and  Idaho  require  the  former;  Colorado  and  Maryland 
the  latter,  but  the  requirements  may  be  waived  by  the  State  boards 
in  Idaho-  and  Maryland. 

Certificates  granted  to  college  graduates  who  have  not  had  pro- 
fessional study  (Groups  II  and  III  above)  require  usually  an  exami- 
nation or  some  experience,  or  both.  But  1 State  (South  Carolina) 
requires  neither.  Two  require  examinations  alone  (Pennsylvania 
and  North  Carolina);  10  require  experience  alone.  The  States  and 
the  years  of  experience  are  as  follows:  Vermont,  II;  Rhode  Island, 
5,  10;  New  York,  3;  West  Virginia,  7^;  Texas,  3;  Oklahoma,  1J; 
Montana,  5,  2;  Washington,  2;  Connecticut  and  Virginia  not  defi- 
nitely stated.  Eight  require  both  examination  and  experience: 
New  Hampshire,  2,  0;  New  Jersey,  3,  0;  Indiana,  3J,  5J;  Illinois, 
1;  Missouri,  4J,  1J;  Wyoming,  2;  Idaho,  5.  The  examinations  are 
for  the  most  part  on  professional  subjects  in  all  the  States  except 
Indiana. 

Summarizing  in  part,  it  may  be  said  that  a minimum  amount  of 
professional  study  is  required  by  34  States  for  admission  to  one  or 
more  of  the  certificates  based  upon  college  graduation.  Every  State 
in  the  North  Central  division  (12  States)  and  in  the  Western  division 
(11  States)  is  represented  in  this  number.  Five  are  in  the  North 
Atlantic — New  Hampshire,  Rhode  Island,  New  York,  New  Jersey, 


174 


TEACHERS f CERTIFICATES. 


Pennsylvania;  two  in  the  South  Atlantic — Maryland  and  West  Vir- 
ginia; and  four  are  in  the  South  Central  division — Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee, Texas,  and  Oklahoma. 

CERTIFICATES  BASED  PRIMARILY  ON  COMPLETION  OF  COURSES  IN 

NORMAL  SCHOOLS. 

The  following  table  dealing  with  scholarship  and  experience 
requirements  of  certificates  issued  to  normal-school  graduates  or 
those  who  have  completed  certain  courses  is  similar  to  the  previous 
table  for  graduates  of  colleges.  It  is  necessary  in  the  case  of  normal 
schools  to  define  as  accurately  as  possible  the  length  of  the  course, 
as  well  as  the  length  of  the  high-school  course  upon  which  it  is 
based.  This  is  done  by  giving  the  number  of  years  in  each.  How- 
ever, the  figures  can  not  be  depended  upon  with  full  assurance. 
When  the  laws  and  regulations  of  the  State  do  not  specify  the 
amounts,  they  are  taken  from  the  circulars  of  the  State  normal 
schools;  but  it  was  very  difficult  in  a large  number  of  cases,  and 
impossible  in  others,  to  obtain  an  explicit  statement  upon  these 
points.  Then,  too,  if  current  reports  are  to  be  trusted,  not  all 
institutions  observe  with  reasonable  faithfulness  the  requirements 
for  admission  and  graduation  as  published.  Nevertheless,  the 
table  may  be  accepted  as  a sufficiently  accurate  presentation  of 
the  requirements  as  stated  to  serve  as  a tentative  statement. 

To  have  given  a statement  of  all  the  alternatives  relating  to  years 
of  high-school  work  required  for  entrance  to  the  various  courses  and 
the  length  of  time  to  complete  the  courses  based  on  such  entrance 
requirements  would  have  produced  a mass  of  practically  useless 
material  and,  more  important,  would  have  caused  confusion  in  the 
mind  of  the  reader  and  obscured  the  real  situation.  It  seemed 
better,  therefore,  to  reduce  most  of  the  statements  regarding  the 
length  of  high-school  and  normal  courses  to  the  basis  of  the  length 
of  term  required  to  complete  the  course  by  a graduate  of  a 4-year 
high  school  or  a person  possessing  a substantial  equivalent.  The 
fundamental  distinction  between  courses  continuing  more  than  2 
years  above  a high  school  is  made  for  the  reason  that  the  2-year 
course  seems  to  be  generally  accepted  at  the  present  time  as  of  the 
proper  length  for  a teacher  of  elementary  schools.  Because  of  wide 
differences  in  the  courses  of  normal  schools  and  the  variety  of  the 
examinations  required  it  did  not  seem  worth  while  to  attempt  to 
tabulate  and  compare  them.  However,  the  States  requiring  exami- 
nation in  addition  to  completion  of  courses  are  indicated  by  notes. 


176 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  15. — Certificates  to  which  graduates  and  students  of  various  courses  in  State  normal 


Based  on  4-year  high-school  course  and  2-year  normal-school  course  or  less. 


States. 

Years 
in — 

Certificates  valid  in— 

Normal  school. 

High  school. 

Terri- 

tory. 

Schools. 

Years 
experi- 
ence re- 
quired. 

Years 

valid. 

Terms  and  conditions  of  re- 
newal or  of  granting  higher 
certificates. 

2 

4 

State 

Any 

0 

2 

1 renewal  without  reexam- 
ination. 

New  Hampshire . . . 

( 2 

4 

State 

Any 

6 

Life. 

Vermont 

\ 2 

4 

. . .do 

do 

0 

10 

10  years,  then  permanent 

.6  years,  2 times 

0 

. . .do 

do 

0 

5 

Rhode  Island 

( 2 

4 

State 

Any 

i 0 

Life. 

New  Jersey 

l 2 

4 

.. .do 

Elementary... 

0 

3 

10 -year  periods;  2 years’ 
teaching  (Tr.  sch.). 

(2-3 

. . .do 

do 

2 

Life. 

Pennsylvania 

1 2-3 

. . .do. . . . 

do 

0 

2 years;  life  certificate,  3 

{ 2 

(2) 

...do 

do 

0 

2 

years’  experience. 

Life;  2 years’  experience 

Delaware 

2 

(2) 

3 

4 

State.... 

1 

Life. 

2 

2 

. . .do 

. . .do 

do 

do 

(3) 

(3) 

1 -h 

7 

10 

Similar  period,  time  to  time. 
do 

1 

4 

. . .do 

Elementary... 
do 

7 

do 

Virginia 

1 

(V) 

(V) 

(2) 

4 4 

. . .do 

4 1 

7 

do 

1 

. . .do 

Subjects 

named. 

do 

4 1 

Life. 

2 

. . .do 

0 

5 

r 1 

. . .do 

Any 

4 7 

12 

Similar  period,  8 years’  ex- 
perience. 

12-year  ertificate,  4-vears’ 

West  Virginia 

1 

4 

.. .do 

do 

3 

6 

1 

4 

. . .do 

Any  high 
school. 

0 

5 

teaching. 

5 years 

North  Carolina 

South  Carolina 

Description  of  certificate  not 
given. 

Georgia 

Florida. 

f 2 

(2) 

...do 

Colored  schools 

Life. 

Kentucky 

1 

. .do 

Any 

0 

2 

N onrenewable 

1 2 

...do 

. .do 

do 

0 

4 

do 

l 3 

do 

0 

3 

Life;  3 years’  experience 

f 2 

ft 

. . .do 

do 

1§ 

Life. 

Tennessee 

0/ 

(Life  certificate;  1§  years’ 
\ experience. 

Alabama 

l i 

...do 

do 

0 

4 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

f 2 

2 

...do 

. .do 

0 

Life. 

Texas 

J 2 

o 

„ .do 

.do 

0 

6 

l 1 

o 

.do 

Elementary. . . 
Any 

0 

4 

Arkansas 

4 

o 

.do 

0 

6 

Life;  examination  in  5 aca- 
demic subjects. 

Oklahoma  . . 

6 

0 

do.... 

.do 

0 

Life. 

2 

4 4 

State — 

Elementary 
and  special. 
do 

4 2f 

Life. 

Ohio 

1 2 

4 4 

. ..do 

40 

4 

Life  certificate;  25  years’ 
experience. 

Indiana 

J * 

4 4 

State — 

Secondary, 
elementary, 
or  special, 
do 

1 

2 

Reissued  upon  examination. 

l i 

4 4 

do 

0 

1 

do 

Additional  practice  teaching  required.  * Could  not  be  ascertained  accurately. 


CETIFICATES  BASED  ON  NORMAL  SCHOOL  COURSES, 


177 


schools  are  eligible , together  with  terms  and  conditions  of  renewals  of  such  certificates. 


Based  on  4-year  high-school  course  and  normal  course  longer  than  2 years. 

Years  in— 

Certificates  valid  in — 

Years’ 
experi- 
ence re- 
quired. 

Years 

valid. 

Terms  and  conditions  of  re- 
newal or  of  granting  higher 
certificates. 

Normal  school. 

High  school. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

4 years;  9 years;  then  may  be 
permanent. 

2 years;  life  certificate,  3-year 
experience. 

Life  certificate;  2§  years’ 
experience. 

Reissued  upon  examination. 

Life  certificate;  6 years’  ex- 
perience. 

2* 

4 

4 

4 

4 

4 

0 

0)  o 
2 

2 

Life. 

...do.... 

...do 

...do 

do 

4 

4 

State  

0 

1 

} 

| 

:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 

4 

4 

4 4 
4 

State 

Any 

2§ 

Life. 

4 

do 

do 

3 

3 

4 
3 

4 4 
4 4 

4 
4 4 

State . . 

Any.... 

4 3 

2 

3 

Life. 

5 

Life. 

4 3 

do 

do 

...do 

. . .do 

do 

Secondary,  e 1 e - 
mentary,  and 
special. 

3 None  specified.  4 Examination  is  required  in  addition, 

10943°— 11 12 


178 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  15. — Certificates  to  which  graduates  and  students  of 


Based  on  4-year  high-school  course  and  2-year  normal-school  course  or  less. 


States. 


Years 
in — 


Illinois. . . 
Michigan 


Wisconsin. 


Minnesota . 


Iowa — 
Missouri 


Certificates  valid  in- 


Terri- 

tory. 


State  . 
..do... 
..do... 

..do... 


.do... 

.do... 

.do... 

.do... 


.do 


State.. 
..do. . 


Schools. 


Any  or  special 

do 

Rural  schools 

do 

A ny  or  special 

Any 

do 

do 


Eleme  ntary 
(rural). 


Elementary. 
do 


Years 
experi- 
ence re- 
quired. 


Years 

valid. 


Life. 

Life. 


Life. 

5 

1 


Terms  and  conditions  of  re- 
newal or  of  granting  higher 
certificates. 


3 years;  after 5 years’  teaching 
3 years;  after  3 years’  teaching 
do 


Nonrenewable 

5-year  certificate;  1 year’s 
teaching. 

Renewable;  3 year’s  teach- 
ing; professional  school,  6 
weeks;  credit  in  2 subjects. 

(3  years;  completion  of  1 year 
\ in  normal  school. 

Life;  2 years’  experience 


North  Dakota. 


South  Dakota. 


Nebraska . 


Kansas . 


State. . 
. .do. . 


Any 


.do. 


.do.... 


. . .do. 
. . .do. 


.do. . . 

.do... 

.do. . . 
.do. . . 



.do. . . 

. . .do 

...do 

...do.... 
...do 


do 

do 

do 

do 


Life. 

2 

Life. 


2 

Life. 


2 

Life. 

3 


Nonrenewable. 


(Renewable  at  discretion  of 
board. 

May  be  for  life  after  5 years’ 
teaching. 


[Renewable;  successful  ex- 
perience and  attendance 
[ at  institutes. 
f5-year  certificate;  2 years’ 
[ teaching. 


/Life  certificate;  2 years’ 
\ teaching. 


Montana . 


Wyoming. 


Colorado 

New  Mexico . 
Arizona 


3-4 


State... 


Any. 


..do.. 
..do. . 


.do. . .. 
.do 


do 

Elementary. 


Life. 

. .do. 


2 years  at  a time,  not  longer 
than  original  period;  read- 
ing circle  course  must  be 
maintained. 

Life  certificate;  2 years’ 
teaching. 

Same  as  4-year  certificate — 


Utah {(223) 


Nevada . 


Idaho | g 

Washington | 2 


(V) 

(2) 

4 

4 

4 

4 


State 

..do. . .. 


Elementary. 
do 


. ..do. 

...do. 
...do. 
. ..do. 
...do. 


.do. 


Any 

Any  or  special. 

Any 

do 


Life. . 


At  discretion  of  State  board. 


Life. 

8 

Life. 


At  discretion  of  State  board. 


Life  diploma  after  3 years' 
teaching. 


1 Examination  required  in  addition. 

2 Could  not  be  ascertained  accurately. 


CETIFICATES  BASED  ON  NORMAL  SCHOOL  COURSES, 


179 


various  courses  in  State  normal  schools  are  eligible — Continued. 


Based  on  4-year  high-school  course  and  normal  course  longer  than  2 years. 


Years  in— 

Certificates  valid  in— 

Years 
experi- 
ence re- 
quired. 

Years 

valid. 

Terms  and  conditions  of  re- 
newal or  of  granting  higher 
certificates. 

Normal  school. 

High  school. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Life;  5 years’  teaching. 

(Nonrenewable.  Renewable 
certificate  secured  by  pass- 
< ing  in  professional  branches 
and  life  certificate  after  2 
[ additional  years. 

Life  diploma  after  1 year’s 
experience. 

Life  diploma  after  2 years’ 
experience. 

Renewed  at  discretion  of 
board;  life  certificate,  8 
years’  teaching. 

1 

( 

4 

4 

State 

Any 

0 

5 

X ... 

1 

} 

L. 

1 

i 

\ 

l 

/ 

{ I 

f 4 

3 

3-4 

i 4 
4 

4 

4 

4 

State 

...  do 

State 

...  do 

...  do 

Any 

do 

Any 

do 

do 

i 5 
0 

2 

0 

Life. 

3 

Life 

...do 

3 

f 4 

1 4 

} 

4 

4 

State 

...do 

Any 

5 

0 

Life 

5 

1 

I 

3 At  discretion  of  school  of  education  of  University  of  Utah. 


180 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  15. — Certificates  to  which  graduates  and  students  of 


Based  on  4-year  high-school  course  and  2-year  normal-school  course  or  less. 

States. 

Years 

in— 

Certificates  valid  in — 

Normal  school. 

| High  school. 

Terri- 

tory. 

Schools. 

Years 
experi- 
ence re- 
quired. 

Years 

valid. 

Terms  and  conditions  of  re- 
newal or  of  granting  higher 
certificates. 

( 2 

4 

State  ... 

Elementary. . . 
do 

§ 

Life.  . 

2 

4 

do .... 

a 

Life  certificate;  3§  years’ 
teaching. 

5-year  certificate;  1 year’s 
teaching. 

Oregon 

1 2 

4 

do. . .. 

do 

0 

2f 

1 

f 2 

4 

...do.... 

Elementary  or 
special. 

do 

Life 

California 

1 2 

4 

...do. . .. 

0 

6 

At  discretion  of  county 
board;  second  renewal 
must  be  permanent;  the 
first  may  be.  Life  diplo- 
ma after  2§  years’  expe- 
rience. 

CETIFICATES  BASED  ON  NORMAL  SCHOOL  COURSES. 


181 


various  courses  in  State  normal  schools  are  eligible, — Continued. 


Based  on  4-year  high-school  courso  and  normal  course  longer  than  2 years. 

Years  in — 

Certificates  valid  in — 

Years 
experi- 
ence re- 
quired. 

Years 

valid. 

Terms  and  conditions  of  re- 
newal or  of  granting  higher 
certificates. 

Normal  school. 

High  school. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

182 


TEACHERS ’ CERTIFICATES. 


But  7 States  do  not  issue  certificates  based  upon  the  completion  of 
courses  in  normal  schools,  all  of  which  are  in  the  two  Southern  divi- 
sions. They  are  Delaware,  North  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Ala- 
bama, Mississippi,  Louisiana.  However,  it  is  probable  that  in  some 
of  them  State  diplomas  of  graduation  from  certain  institutions  are 
valid  as  teachers’  certificates,  but  such  authority  has  not  been  found 
in  the  school  laws. 

But  10  States,  on  the  other  hand,  require  for  any  certificate  more 
than  a 2-year  normal  course,  based  on  a 4-year  high-school  course 
for  any  certificate.  They  are: 

North  Atlantic:  Rhode  Island,  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsyl- 
vania. 

North  Central:  Ohio,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas. 

Western:  Montana,  Nevada. 

Only  3 of  these  do  not  have  one  or  more  certificates  based  on  a 
2-year  normal  course  and  a 4-year  high-school  course — Rhode  Island, 
Iowa,  4;  Kansas,  4.  There  are  thus  30  States  which  have  no 
certificates  for  normal-school  graduates  requiring  more  than  a 2-year 
course  based  on  a 4-year  high-school  course.  All  but  2 of  these, 
West  Virginia  and  Kentucky,  have  this  high  requirement  for  one  or 
more  of  its  certificates.  At  least  12  States  have  certificates  for 
shorter  courses,  but  of  these  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and 
Indiana  require  an  examination  in  addition  for  these  lower  certifi- 
cates. Four  States  require  an  examination  in  addition  to  the  com- 
pletion of  the  2-year  normal  course  based  on  the  4-year  high- 
school  course — Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Kansas.  Four  other 
States  require  experience  in  addition  to  the  normal  courses — Virginia, 
West  Virginia,  North  Dakota,  and  Idaho. 

States  which  issue  life  certificates  to  those  completing  normal- 
school  courses,  without  experience  in  actual  teaching,  are  but  5 in 
number — New  York,  Iowa  from  a 4-year  normal  course  based  on  a 
4-year  high-school  course,  Kentucky,  Oklahoma,  and  Utah. 

CERTIFICATES  BASED  PRIMARILY  UPON  GRADUATION  FROM  HIGH 

SCHOOLS. 

The  following  table  shows  the  certificates  that  are  based  primarily 
upon  graduation  from  high  schools.  For  explanation  of  the  form  of 
the  table  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  table  regarding  certificates 
issued  to  college  graduates,  the  two  being  identical  in  construction. 


184 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  16. — Certificates  based  upon  graduation  from  secondary  schools , 


States. 


Maine 

New  Hampshire 


New  York. 


Professional  course. 


Amount  of 
profes- 
sional 
work. 


Certificates  valid 
in — 


Terri- 

tory. 


Schools. 


Subjects 
exam- 
ined in — 


Years  ex- 
perience 
required. 


Years 

valid. 


Terms  and  conditions 
of  renewal  or  of 
granting  higher  cer- 
tificates. 


Virginia. 
Iowa 


North  Dakota 


Kansas . 


New  Mexico . 
Utah 


1 year  ad 
ditiona 
1 year 2 3. . 

G radua 
tion  from 
normal 
t r a ining 
course. 
Psycholo- 
gy, ped- 
agogy, 
and  two 
review 
subjects. 
Gradua- 
tion from 
n o r m al 
t r a ining 
course. 


State.. 


.do  . . 
.do  .. 


. . .do  . . 


..do  .. 


Elemen- 

tary. 

Any 

..do..... 


Elemen- 

tary. 


None  1 


Any. 


(£) 


5-year  periods:  2 years’ 
teaching. 

Nonrenewable 

County  certificate  is- 
sued after  36  weeks’ 
experience. 


3-year  certificate  (1st 
grade)  after  8 
months’  experience. 


Similar  periods  indefi- 
nitely,if  holder  main- 
tains progressive 
efficiency. 


Oregon. 


2 branches 
Not  stated 


State.. 


..do  . 


Elemen- 

tary. 

Any 


Renewed,  6 hours  of 
additional  work,  3 
of  college  grade. 

Renewable  once;  6 
months’  teaching. 


1 Observation  two  times  a week  and  occasional  teaching  during  training  course. 

2 For  three  years  if  professional  course  is  part  of  4-year  high-school  course;  for  two  years  if  part  of  3-year 
course. 

3 May  be  extended  provided  holder  (1)  pursues  professional  course  of  study  and  passes  examination  in 
two  subjects  thereof  each  year;  or  (2)  passes  in  two  courses  in  the  summer  school  of  the  University  of  Vir- 
ginia or  one  of  like  grade;  or  (3)  passes  required  number  of  subjects  in  examination  for  a professional 
certificate. 


CERTIFICATES  BASED  ON  HIGH-SCHOOL  GRADUATION.  185 


together  with  terms  and  conditions  of  renewals  of  such  certificates. 


No  professional  course. 

Certificates  valid  in— 

Subjects 

examined 

in— 

Years  ex- 
perience 
required. 

Years  valid. 

Terms  and  conditions  of  renewal  or 
of  granting  higher  certificates. 

Territory. 

Schools. 

Elementary. 

| Higher. 

Professional. 

State 

...do 

...do 

. . .do 

Any 

Elementary. 

School  des- 
ignated— 
Any 

9 

0 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

2 

4 

0 

0 

JO 

wioi 

o o o o 

Life,  5, 3, 1 

Life  or  1 

2 

1 

One  renewal  without  reexamination. 
Life  certificate  when  required  stand- 
ings obtained. 

Extended  1 year  for  each  18  counts 
earned  in  examinations. 

May  be  extended.3 

Once  without  examination. 

State 

Any 

0 

0 

0 

0 

3 

4 Also  given  by  examination  in  6 academic  and  2 professional  subjects. 
6 Twenty  weeks’  practice  teaching. 


186 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


Two  States  maintain  county  normal  training  schools  and  issue 
certificates  to  their  graduates — Michigan  and  Missouri. 

Graduation  from  high  school  as  a requirement  for  any  certificate  is 
becoming  more  and  more  prominent.  The  first  State  to  apply  this 
requirement  to  all  certificates  was  Indiana  in  1907.  Such  a pro- 
vision went  into  full  effect  in  Utah  in  1911.  New  Jersey,  Missouri, 
and  Kansas  passed  similar  laws  gradually  increasing  the  requirement 
of  high-school  attendance  for  certain  certificates  from  one  year  to 
graduation  from  a 4-year  high-school  course.  In  New  Jersey  the 
law  provides  that  every  holder  of  an  elementary  certificate  must, 
after  September  1,  1911,  have  completed  one  year  in  an  approved 
high  school;  after  1912  two  years;  after  1913  three  years,  and  after 
1914  must  have  graduated  from  such  a school.  The  Kansas  law 
puts  the  requirement  into  effect  more  gradually  and  is  not  so  sweeping 
in  its  provision : 

After  May  1,  1913,  no  person  shall  be  granted  a certificate  who  has  not  completed 
at  least  one  year  of  school  work  in  an  accredited  high  school  or  its  equivalent,  and  after 
May  1,  1915,  no  person  shall  be  granted  a certificate  who  has  not  completed  at  least 
two  years  of  high  school  work,  or  its  equivalent,  and  after  May  1,  1917,  no  person  shall 
be  granted  a certificate  who  has  not  completed  four  years  of  high  school  or  its  equiva- 
lent: Provided  further , That  this  requirement  shall  not  apply  to  anyone  who  has 
taught  at  least  six  school  months  before  May  1,  1912:  And  provided  further , That  the 
State  board  of  education  may  make  such  temporary  modifications  of  the  requirements 
of  this  section  as  may  be  necessary  to  supply  the  schools  with  teachers.  (Chap.  277, 
Feb.  28,  1911.) 

The  Missouri  law  is  more  liberal  as  regards  the  place  and  manner  in 
which  the  secondary  school  course  may  be  pursued.  Also  it  is  appli- 
cable to  onty  the  first  and  sceond  grade  county  certificates.  The 
provisions  begin  to  become  effective  one  year  earlier  than  in  Kansas, 
but  do  not  go  into  full  effect  until  1918: 

From  and  after  September  1,  1912,  all  applicants  for  first  or  second  grade  certificates 
to  teach  must  present  evidence  of  having  completed  the  first  year’s  work  of  a classified 
or  accredited  high  school  as  defined  in  section  10923,  R.  S.  Mo.  1909,  or  its  equivalent. 
From  and  after  September  1,  1914,  all  applicants  for  first  or  second  grade  certificates 
must  present  evidence  of  having  completed  two  years  of  such  work,  or  its  equivalent. 
From  and  after  September  1,  1916,  all  applicants  for  first  or  second  grade  certificates 
must  present  evidence  of  having  completed  three  years  of  such  work,  or  its  equivalent. 
From  and  after  September  1,  1918,  all  applicants  for  first  or  second  grade  certificates 
must  present  evidence  of  having  completed  four  years  of  such  work,  or  its  equivalent. 
1 1 The  high-school  work  herein  required  may  be  done  in  any  public,  private,  or  parochial 
school  or  private  study  and  satisfactory  evidence  thereof  presented  by  the  written 
statements  of  parties  who  have  personal  knowledge  that  such  work  has  been  done  or 
by  passing  a satisfactory  examination  on  the  subjects  for  which  credit  is  claimed  and 
which  are  not  required  in  the  examination  prescribed  by  section  10939  of  this  article.” 
(S.  B.  240,  Mar.  30,  1911.) 

In  New  York  the  requirement  applies  only  to  “ primary  and  gram- 
mar schools  of  any  city  or  school  district  authorized  by  law  to  employ 
a city  superintendent.”  In  case  the  teacher  does  not  have  3 years* 
successful  experience  or  is  not  a graduate  of  a New  York  State  normal 


CERTIFICATES  BASED  ON  EXAMINATION. 


187 


school,  or  has  not  a New  York  State  certificate,  she  must  have  com- 
pleted at  least  3 years’  work  in  an  approved  high  school  or  academy 
or  other  approved  institution  of  learning  of  equal  or  higher  rank  and 
in  addition  have  graduated  from  a 2-year  training  school  course. 
(N.  Y.  Education  law,  1910,  sec.  551.) 

CERTIFICATES  BASED  PRIMARILY  UPON  EXAMINATION. 

Certificates  based  primarily  upon  examination  are  of  two  classes, 
higher  and  lower.  While  all  the  certificates  issued  by  the  various 
States  fit  into  this  scheme,  the  difference  in  the  fundamental  organi- 
zation of  the  systems  in  the  various  States  causes  differences  in  the 
adjustments.  States  whose  certificates  are  differentiated  primarily 
on  the  basis  of  schools  in  which  the  certificates  are  valid — the  horizon- 
tal system — have  within  each  class  but  a small  number  of  certificates. 
For  example,  New  Jersey  has  but  two  certificates  each  for  high 
schools,  elementary  schools,  etc.  Thus  in  a vertical  distribution, 
such  as  is  made  here,  there  are  but  few  certificates  to  be  considered 
in  such  States.  On  the  other  hand,  a State  having  the  vertical  sys- 
tem with  all  or  many  of  its  certificates  valid  in  any  school  furnishes 
a large  number  of  certificates  in  such  a distribution.  As  the  latter 
system  predominates  in  the  country  as  a whole,  it  has  seemed 
necessary  to  make  the  division  along  the  lines  marked  out  by  it. 

FIRST,  SECOND,  AND  THIRD  GRADE  COUNTY  CERTIFICATES  AND  THEIR 

EQUIVALENTS. 

A better  conception  of  all  the  certificates  issued  primarily  on 
examination  can  be  obtained  by  considering  first  those  of  the  lower 
class.  Two  tables  are  required  for  these  certificates.  The  first  table 
deals  with  the  county  certificates  as  issued  generally  in  the  Central 
and  Western  States  and  such  other  certificates  issued  in  other  States 
as  seem  to  be  their  equivalents  (Table  17);  the  second  deals  with 
certificates  slightly  higher  in  rank  (Table  22).  The  subjects  in  which 
examinations  are  required  are  divided  into  four  classes,  as  defined 
on  page  164.  The  experience  requirements  are  all  reduced  to  the 
standard  of  a school  year  of  9 months.  The  first  table  is  arranged 
for  a series  of  three  certificates.  When  there  are  but  two  certificates 
the  lower  is  listed  under  the  third  grade  and  the  middle  section  is 
left  blank.  The  first-grade  certificates  of  certain  States,  as  Rhode 
Island,  are  obviously  of  a higher  standard.  In  certain  other  States, 
as  Utah,  there  is  but  one  certificate  of  rank  corresponding  to  those 
in  the  table. 

Under  each  section  subdivisions  are  made  for  the  years  that  such 
certificates  are  usually  issued,  for  the  purpose  of  discovering  such 
differences  as  may  exist  between  the  certificates  issued  for  the  different 
periods. 


Table  17. — Number  and  character  of  subjects  in  which  examination  is  required  for  county  certificates  and  their  equivalents , arranged  according  to  duration , h 

together  with  the  number  of  years  of  experience  required  for  such  certificate. 

Y ears  ex- 
perience 
required. 

TEACHERS* 

•joqraeui  ^soqSjH 

cert: 

cm 

[FI 

CATES. 

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000  00 

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Highest  (first  grade  county)  certificate. 

5 years. 

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05  40 

Middle  certificate,  if  any. 

4 years. 

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Lowest  certificate. 

3 years. 

•sq.aafqns  inuoissajojj 

CM 

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O 

•saqouBjq  uouraioo 

00 

2 years. 

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o 

0 

- 

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o 

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o 

rH  O 

O H CM 

- 

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05  00 

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States. 

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Kentuckv 

Tennessee  1 

Alabama  8 

J 

Louisiana 

CERTIFICATES  BASED  ON  EXAMINATION. 


189 


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190 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


The  most  common  arrangement  of  the  series  of  county  certificates, 
and  equivalents  thereto,  is  that  of  3 certificates  granted  for  1,  2, 
and  3 years,  respectively.  No  less  than  12  of  the  States  have  this 
plan,  7 of  them  being  in  the  North  Central  division — Ohio,  Indiana, 
Iowa,  Missouri,  South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Kansas.  Two  different 
arrangements  prevail  in  4 States  each — the  1,  2,  and  5 year  series  in 
Vermont,  Virginia,  Minnesota,  and  Washington,  and  the  1,  3,  and  5 
year  series  in  West  Virginia,  Louisiana,  Wisconsin,  and  Idaho.  None 
of  the  14  other  plans  obtains  in  more  than  2 States. 

Effect  of  duration  upon  examination  requirements . — The  differences 
in  the  duration  of  the  lowest  and  middle  certificates  have  not  affected 
materially  the  examination  requirements,  the  requirements  for  the 
1-year  certificates  in  certain  States  calling  for  just  as  many  subjects  as 
the  2-year  and  3-year  certificates  in  the  other  States.  In  the  highest 
member  of  the  series  (first  grade)  there  is  a marked  difference  in  the 
requirements  for  certificates  of  different  lengths  of  time.  The  num- 
ber of  subjects  required  for  the  2-year  certificates  is  much  less  than 
the  average  for  the  3,  4,  and  5-year  certificates,  as  is  shown  by  the 
averages  in  the  following  table: 

Table  18. — Average  number  of  subjects  required  for  first-grade  certificates  of  various 

durations. 


Duration  of  certificates. 


2 years. 

3 years. 

4 years. 

5 years. 

Staridard  elementary  subjects 

7.6 

8.1 

8.4 

8.1 

New  elementary  subjects 

.8 

1.2 

0.0 

1.2 

Higher  (secondary)  subjects 

.8 

2.3 

2.2 

3.5 

Professional  subjects 

.8 

1.1 

1.6 

1.4 

It  follows  that  the  first-grade  certificates  of  2 years’  duration  can 
not  as  a class  be  accepted  as  3,  4,  and  5 year  certificates  of  the  same 
grade.  An  exception  to  this  principle  must  be  made  in  the  case  of 
North  Carolina. 

Third  or  lowest  grade  of  certificates. — Considering  now  the  lowest 
grade  of  certificates  issued  in  the  several  States,  we  find  that  19  of 
the  47  States  require  examinations  in  8 traditional  elementary  school 
subjects,  14  require  9 subjects,  11  require  7 subjects,  2 require  6 
subjects,  and  1 requires  but  5 subjects. 

The  North  Central  and  Western  States,  as  a whole,  require  more 
than  those  of  the  three  other  divisions,  which  are  practically  on  a par 
in  this  respect. 

The  North  Central  States  lead  in  the  number  of  new  elementary 
subjects,  8 of  the  12  States  requiring  them  being  in  this  division. 


CERTIFICATES  BASED  ON  EXAMINATION. 


191 


Four  of  the  North  Atlantic  States  and  5 in  each  of  the  other  geo- 
graphical divisions  require  one  or  more  subjects.  Oklahoma  has  4 
such  subjects;  North  Carolina,  Indiana,  Utah,  and  Nevada,  2 each; 
and  22  other  States  1 each.  But  9 States  require  examination  in 
higher  subjects,  and  5 of  these  are  in  the  North  Atlantic  group. 

Professional  subjects  are  required  most  generally  in  the  Western 
and  North  Central  States  and  least  frequently  in  the  South  Central 
and  North  Atlantic  States.  The  only  State  requiring  3 of  these 
subjects  and  3 of  the  5 States  requiring  2 are  in  the  Western  division. 
New  Hampshire,  however,  requires  4;  5 States,  2 each,  and  18  States, 
1 each,  while  22  States  require  none. 

It  is  patent  from  the  above  facts  that  the  North  Central  and 
Western  States  have  the  highest  requirements  for  the  lowest  grade 
of  certificates  and  that  their  systems  of  certification  reflect  to  a greater 
extent  recent  educational  progress  both  in  the  widening  of  the  cur- 
riculum and  in  the  introduction  of  professional  study  than  do  the 
systems  of  the  States  in  the  other  geographical  divisions. 

FIRST  OR  HIGHEST  GRADE  OF  COUNTY  CERTIFICATES. 

The  differences  in  the  number  of  subjects  required  for  the  lowest 
certificate  and  the  highest  of  this  county  series  are  indicated  in  the 
following  table  giving  the  average  number  of  each  of  the  4 kinds  of 
subjects  required  for  each  kind  of  certificate. 

Table  19. — Average  number  of  subjects  required  for  third  or  lowest  and  for  first-grade 

county  certificates. 


Third 

grade. 

First 

grade. 

Traditional  elementary  subjects 

7.9 

8. 1 

New  elementary  subjects 

.7 

1.0 

Higher  (secondary)  subjects 

.3 

2.6 

Professional  subjects 

.8 

1.3 

All  subjects 

9.7 

13.0 

Of  the  increase  of  3.3  subjects,  2.3  is  absorbed  by  secondary  sub- 
jects, 0.5  by  professional,  0.3  by  new  elementary,  and  but  0.2  by 
traditional  elementary  subjects. 

All  geographical  divisions  are  practically  alike  in  the  number  of 
traditional  elementary  subjects  required  for  the  first-grade  certificate, 
the  variation  in  the  averages  between  the  highest  and  lowest  divi- 
sions— the  South  Atlantic  and  the  North  Atlantic — being  but  one- 
half  of  a subject,  8J  and  8. 

The  South  Central  States  have  the  distinction  of  requiring  a higher 
average  of  new  elementary  subjects  than  any  other  division,  If. 


192 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


This  is  due  to  the  introduction  of  agriculture  as  a subject  required 
for  a certificate  in  every  State  except  Kentucky.  The  North  Atlantic 
States  stand  next  in  order  with  an  average  of  1J,  then  the  North 
Central  with  1,  the  South  Atlantic  with  seven-eighths,  and  the 
Western  States  last  with  six-sevenths. 

The  North  Central  States  lead  in  the  average  number  of  secondary 
studies  required,  3.6,  the  other  divisions  following  in  this  order, 
South  Central,  3.25;  Western,  3.13;  South  Atlantic,  1.5;  and  North 
Atlantic,  0.8. 

The  North  Atlantic  States  lead  in  the  number  of  professional  sub- 
jects required,  the  average  being  1.8,  the  Western  States  follow  with 
1.63;  the  North  Central,  1.17;  then  the  South  Atlantic,  1.11;  and 
South  Central,  0.88. 

In  the  total  number  of  certificates  required  the  North  Central 
vStates  again  have  the  highest  average,  15.  The  Western  States  have 
an  average  of  14;  the  South  Central,  13.6;  the  North  Atlantic,  12.2; 
and  the  South  Atlantic,  12. 

These  differences  are  largely  due  to  the  differences  in  number  of 
secondary  subjects.  The  differences  in  the  other  three  classes  of 
subjects  practically  counterbalance  each  other  in  all  the  groups. 

The  following  table  shows  the  number  of  States  that  require  the 
various  numbers  of  each  class  of  subjects.  But  40  States  have  a 
first-grade  county  certificate  or  its  equivalent. 

Table  20. — Number  of  States  requiring  each  number  of  each  class  of  subjects  in  examin- 
ation for  first-grade  certificate  or  equivalent. 


The  examination  requirements  for  a first-grade  county  certificate 
which  would  be  most  representative  of  the  practice  in  all  the  States 
at  the  present  time  may  be  said  to  be  composed  of  the  median  or 
average  number  for  all  the  States  in  each  of  these  classes  of  subjects, 
namely,  8 traditional  elementary  school  subjects,  1 new  elementary 


CERTIFICATES  BASED  ON  EXAMINATION. 


193 


subject,  3 secondary  school  subjects,  and  1 professional  subject — a 
total  of  13  subjects. 

The  following  table  shows  in  which  subjects  of  the  three  last 
classes — new  elementary,  higher,  and  professional — examinations  are 
required  for  the  first-grade  certificate.  An  O signifies  that  the  sub- 
ject is  optional.  Its  exponent  indicates  the  number  of  subjects 
which  must  be  chosen  from  the  optional  group. 

10943°— 11 13 


Table  21. — Subjects  in  which  examination  is  required  for  first  grade  county  certificates , not  including  the  traditional  elementary  subjects. 


194 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES, 


Professional  subjects. 

•nop 

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Higher  (secondary)  subjects. 

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States. 

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Division: 

p< 

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> 

Massachusetts 
Rhode  Island 

New  York1. . 
New  Jersey  1. 
Pennsylvania 
South  Atlantic 
Division: 

Maryland 

Vircrinici 

West  Virginia 
North  Caro- 

South  Caro- 
lina   

Is 

South  Central  Di- 
vision: 

Tennessee 

Alabama 

Mississippi . . . 
Louisiana 

1 

) 

Oklahoma 

CERTIFICATES  BASED  ON  EXAMINATION 


195 


196 


teachers'  certificates. 


The  subjects  which  would  compose  the  most  typical  examination 
scheme  for  a first-grade  certificate  composed  of  eight  traditional 
elementary  subjects,  one  new  elementary  subject,  three  higher 
subjects,  and  one  professional  subject  (see  p.  187)  may  be  said  to  be 
those  which  are  most  frequently  required.  As  language  and  com- 
position are  the  subjects  most  frequently  omitted  of  all  the  main 
traditional  elementary  subjects  given  on  page  209,  the  eight  traditional 
subjects  would  be  as  follows:  (1)  Reading,  (2),  writing,  (3)  orthog- 
raphy, (4)  grammar,  (5)  arithmetic,  (6)  geography,  (7)  United  States 
history,  including  elementary  civics  and  local  history,  (8)  physiology, 
hygiene,  nature  and  effects  of  alcohol,  stimulants,  and  narcotics. 
Agriculture  would  be  introduced  as  the  new  elementary  subject; 
algebra,  physics,  and  literature  as  the  three  higher  subjects,  and 
theory  and  practice  of  teaching  as  the  professional  subject.  It  may 
be  remarked  in  passing  that  the  variety  of  terms  used  to  designate 
the  professional  subjects  impresses  one  with  the  desirability  of  a 
more  uniform  terminology. 

Turning  to  the  subjects  required  by  the  individual  States,  it  is 
seen  that  two  States,  Vermont  and  Virginia,  now  have  the  exact  num- 
ber of  subjects  required  for  the  typical  examination  scheme  for  the  first- 
grade  certification.  But  11  States  can  comply  with  this  standard 
in  all  respects,  although  if  substitutes  were  allowed  from  one  class  of 
subjects  to  another  a number  of  States  would  be  added  to  the  list. 
The  States  that  answer  all  the  requirements,  beginning  with  the 
State  that  requires  the  largest  number  of  subjects,  then  the  State 
having  the  next  largest,  and  so  on,  are  (1)  Wisconsin,  (2)  California, 
(3)  Idaho,  (4)  Texas,  Oklahoma,  and  Nebraska,  (5)  Louisiana, 
(6)  Alabama  and  Missouri,  (7)  Vermont  and  Virginia.  The  California 
certificate,  while  included  in  this  table  because  it  is  the  lowest  granted, 
is  nevertheless  of  a higher  grade  than  the  others.  The  second  cer- 
tificates in  the  New  York  and  New  Jersey  schemes  of  certification 
are  included  in  the  next  main  table  under  this  head  because  they  are 
of  higher  grade.  All  of  these  more  than  fulfill  the  above  requirements. 

On  the  other  hand,  those  States  having  particularly  low  require- 
ments should  be  mentioned,  beginning  with  the  State  that  has  the 
lowest  number  of  subjects,  then  the  next  lowest,  and  so  on — South 
Carolina,  Tennessee,  Georgia,  Florida,  Illinois,  Oregon,  Mississippi, 
Maine,  and  Connecticut. 

EXPERIENCE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  COUNTY  CERTIFICATES  AND  THEIR 

EQUIVALENTS. 

There  is  no  uniformity  of  practice  regarding  experience  requirements 
for  county  certificates  and  their  equivalents  except  that  necessarily 
no  State  makes  any  experience  requirement  for  the  lowest  certificate. 
Only  12  States  require  experience  for  the  middle  certificate.  One 


CERTIFICATES  HIGHER  THAN  FIRST  GRADE. 


197 


State  requires  more  than  one  year,  3 States  one  year,  and  8 States  less 
than  one  year.  Just  one-half  of  the  States  require  experience  for  the 
first-grade  certificate.  Two  States  require  three  years;  1 State  less 
than  three  years  but  more  than  two  years;  3 States,  two  years; 

3 States,  less  than  two  but  more  than  one  year;  8 States,  one  year; 
and  7 States  less  than  one  year.  The  average  amount  for  all  the 
States  is  0.68  years,  and  for  the  24  States  that  require  experience, 
1.3  years.  Our  typical  first-grade  certificate  would  require  5 or  6 
months’  experience,  which  is  the  time  approximately  of  the  Mississippi 
and  Nevada  certificates.  The  North  Atlantic  States  require  the 
longest  experience ; none  less  than  one  year.  But  3 of  the  16  Southern 
States  require  any,  while  all  but  3 of  the  North  Central  and  all  but 

4 of  the  Western  States  require  some  teaching. 

CERTIFICATES  NEXT  HIGHER  IN  RANK  THAN  FIRST-GRADE  COUNTY 

CERTIFICATE. 

The  following  table  complements  Table  17,  which  deals  with  the 
examination  and  experience  requirements  of  county  certificates  and 
their  equivalents.  Some  States  have  a certificate  slightly  higher  in 
rank  than  the  first  grade,  which  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  teachers  of 
superior  ability  will  obtain.  The  object  of  the  two  tables  (17  and  22) 
taken  together  is  to  present  the  certificate  history  of  the  great 
majority  of  teachers  in  the  elementary  schools  who  obtain  their 
first  certificate  upon  examination  and  who  progress  from  lower  to 
higher  certificates  without  prolonged  consecutive  study  in  educa- 
tional institutions  beyond  the  minimum  required  by  law.  Naturally 
the  last  step  in  such  a history  is  the  securing  of  a permanent 
license  to  teach  or  of  the  certificate  which  most  nearly  approaches 
it.  The  conditions  for  obtaining  this  permanent  certificate  are  given 
under  “ Supplementary  information.”  Conditions  of  renewals  of  cer- 
tificates below  the  first  grade  will  be  treated  in  another  connection 
(see  p.  217) . The  remaining  portion  of  the  table  needs  no  explanation, 
as  in  other  respects  it  follows  the  forms  of  previous  tables. 

We  must  not  lose  sight  of  the  fact,  however,  that  in  States  whose 
systems  of  certification  are  vertical  in  type  the  county  certificates 
are  issued  both  to  high-school  teachers  and  elementary  teachers. 
Many  of  the  former  who  have  attended  college  doubtless  obtain  the 
certificates  described  in  this  table  as  soon  as  they  are  able  to  meet 
the  experience  requirements.  This  table,  therefore,  serves  another 
purpose  in  differentiating  certain  certificates  that  are  peculiarly 
suited  to  college  students  who  can  not  for  some  reason  secure  a 
certificate  based  upon  college  graduation.  For  this  class  of  teachers 
this  kind  of  certificate  serves  as  a stepping  stone  from  the  county 
to  the  higher  certificates. 


Table  22. — Scholarship  and  experience  requirements  of  certificates  based  upon  examinations  that  are  next  higher  in  rank  to  first-grade  county  certificates, 
together  with  the  conditions  of  renewal  of  such  certificates  and  of  first-grade  certificates.  This  table  is  the  complement  to  Table  17. 


198 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


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200 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


HIGHEST  CERTIFICATES  BASED  UPON  EXAMINATION. 

Every  State,  except  Massachusetts  and  Utah,  has  a certificate 
based  upon  examination  and  valid  for  life  or  for  the  longest  term  for 
which  certificates  may  be  granted  in  the  State.  Frequently  there  is 
also  a certificate  slightly  lower  in  grade  and  briefer  in  duration  which 
serves  as  a prehminary  certificate.  In  other  States  the  requisite 
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certificate  or  a certificate  next  higher  in  rank  as  given  in  the  table 
just  above. 

Entries  are  made  in  the  column  for  traditional  and  new  elementary 
subjects  whenever  a new  examination  is  required  in  those  subjects 
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requisite. States  making  such  requirement  neither  in  law  or  regu- 
lation have  it  in  fact  through  the  requirement  of  certain  years  of 
experience.  Such  experience  might  be  gained  under  several  various 
kinds  of  certificates,  and  so  it  is  impossible  to  indicate  the  number  of 
subjects  in  which  examinations  have  been  passed  to  obtain  the  cer- 
tificate in  question. 


Table  23. — Scholarship  and  experience  requirements  for  highest  certificates  based  upon  examination. 


CERTIFICATES  HIGHER  THAN  FIRST  GRADE. 


201 


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Table  23. — Scholarship  and  experience  requirements  for  highest  certificates  based  upon  examination — Continued. 


202 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


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Preparation  equivalent  to  college  graduation,  including  professional  course. 


CERTIFICATES  HIGHER  THAN  FIRST  GRADE, 


203 


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204 


TEACHERS , CERTIFICATES. 


It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  table  that  the  number  of  traditional 
and  new  elementary  subjects  required  in  the  examinations  for  the 
highest  certificates  does  not  differ  materially  from  the  number  re- 
quired for  the  first-grade,  certificate.  It  is  necessary,  therefore,  to 
analyze  only  the  requirements  for  secondary  and  professional  sub- 
jects. These  do  not  differ  in  name  from  those  required  for  the  first 
grade,  except  that  higher  professional  subjects,  as  school  administra- 
tion, higher  educational  psychology,  and  history  of  education,  are 
given  more  prominence.  The  examination  questions  are  in  almost 
all  cases  of  greater  difficulty  and  the  grading  is  done  more  closely 
than  in  the  lower  certificates. 

The  North  Central  States  require  a larger  number  of  secondary 
subjects  than  any  other  section — an  average  of  11.9  for  the  States 
represented  in  the  distribution.  The  South  Central  States  have  an 
average  of  8.75;  the  Western  of  8.4;  the  North  Atlantic  of  5.3;  and 
the  South  Atlantic  of  3.3.  One-fourth  of  all  the  States  require  1 
subject  or  none,  while  another  fourth  requires  12  or  more.  One  of 
two  middle  fourths  of  the  States  requires  from  1 to  8,  the  other  from 
8 to  11,  inclusive.  The  median  is  8.5  subjects. 

The  order  of  the  divisions  for  the  average  number  of  professional 
subjects  required  is  the  same  as  for  academic  subjects,  except  that 
the  South  Central  moves  down  two  places  and  the  Western  and  the 
North  Atlantic  move  up  one  place  each.  The  average  for  the  States 
represented  in  each  division  is  as  follows:  North  Central,  3.5;  Western, 
3.1 ; North  Atlantic,  3;  South  Central,  1.6;  South  Atlantic,  1.3.  Three 
more  than  one-fourth  of  the  States  require  but  1 professional  sub- 
ject or  none,  while  one  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  States  require  5 
or  6 subjects.  One-half  of  the  States  require  2 or  less,  the  other  half 
3 or  more — the  approximate  median  being  2.9. 


CERTIFICATES  HIGHER  THAN  FIRST  GRADE. 


205 


The  tables  showing  the  number  of  States  having  each  of  the  various 
numbers  of  secondary  and  professional  subjects  follow: 


Table  24. — Number  of  States  having  each  number  of  higher  subjects. 


Number 
of  subjects. 

Number  of  States 
having  each  number 
of  subjects. 

0 

7 

1 

6 

2 

1 

3 

2 

4 

1 

5 

0 

6 

2 

7 

2 

8 

1 

9 

4 

10 

3 

11 

3 

12 

3 

13 

2 

14 

3 

15 

1 

16 

2 

17 

0 

18 

0 

19 

0 

20 

0 

21 

1 

Total 

44 

Table  25. — Number  of  States  having  each  number  of  'professional  subjects. 


Number 
of  subjects. 

Number  of  States 
having  each  number 
of  subjects. 

0 

3 

1 

11 

2 

9 

3 

5 

4 

6 

5 

7 

6 

3 

Total 

44 

Great  differences  in  the  number  of  subjects  required  in  both 
classes  of  studies,  both  as  to  geographical  divisions  and  individual 
States,  are  evident.  The  highest  standard  prevails  in  the  North 
Central  States  and  the  lowest  in  the  South  Atlantic,  the  differences 
in  the  averages  for  the  secondary  and  professional  subjects  being 
8.3  and  2.2,  respectively.  These  differences  are  probably  greater 
than  exist  between  certificates  in  any  other  class. 

A certificate  of  the  highest  type,  based  upon  examination  in  the 
various  States  that  would  best  represent  the  present  status  of  cer- 
tification in  the  United  States,  as  a whole,  would  be  composed  of  8 
traditional  elementary  subjects,  1 new  elementary  subject  (as  holds 
true  for  the  first-grade  certificate),  9 higher  subjects,  and  3 pro- 
fessional subjects — an  increase  above  the  first  grade  of  6 higher 
and  2 professional  subjects. 


206 


teachers'  certificates. 

PRIMARY,  KINDERGARTEN,  AND  SPECIAL  CERTIFICATES. 


The  same  essential  facts  relating  to  scholarship  and  experience 
requirements  that  have  been  given  for  certificates  based  upon  edu- 
cational courses  and  upon  examinations  are  given  in  the  three 
following  tables  for  certificates  valid  to  teach  (1)  in  primary  grades 
and  kindergartens,  (2)  in  special  subjects,  (3)  as  supervisor.  Cir- 
cumstances do  not  permit  an  analysis  of  these  tables.  It  may  be 

said  in  general,  however, 
that  a few  States  require 
that  the  qualifications  of 
a regular  certificate  be 
met  as  well  as  those  for 
teaching  special  subjects; 
but  the  majority  of  the 
States  confine  their  in- 
quiries into  the  qualifica- 
tions of  applicants  in  the 
special  and  professional 
branches.  In  some  States 
the  tendency  is  to  regard 
primary  and  kindergarten  certificates  of  the  same  general  character 
as  regular  certificates  with  special  qualifications.  Three  States  require 
examinations  much  like  the  regular  examinations,  with  the  special 
branches  added.  Other  States  look  upon  these  as  special  certificates, 
and  in  consequence  the  scope  of  the  examination  is  much  more 
limited.  As  regards  duration,  the  tendency  seems  to  give  these  cer- 
tificates longer  terms  than  county  certificates.  Renewals  are  made 
in  ways  similar  to  those  for  county  certificates. 


Figure  9. — Subjects  required  in  examination  for  the  typical 
third-grade  county  certificate  (top  rectangle),  for  typical  first- 
grade  county  certificate  (middl ; rectangle),  and  for  typical 
highest  certificate  issued  upon  examination  (bottom  rectangle.) 
1=  traditional  elementary  subjects;  2=  new  elementary  sub- 
jects; 3=  higher  (secondary  and  college)  subjects;  4=»  profes- 
sional subjects.  (See  p.  205.) 


PRIMARY,  KINDERGARTEN,  AND  SPECIAL  CERTIFICATES.  207 


Table  26. — Scholarship  and  experience  requirements  for  primary  and  kindergarten 

certificates . 

[P«=  Primary  certificate  or  special  certificate  for  primary  grades;  K=  Kindergarten  certificate  or  special 
certificate  for' kindergarten;  S=»Special  subjects  (kindergarten  or  primary  methods,  etc.);  T=Thesis  re- 
quired in  addition  to  examination.] 


0> 

b/) 

"3 

a 

ligh 

Examination. 

8 

ct 

© 

States. 

Duration. 

0 

0 

.g 

w 

3 

s. 

kH 

1 Years  in  nc 
school. 

Years  in  1 
school. 

| Traditional.  1 

® ►> 
> c 

® a 
b 

j Higher. 

| Professional.  | 

Years’  exper: 

Conditions  and  terms  of  re- 
newal. 

North  Atlantic  Division: 
Vermont  (P.  and  K.). 

5 

2 

(?) 

C1) 

7 

After  holder  has  obtained 
certificate  upon  exami- 
nation. 

4 years,  then  9 years,  then 
permanent. 

Successful  teaching. 

Do. 

5-year  periods;  2 years’  ex- 
perience. 

2 

0 

0 

0 

5 

0 

3 

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

Connecticut  (K.) 

0 

5 

3 

1 

1 

0 

New  York  (K.) 

3 

4,2 

4 

0 

0 

0 

6 

0 

New  Jersey  (K.) 

Life 

2 

4 

2 

(K.) 

4 

S. 

s. 

s. 

S. 

3 

(K.) 

1. . 

2 

4 

0 

2 years;  then  life;  3 years’ 
teaching. 

Pennsylvania  (K.) . . . 
South  Atlantic  Division: 
Virginia  (K.) 

Life 

2 

5 

1 

(?) 

0 

Similar  period;  profes- 
sional reading  course. 
Once,  1 year’s  teaching. 

West  Virginia  (P.)... 
Florida  (P.  and  K.).. 

5 

9 

6 

0 

4 

2 

/Life 

4 

\4 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

0 

Life  certificate  4 years 
teaching. 

South  Central  Division: 
Texas  (K.) 

Life 

2 

(?) 

3 

Oklahoma  (P.) 

Life,  10,  or  5 . 
do  .. 

4 

8 

4 

0 

1 

10,5,1 

10,5,1 

10,5,1 

Higher  certificates  issued. 
Do. 

Do. 

(P.) 

9 

4 

3 

1 

(K.) 

do 

2 

(P.) 

10 

North  Central  Division: 
Indiana  (K.) 

Life 

2 

4 

0 

(K.) 

1. . . 

§ 

4 

0 

8 

3 

0 

1 

0 

1 

0 

3, 1,0 
0 

Reissued  upon  examina- 
tion. 

3-year  permanent;  6 years 
teaching. 

(P.) 

3, 2,  or  1 . . . 

3 

4 

2 

1 

Michigan  (K.) 

Life 

2 

4 

8 

0 

1 

(P.) 

1 

8 

1 

0 

1 

3 

Continuous  teaching;  aver- 
age 85  per  cent  in  2 exam- 
inations. 

Wisconsin  (K.) 

Life 

2 

1 

[1 

2 

0 

Life  certificate  1 year’s 
teaching. 

Nonrenewable. 

Do. 

Do. 

Life,  5 years’  teaching. 

Do. 

Not  prescribed. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

(K.) 

J 

{4 

6 

4 

2 

2 

0s 

(K.) 

2 

6 

3 

2 

1 

(K.) 

1 

6 

3 

0 

1 

0 

Iowa  (P.  and  K.) 

(P.  and  K.) 

North  Dakota  (P. 
and  K.). 

(P.  and  K.). .. 

5 

0 

4 

0 

s. 

s. 

5 

0 

Varies 

2 

4 

S. 

S. 

S. 

S. 

S. 

S. 

0 

0 

do 

2 

4 

1 

0 

(P.  and  K.)... 

do 

8 

S. 

1 

0 

s. 

(P.  andK.)... 

s. 

5 

5 

1 

0 

4 

South  Dakota  (P.) . . . 
Western  Division: 

Wyoming  (P.  and  K.) 

Utah  (P.) 

5 

8 

1 

0 

0 

2 

4 

8 

0 

5 

Reissued  upon  examina- 
tion. 

Year  by  year  under  regula- 
tion of  State  board. 

2 

4 

7 

2 

0 

2 

3 

0 

• Washington  (P.) 

/Life 

8 

3 

2 

7 

\5 

8 

3 

3 

2 

5 

2 years’  teaching  or  1 year’s 
attendance  at  higher  in- 
stitution. Indefinitely. 

Indefinitely  on  (a)  1 year’s 
attendance  higher  educa- 
tional institution;  (b)  3§ 
years’  teaching. 

Oregon  (P.) 

5 

3 

0 

0 

(3) 

T3 

(3) 

H 

0 

2§ 

0 

Life 

(*) 

(3) 

2 

(3) 

4 

(3) 

(3) 

California  (P.  and  K.) 

/Life 

\6 

2 

4 

Life  certificate  2§  years 
teaching. 

1 Discretion  of  State  board.  2 Indefinite.  » Discretion  of  State  superintendent. 


208 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  27. — Scholarship  and  experience  requirements  for  special  certificates. 

[S= Special  subjects  in  addition  to  those  indicated,  if  any;  HS=certificates  for  high-school  subjects  only; 

T= Thesis.] 


Years’  dura- 
tion. 

| Years  in  college. 

| Years  m normal 
school. 

1 Years  in  high 
school. 

Examination. 

Years’ 

experi- 

ence. 

| Traditional.  1 

I New  ele- 
| mentary. 

j Higher. 

| Professional. 

(5 

8 

1 

0 

1 

(!) 

\2 

8 

1 

0 

1 

2 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

0 

2 

8 

0 

0 

1 

0 

13... 

4,2 

0 

L 

4,2 

S. 

s. 

s. 

S. 

0 

(Life 

2 

4 

2 

\ ...do 

4 

S. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

u 

2 

4 

0 

Life. 

2 

0 

1 

8 

1 

3 

1 

(l) 

1 

S.2 

S. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

(1) 

5 

*4 

o 

3 

S. 

s. 

s. 

2 

0 

5 

0) 

0) 

0) 

0) 

o 

Life,  10  or  5. . 

42 

10, 5, 1 

(Life 

l 

s. 

s. 

4 

10 

do 

2 

4 

s. 

s. 

s. 

1 

2§ 

do 

s. 

s. 

s. 

1 

10 

4 

2 

4 

s. 

s. 

s. 

1 

0 

|8  or  5 

s. 

s. 

s. 

1 

4% 

(3,  2,  or  1 

s. 

s. 

s. 

0 

[1 

h 

"4 

s. 

s. 

s. 

S. 

0 

1l 

i 

4 

3 

s. 

s. 

s. 

0 

/Life 

2 

4 

0 

0 

0 

3T 

0 

\(i) 

s. 

s. 

s. 

S. 

o 

Life 

1,2 

o 

/....do 

2 

1 

2 

o 

(5 

0 

4 

0 

5 

o 

\3 

s. 

s. 

s. 

S. 

o 

2 

4 

1 

1 do 

2 

4 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

0 

I do 

s. 

s. 

5 

5 

1 

[....do 

8 

1 

s. 

S. 

0 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

o 

t 

1,2 

o 

4 

4 

0 

1 

s. 

s. 

s. 

s. 

0 

(4 

9 

1 

\4 

5 

4 

4 

s. 

0 

5 

(3) 

(3) 

(3) 

(3) 

0 

2 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

(2) 

0 

8 

2 

4 

0 

(4) 

(4) 

(4) 

(4) 

(4) 

(4) 

(4) 

(4) 

0 

/Life 

2 

s. 

s. 

1 

5 

16 

2 

s. 

s. 

1 

0 

States. 


North  Atlantic  Division: 
Vermont 


Rhode  Island . 
Connecticut. . 
New  York. . . 


New  Jersey. 


Pennsylvania 

South  Atlantic  Division: 


Virginia 

Virginia  (HS) 

North  Carolina  (HS) 


Florida 

South  Central  Division: 

Oklahoma  (HS) 

North  Central  Division: 


Ohio. 


Indiana. 

Illinois.. 


Michigan.. 

Wisconsin. 


Iowa 

North  Dakota. 


Kansas 

Western  Division: 
Wyoming 


Arizona. 

Utah.... 

Nevada. 


Idaho 

Washington. 


California . 


Conditions  and  terms  of  i 
newal. 


Successful  teaching. 

After  holder  has  obtained 
1st  or  2d  grade  certificate. 
4 years,  then  9 years,  then 
permanent. 

Successful  teaching. 

5-year  periods,  2 years'  ex- 
perience. 

Do. 


2 years,  then  life;  3 years' 
teaching. 


Similar  period;  professional 
reading  course. 

Do. 

Do. 

Reissued  uuon  examina- 
tion. 

Do. 

Higher  certificates  issued. 


Life,  4 years’  experience. 

Renewed  unless  holder  has 
not  taught  during  4 years 
preceding. 

Life,  4 years’  experience. 

Reissued  upon  examina- 
tion. 

Do. 

Discretion  of  county  super- 
intendent. 


Life  certificate,  2 years’ 
teaching. 

Life,  5 years’  teaching. 

Do. 

Not  prescribed. 

Do. 

Do. 

Do. 

2 years  if  teaching  is  satis- 
factory. 

Do. 

Life,  if  professional  subjects 
passed. 

Reissued  upon  examina- 
tion. 

3 years’  teaching. 

Not  specified. 

2 years  if  holder  continues 
teaching. 

Valid  so  long  as  holder 
teaches. 

5 years'  teaching  in  same 
county. 


1 Indefinite. 

2 Discretion  of  State  board. 


3 Discretion  of  State  University. 

4 At  discretion  of  county  superintendent. 


SCHOLARSHIP  AND  EXPERIENCE  REQUIREMENTS. 


209 


SUPERVISORS’  CERTIFICATES. 

Supervisors’  certificates,  issued  in  7 States,  usually  have  the 
requirements  for  the  highest  grades  of  certificates  granted  either  upon 
the  basis  of  completion  of  educational  courses  or  upon  examination 
plus  certain  professional  requirements,  in  which  school  administra- 
tion has  the  most  prominent  position.  The  certificates  are  usually 
for  life  and  require  previous  experience,  as  that  of  supervisor  in  a 
minor  position. 


Table  28. — Scholarship  and  experience  requirements  for  supervisors’  certificates. 


States. 


6 

high 

Examination* 

Years  dura- 
tion. 

| Years  in  collef 

Years  in  n( 
school. 

Years  in 
school. 

Traditional. 

New  elemen- 
tary. 

Higher. 

Professional,  j 

Years  experience. 

Life 

0 

0 

0 

6 

5 

do 

4 

0 

0 

0 

6 

2 

do 

4 

10  as  superintend- 
ent. 

do 

....do 

2i 

4 

do 

1*5 

5 as  superintend- 
ent. 

10  as  superintend- 
ent. 

5 as  superintend- 
ent. 

Indefinite 

do 

4 

do 

1 1 

4 

8 

0 

1 

6 

4 

6 

do 

) do 

2 

4 

6 

do 

[....do 

4 

6 

5 as  superintend- 
ent. 

4 as  supervisor 

1 as  supervisor,  5 
as  teacher. 

4 as  supervisor 

1 as  supervisor,  5 
as  teacher. 

4 as  supervisor 

1 as  supervisor,  5 
as  teacher. 

10,  5,  or  1 

— do 

1 

4 0 
4 

r 4 

4 

4 

1 

1 

0 

0 

(?) 

(?) 

8 

5 

5 

Life 

4 

9 

3 

4 

il 

4 

9 

3 

8 

4 

Life 

4 

9 

1 

3 

2 

1 

4 

9 

1 

3 

2 

Life,  10,  or  5. 

8 

4 

8 

5 

[Life 

4 0 

•r  2 

4 

0 

0 

0 

1 

2T 

2 as  teacher  super- 
visor. 

10  as  supervisor . . . 
0 

1 do 

0 

1 

2T 

f do 

1 4 

4 

do 

4 

4 

0 

0 

0 

2 

2 

\ do.2 

8 

0 

7 

4 

3 

...  .do.2 

2 

4 

1 

[ do.2. . . 

8 

0 

5 

3 

2 

1 4 

4 

3£ 

1 ...do 

2 

4 

3f  .. 

[5 

1 4 

2 

Maine 

New  Hampshire. 


Rhode  Island . 


Connecticut. 


New  Jersey . 


Oklahoma. 
Illinois 


Life  certificate,  4 
years. 

Do. 


Do. 


Wyoming. 
Oregon 


Life  certificate,  3J 
years. 


1 Professional  course. 


2 Valid  only  in  schools  having  not  over  2 years  high  school. 


SOME  COMMENDABLE  FEATURES  IN  SCHOLARSHIP  AND  EXPERIENCE 

REQUIREMENTS. 

The  requirements  for  high-school  graduation  and  for  normal  train- 
ing in  certain  States  have  already  been  described. 

It  seems  that  scholarship  requirements  are  going  to  lay  more 
emphasis  on  completion  of  courses  in  educational  institutions  and 
less  on  examinations.  The  revised  regulations  of  the  Virginia  State 
10943°— 11 14 


210 


TEACHERS ' CERTIFICATES. 


board  of  education  relating  to  certification,  and  the  regulations  of 
the  education  department  of  the  State  of  New  York  relating  to 
teachers’  certificates,  are  in  advance  of  all  other  legal  enactments  in 
this  respect.  By  reason  of  their  authority  over  both  the  normal 
schools  and  the  systems  of  certification,  each  of  these  States  has  been 
able  to  bring  the  two  elements  into  very  close  relation.  Certain  cer- 
tificates are  granted  only  upon  the  completion  of  prescribed  or 
approved  courses,  and  provision  is  made  for  the  normal  school  giv- 
ing such  courses  as  are  prescribed.  Renewal  and  extension  of  certifi- 
cates are  likewise  made  dependent  upon  securing  credits  for  work 
proposed  in  prescribed  courses  in  the  regular  or  summer  sessions  jo f 
State  normal  schools  or  in  training  schools  or  classes.  Compara- 
tively few  of  the  certificates  of  these  States  are  based  upon  examina- 
tion alone,  provision  being  made  for  certification  of  graduates  from 
universities,  colleges,  normal  schools,  training  schools,  high  schools, 
and  summer  schools.  (See  Table  I,  Scholarship  Requirements.) 

Indiana  likewise  has  specified  normal  courses  which  must  be  com- 
pleted before  the  various  grades  of  certificates  are  granted;  but  in 
this  State  the  examination  requirements  still  remain  and,  in  fact,  are 
of  equal  importance  and  possibly  are  fundamental. 

A combination  of  measurement  of  experience  and  of  educational 
qualifications  is  found  in  the  Indiana  scheme  of  dividing  its  teachers 
into  three  classes,  as  follows: 

Class  A. — A teacher  without  experience:  Shall  be  a graduate  of  a high  school  or  it£ 
equivalent;  shall  have  had  not  less  than  one  term  of  12  weeks’  work  in  a school  main* 
taining  a professional  course  for  the  training  of  teachers;  shall  have  not  less  than  a 12 
months’  license. 

Class  B. — A teacher  with  1 year’s  experience:  Shall  be  a graduate  of  a high  school  or 
its  equivalent;  shall  have  had  not  less  than  two  terms  of  24  weeks’  work  in  a school 
maintaining  a professional  course  for  the  training  of  teachers,  or  the  equivalent  of 
such  work;  shall  have  not  less  than  a 2 years’  license;  shall  have  a success  grade. 

Class  C. — A teacher  with  3 or  more  years’  successful  experience:  Shall  be  a graduate 
of  a high  school  or  its  equivalent;  shall  be  a graduate  from  a school  maintaining  a pro- 
fessional course  for  the  training  of  teachers,  or  its  equivalent;  shall  have  a 3 years’ 
license  or  its  equivalent;  shall  have  a success  grade. 

Provided  that  for  teachers  already  in  the  service  successful  experience  in  teaching 
shall  be  accepted  as  an  equivalent  for  high-school  and  professional  training,  as  required 
by  all  the  above  classifications. — (From  Laws,  1907,  ch.  101,  sec.  2.) 

Maine  has  a plan  of  determining  the  duration  of  certificates  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  qualifications  of  the  candidates,  which  is  of 
interest : 

The  period  for  which  the  certificate  is  granted  is  determined  primarily  by  facts  of 
experience,  as  stated  on  reverse  of  certificate.  For  a life  certificate,  as  determined  by 
these  facts  alone,  the  candidate  must  have  actually  taught  at  least  18  terms;  for  a 5 
years’  certificate,  at  least  9 terms;  and  for  a 3 years’ , at  least  5 terms.  For  any  less  than 
5 terms  of  actual  teaching  the  1 year’s  certificate  is  granted.  The  force  of  these  facts 
is,  however,  modified,  first  by  graduation  from  normal  school,  such  graduation  counting 


MEASURING  EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHERS. 


211 


as  the  equivalent  of  an  actual  experience  of  3 terms;  second,  by  conditions  of  rank  in 
written  examination,  a very  low  rank  in  one  or  more  subjects  as  compared  with  aver- 
age rank  reducing  the  term  on  the  assumption  that  the  candidate  will  desire  to  attain 
higher  rank  and  thus  a higher  grade  of  certificate,  and  so  will  wish  the  sooner  to  take 
a reexamination;  third,  by  extent  of  professional  reading,  the  candidate  who  has  evi- 
dently read  little  in  this  direction  being  granted  certificate  of  shorter  term  than  might 
otherwise  have  been  granted.  On  the  other  hand,  especial  excellence  in  ranks 
attained  in  examination  or  in  estimates  of  references,  will  serve  as  an  equivalent  for 
some  small  lack  of  experience.  A 5 years’  certificate,  for  example,  may  thus  be 
granted  when  the  number  of  terms  taught  is  only  7 or  8 instead  of  the  full  number 
required  primarily. 

MEASURING  EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHERS. 

In  three  States  methods  for  the  determination  of  the  efficiency  of 
teachers  have  been  adopted.  The  plan  used  in  Indiana  is  the  most 
definite.  A pamphlet  issued  by  the  State  superintendent  describes 
it  thus: 

In  determining  the  “success  grade”  of  each  teacher  in  service  the  city,  town,  and 
county  superintendents  are  required  by  law  to  use  the  following  scheme:  (1)  Teach- 
ing power,  45  per  cent;  many  items  enter  into  this,  but  the  principal  ones  are  prepa- 
ration of  lesson,  skill  in  presentation,  and  results  attained;  (2)  government,  35  per 
cent;  the  teacher’s  power  in  government  is  shown  in  the  general  spirit  of  the  school, 
and  in  the  attitude  the  pupils  take  toward  their  daily  tasks,  toward  each  other,  and 
toward  the  school  property;  (3)  general  characteristics,  20  per  cent;  under  this  head 
the  personality  of  the  teacher,  his  professional  and  community  interest,  and  all  those 
qualities  that  make  for  the  best  citizenship  should  be  considered.  (From  Indiana 
Teachers’  Licenses,  Charles  A.  Greathouse.) 

In  Maryland  four  factors  enter  into  the  analysis,  but  no  grading 
scheme  is  provided.  The  law  reads  as  follows: 

On  or  before  the  1st  day  of  October  of  each  year  the  county  superintendent  shall 
submit  to  the  county  school  board  a list  of  all  teachers  employed,  together  with  a 
classification  of  their  certificates.  In  determining  the  class  of  the  certificates  the  fol- 
lowing points  are  to  be  considered : (a)  Scholarship,  (6)  executive  ability,  (c)  personality, 
and  ( d ) teaching  power.  The  county  superintendent  may  add  such  other  require- 
ments as  may  be  approved  by  the  State  board  of  education.  (Public  School  Laws  of 
Maryland,  1910,  pp.  32-33.) 

In  Maine  the  experience  is  apparently  not  rated  altogether  by 
school  officials,  as  is  the  case  in  the  two  other  States: 

The  applicant  is  required  to  furnish  the  names  of  5 references,  to  3 of  whom  are  sent 
circular  letters  asking  each  to  estimate  the  applicant’s  fitness  as  excellent,  good,  fair, 
poor,  or  very  poor  in  each  of  the  following  points  except  the  last  named:  Moral  charac- 
ter, success  in  gaining  cooperation  of  pupils  and  parents,  tact  in  directing  and  con- 
trolling pupils,  interest  in  work,  energy,  enthusiasm,  skill  in  instructing,  power  in 
stimulating  pupils  to  do  their  best,  influence  over  pupils  out  of  school,  efforts  for 
self-improvement,  extent  of  general  reading,  manners  as  influencing  those  of  pupils, 
capacity  for  work,  for  what  kind  of  school  would  you  recommend  the  candidate. 

These  statements  are  then  graded  by  the  State  superintendent  according  to  the  fol- 
lowing scale:  Excellent,  90  to  100  per  cent;  good,  70  to  90  percent;  fair,  50  to  70  per 
cent;  poor,  30  to  50  per  cent;  and  very  poor,  1 to  30  per  cent.  The  average  of  the  3 
reports  determines  the  rating  for  each  element  of  fitness. 


212 


TEACHERS , CERTIFICATES. 

Minimum  salaries  are  fixed  for  each  class  of  teachers  in  both 
Indiana  and  Maryland.  This  fact  constitutes  a powerful  incentive 
toward  increased  efficiency  in  teaching. 

Complaint  has  often  been  made  that  the  examinations  as  at  present 
conducted  are  not  satisfactory  tests  of  the  knowledge  and  ability  of 
the  applicants.  Connecticut  has  a unique  plan  which  has  for  its 
object  the  avoidance  of  some  of  these  shortcomings.  It  involves  the 
submission  of  “ preliminary  papers”  showing  evidence  of  professional 
study  and  an  “oral”  test  in  the  various  subjects.  The  circular  of  the 
State  education  office  No.  21,  1909  (pp.  9-16),  describes  the  process 
for  the  elementary  certificate  as  follows: 

ELEMENTARY  CERTIFICATE. 

PRELIMINARY  PAPERS. 

Candidates  can  not  be  admitted  to  examination  for  an  elementary  certificate  unless 
on  or  before  the  day  of  examination  they  have  sent  to  the  secretary  of  this  board  satis- 
factory papers  giving  evidence  of  professional  study. 

In  preparing  these  papers  candidates  are  urged  to  make  use  of  every  available  help, 
and  the  language  of  books  may  be  copied,  provided  the  matter  quoted  is  indicated. 
They  must,  however,  expect  to  be  examined  with  especial  strictness  on  the  subject- 
matter  of  their  papers,  and  must  be  prepared  to  show  that  all  which  they  have  written 
represents  knowledge  which  they  can  readily  use  in  teaching.  These  papers  may  be 
short,  but  they  have  great  weight  in  determining  the  fitness  of  the  candidates.  They 
may  be  questioned  orally  upon  the  subject  matter  of  these  papers. 

The  following  papers  must  be  presented : 

English. — 1.  A paper  describing  the  candidate’s  method  of  teaching  children  to 
read. 

This  paper  must  be  divided  into  three  parts:  (1)  Giving  a plan  of  teaching  beginners;  (2)  a plan  for  teach- 
ng  those  who  can  use  books;  (3)  the  special  uses  of  oral  and  silent  reading. 

2.  A paper  describing  the  candidate’s  method  of  teaching  children  to  express  them- 
selves easily  and  clearly,  both  in  speaking  and  in  writing. 

The  use  to  be  made  of  (1)  copying,  (2)  dictation,  (3)  oral  statement,  and  (4)  composition  should  be  given. 

3.  A paper  giving  a few  books  with  which  the  candidate  is  familiar  under  the  follow- 
ing heads: 

(1)  Books  for  young  children.  (4)  History. 

(2)  Poetry.  (5)  Science. 

(3)  Biography.  (6)  Fiction, 

j A summary  of  one  of  the  books  may  be  required. 

The  author,  title,  and  publisher  of  each  book  must  be  given. 

! 4.  (1)  A list  of  useful  school  reference  books. 

(2)  A list  of  not  more  than  twenty  books  which  ought  to  be  in  a school  library. 

The  author,  title,  and  publisher  of  each  book  must  be  given. 

5.  A paper  describing  the  kind  of  literature  which  should  be  used  (1)  in  teaching 
children  the  beginnings  of  reading,  with  selections  or  references  to  books ; (2)  the  kind 
of  literature  to  be  used  in  the  later  practice  of  reading. 

This  paper  should  also  describe  the  extent  to  which  the  teacher  would  go  in  studying  English  literature 
with  children,  and  in  particular  give  a list  of  books — 

(a)  which  should  be  read  in  school. 

(b)  which  young  children  should  be  induced  to  read  to  themselves. 

The  lists  should  be  carefully  selected,  but  may  be  very  brief. 

If  possible,  these  books  should  be  arranged  for  the  stages  of  school  progress. 


MEASURING  EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHERS. 


213 


6.  A paper  giving — 

(1)  A list  of  important  points  of  English  usage  on  which  children  need  of  special  drill.  The  correct  forms 
of  expression  and  the  incorrect  forms  to  be  avoided  should  be  given. 

(2)  A method  of  teaching  punctuation,  and  the  written  forms  of  the  language  may  be  here  included. 

(3)  In  this  paper  candidates  should  also  state  and  illustrate  what  elements  of  English  grammar  can  be 
used  in  securing  correct  written  and  spoken  language. 

7.  A paper  describing  the  candidate’s  method  of  teaching  spelling. 

Penmanship. — A paper  describing  the  candidate’s  plan  of  teaching  children  to  write. 

This  paper  must  include  the  small  and  capital  letters  as  they  would  be  taught  to  children. 

Small  charts  containing  small  and  capital  letters  will  be  sent. 

Arithmetic. — 1.  One  paper  giving  the  facts  of  number  to  and  including  10. 

2.  One  paper  describing  the  candidate’s  plan  of  oral  and  written  work  under  all 
topics  mentioned  on  page  214,  especially  showing  how  children  maybe  taught  to  work 
practical  problems  with  facility. 

Elementary  science. — Two  papers,  each  describing  the  candidate’s  plan  of  a lesson 
to  be  given  to  children. 

It  is  recommended  that  one  paper  shall  describe  a lesson  in  chemistry  and  one  a lesson  in  physics,  geology, 
or  botany. 

Each  paper  must  give  (1)  age  of  children  for  whom  the  lesson  is  intended;  (2)  purpose  of  giving  the 
lesson;  (3)  concise  description  of  apparatus,  experiments,  or  object  of  observation — supplemented  by  any 
necessary  diagrams  or  drawings;  (4  method  of  teaching  the  lesson. 

The  following  topics  suggest  some  of  the  more  important  subjects  with  which  the 
candidates  must  be  familiar: 

air 

oxygen 
nitrogen 
hydrogen 
candle  flame 
carbon  dioxide 
gravitation 
three  states  of  matter 
pressure  in  solids,  liquids,  and  gases 
fog,  cloud 
vapor  and  climate 
conduction 
sources  of  heat 
cohesion 
magnetism 
telegraph 
electric  lamp 
steam  engine 
transmission  of  pressure 

Geography. — 1.  One  paper  describing  a plan  of  lesson  for  young  children. 

2.  One  paper  giving  topics  of  lesson  for  older  scholars,  and  suggestions  as  to  the  way 
in  which  the  scholars  should  prepare  such  a lesson. 

3.  A list  of  books  which  children  may  profitably  read  in  connection  with  this  subject. 

The  author,  title,  and  publisher  of  each  book  must  be  given. 

4.  A short  list  of  reference  books  useful  for  a teacher. 

The  author,  title,  and  publisher  of  each  book  must  be  given. 

Physiology. — 1.  One  paper  giving  parts  of  the  subjects  most  important  for  school 
children  and  the  object  of  teaching  each. 

2.  One  paper  describing  a plan  for  a single  lesson,  stating: 

(1)  Age  of  children;  (2)  purpose  of  the  lesson. 

History. — 1.  One  paper  giving  the  object  and  uses  of  studying  history  in  public 
schools. 


expansion 

circulation  of  water — of  air 

winds  and  currents 

evaporation 

condensation 

melting 

freezing 

rain,  snow 

dew,  frost 

sound 

common  minerals 
rock  disintegration 
soil  formation 
soil  transportation 
work  of  rain,  rivers,  and  ice 
organic  rock 
sedimentary  rock 
fossils 


214 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


2.  One  paper  giving  a list  of  books  which  may  be  read  by  children  in  connection 
with  this  subject. 

The  author,  title,  and  publisher  of  each  book  must  be  given. 

3.  One  paper  describing  a plan  of  a single  lesson  in  history. 

Civil  government  and  duties  of  citizenship. — A paper  describing  a plan  of  a single 
lesson  in  civil  government  and  the  duties  of  citizenship. 

School  management. — 1.  A paper  suggesting  principles  and  rules  for  grouping  and 
classing  scholars. 

2.  A paper  describing  clearly  the  method  of  keeping  registers  of  attendance.  The 
candidate  will  fill  out  a register  for  three  terms  of  12  weeks  each,  using  not  less  than 
five  names.  The  register  should  be  complete,  and  the  method  of  obtaining  the  aver- 
age attendance  should  be  indicated  for  each  term.  All  the  work  performed  in  obtain- 
ing averages  for  each  term  should  be  left  on  the  proper  page  of  the  register. 

State  register  containing  directions  will  be  sent  on  application. 

3.  A paper  showing  acquaintance  with  the  laws  of  the  State  relating  to  instruction, 
attendance,  employment  of  children,  and  the  duties  of  teachers. 

The  laws  relating  to  schools  will  be  sent  on  application. 

EXAMINATIONS. 

\ 

Preliminary  papers. — Candidates  must  show  a thorough  practical  understanding  of 
all  that  they  have  written  in  the  papers  presented  before  the  examination.  They 
may  be  questioned  orally  upon  the  subject  matter  of  these  papers. 

In  order  to  pass  the  examinations  and  receive  an  elementary  certificate,  candidates 
must  satisfy  all  the  following  requirements: 

Penmanship. — They  must  furnish  evidence  that  they  can  teach  penmanship. 

One  test  will  be  making  on  the  blackboard  or  on  paper  the  small  and  capital  letters 
as  they  should  be  made  in  teaching  children. 

Reference  is  made  to  the  following  books,  which  will  be  loaned  on  application: 

Parker,  Talks  on  Teaching,  pages  75-79. 

Farnham,  Sentence  Method  of  Teaching  Reading,  Writing,  and  Spelling. 

Prince,  Courses  and  Methods,  pages  66-73. 

Charts  containing  the  small  and  capital  letters,  topics,  and  questions  hitherto  used  will  be  furnished  on 
application. 

Reading. — Candidates  must  furnish  evidence  that  they  can  teach  reading.  Mere 
ability  to  read  is  not  sufficient.  A definite  method  of  procedure  with  beginners  and 
with  those  who  can  read  books  will  be  required.  Candidates  must  also  be  ready  to 
answer  questions  upon  books  which  they  themselves  have  read. 

The  following  references  on  the  subject  of  reading  will  be  loaned  on  application: 

Farnham,  The  Sentence  Method  of  Teaching  Reading,  Writing,  and  Spelling. 

Hall,  How  to  Teach  Reading  and  What  to  Read  in  Schools. 

Parker,  Talks  on  Teaching,  pages  26-66. 

McMurray,  Special  Method  in  Primary  Reading  and  Oral  Work  with  Stories. 

Welch,  Right  Reading  for  Children. 

Boston,  Mass.,  board  of  supervision,  Method  of  Teaching  Reading  in  the  Primary  Schools. 

Topics  and  questions  hitherto  used  will  be  sent  on  application. 

Spelling. — They  must  be  able  to  spell  and  pronounce  common  words. 

Under  this  subject  will  be  given  questions  relating  to  pronunciation,  the  use  of  the  dictionary,  abbre- 
viations, and  diacritical  marks. 

See  Penniman,  J.  H.,  New  Practical  Speller. 

Questions  hitherto  used  will  be  sent  on  application. 

English. — 1.  They  must  show  a good  knowledge  of  punctuation  and  capital  letters. 

2.  They  must  be  able  to  write  and  properly  address  a letter  of  any  ordinary  nature. 

3.  They  must  be  able  to  state  clearly  in  their  own  language  the  substance  of  any 
short  selection,  and  to  write  briefly  on  a subject  given  in  the  examination. 


MEASURING  EFFICIENCY  OF  TEACHERS. 


215 


4.  They  must  show  a good  knowledge  of  the  elements  of  English  grammar. 

Topics  and  questions  hitherto  used  will  be  sent  on  application. 

English  literature. — They  must  have  studied  some  topics  in  English  literature,  and 
be  able  to  write  intelligently,  in  correct  English,  in  answer  to  simple  questions  upon 
this  topic. 

The  topics  and  questions  hitherto  used  will  be  sent  on  application. 

Books  listed  in  the  topics  will  be  loaned. 

Arithmetic. — They  must  be  able  both  to  figure  and  to  work  out  simple  practical 
problems  in  the  following  subjects  ordinarily  taught  as  parts  of  arithmetic: 

addition 

subtraction 

multiplication 

division 

common  and  decimal  fractions 

percentage  (including  among  its  applications  simple  interest,  stocks,  commissions,  and  profit  and  loss) 
common  weights  and  measures  and  their  applications 
the  metric  system 

mensuration  of  plane  surfaces  and  of  rectangular  solids 
ratio  and  proportion 
square  and  cube  root 

They  must  also  know  how  to  keep  a cash  account  and  make  out  bills  and  receipts. 

Topics,  charts,  and  questions  hitherto  used  will  be  sent  on  application. 

Elementary  science.  They  must  have  a good  elementary  knowledge  of  one  subject 
chosen  for  their  preliminary  papers  in  science. 

See  under  elementary  science,  page  212. 

School  Document  No.  12, 1903,  Lessons  on  Plants,  by  H.  N.  Loomis,  and  questions  hitherto  used  will  be 
sent  on  application. 

Reference  is  made  to  the  following,  which  will  be  loaned  on  application: 

Huxley,  Science  Primer.  Introductory. 

Roscoe,  Science  Primer.  Chemistry. 

Stewart,  Science  Primer.  Physics. 

Geikie,  Science  Primer.  Geology. 

Bower,  Science  Applied  to  Work. 

Buckley,  A.  B.,  Short  History  of  Natural  Science. 

Geography.  They  must — 

1.  Understand  the  elements  of  mathematical  geography. 

2.  Be  able  to  locate  the  principal  divisions  of  land  and  water  of  the  world. 

3.  Be  able  to  locate  the  chief  political  divisions  of  the  world  and  the  States  and 
Territories  of  the  United  States. 

4.  Be  able  to  describe  the  important  physical  features  of  North  America  and  of 
Europe. 

5.  Show  a good  knowledge  of  certain  topics  ordinarily  taught  as  a part  of  geography. 
These  topics  will  be  sent  on  application. 

The  following  books  are  referred  to,  and  will  be  loaned  on  application: 

Grove,  Science  Primer.  Geography. 

Geikie,  Science  Primer.  Physical  Geography. 

Shaler,  The  Story  of  our  Continent. 

Shaler,  First  Book  of  Geology  [with  teacher’s  pamphlet]. 

Brigham,  Geographic  Influences  in  American  History. 

Topics  and  questions  hitherto  used  will  be  furnished. 

Physiology.  1.  They  must  be  able  to  do  (at  least  sufficiently  for  some  elementary 
instruction)  the  work  required  of  teachers  in  the  textbook  on  physiology  prepared  by 
Dr.  J.  K.  Thacher  and  A.  B.  Morrill. 

This  book  and  charts  will  be  sent  to  those  who  wish  to  prepare  themselves  on  this  subject. 


216 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


2.  They  must  be  acquainted  with  the  law  relating  to  the  teaching  of  physiology 
and  hygiene. 

The  law  is  found  in  general  statutes,  sections  2162, 2163, 2245.  The  laws  relating  to  schools  will  be  sent  on 
application. 

History.  They  must  be  able'  to  show  a good  knowledge  of  certain  topics  in  history. 
These  topics  will  be  sent  on  application. 

Reference  is  made  to  the  following  books,  which  will  be  loaned: 

Hart,  Suggestions  on  History  and  Government  of  United  States.  Cambridge. 

Bourne,  Teaching  of  History  and  Civics. 

Gordy  & Twitchell,  Pathfinder  of  American  History. 

Atkinson,  On  History  and  the  Study  of  History. 

Atkinson,  The  Study  of  Politics. 

Semple,  American  History  and  its  Geographic  Conditions. 

Duties  of  citizenship.  They  must  be  able  to  show  a satisfactory  knowledge  of  certain 
topics  in  duties  of  citizenship.  These  topics  will  be  furnished  on  application. 

The  following  reference  books  will  be  loaned: 

Fiske,  Civil  Government  in  the  United  States. 

Forman,  First  Lessons  in  Civics. 

See  also  under  history. 

Vocal  music  and  drawing  are  not  now  required  except  for  kindergarten  certificate. 
If  satisfactory  evidence  of  ability  to,  teach  these  branches  be  furnished,  they  will  be 
noted  on  the  certificate. 

Undoubtedly  this  State  has  taken  the  most  advanced  ground  in 
this  feature  of  examination  and  certification  of  teachers.  The  plan 
deserves  a careful  and  extended  trial  in  other  States  as  well. 

Connecticut  has  also  another  unique  method  of  determining  the 
qualifications  of  applicants.  Teachers  for  advanced  certificates  are 
required  to  demonstrate  their  ability  to  teach  by  actual  test.  It 
would  be  of  great  benefit  to  other  States  if  more  were  known  of  the 
experience  that  has  been  met  in  the  carrying  out  of  these  two  plans 
for  testing  knowledge  and  practice. 

Utah  and  New  Mexico,  by  stating  their  scholarship  requirements 
in  the  form  of  “credits,”  place  a premium  upon  attending  educational 
institutions  and  thus  promote  a good  tendency,  although  these 
credits  may  be  earned  in  examination  as  well  as  in  school. 

California  has  the  highest  requirements  for  teachers’  certificates 
of  all  the  States.  Her  minimum  is  far  above  the  maximum  for 
elementary  teachers  in  many  States.  The  character  of  the  require- 
ments for  the  necessary  year  of  postgraduate  work  for  high-school 
teachers  is  of  the  greatest  interest.  The  requirements  of  the  board 
in  this  respect  are  as  follows: 

High-school  certificates  may  be  issued  under  the  provisions  of  section  1521,  sub- 
division 2 (a),  and  section  1775,  subdivision  1 (a),  of  the  political  code  of  California, 
as  follows: 

(a)  To  candidates  who  have  received  the  bachelor’s  degree  from  a college  requiring 
not  less  than  8 years  of  high-school  and  college  training,  and  who  submit  evidence 
that  in  addition  to  the  course  required  for  the  bachelor’s  degree  they  have  successfully 
completed  at  least  1 year  of  graduate  study  in  a university  belonging  to  the  Associa- 
tion of  American  Universities;  which  year  of  graduate  study  shall  include  one-half 
year  of  advanced  academic  study  (part  of  the  time,  at  least,  being  devoted  to  one 


PERSISTENCE  OF  CERTIFICATES. 


217 


or  more  of  the  subjects  taught  in  the  high  school),  and  such  other  times  in  a well- 
equipped  training  school  of  secondary  grade  directed  by  the  department  of  education 
of  any  one  of  the  universities  of  the  association,  as  may  be  necessary  to  fulfill  the 
pedagogical  requirements  prescribed  by  this  board. 

(b)  To  candidates  who  have  received  the  bachelor’s  degree  from  a college  requiring 
not  less  than  8 years  of  high-school  and  college  training,  and  who  submit  evidence 
that  in  addition  to  the  courses  required  for  the  bachelor’s  degree  they  have  successfully 
completed  at  least  one-half  year  of  graduate  study  in  a university  belonging  to  the 
Association  of  American  Universities;  which  half-year  of  graduate  study  shall  consist 
of  advanced  academic  study  (part  of  the  time,  at  least,  being  devoted  to  one  or  more 
of  the  subjects  taught  in  the  high  school),  and  6 months  as  student  teachers  in  a 
well-equipped  school  of  secondary  grade  directed  by  a California  State  Normal,  or 
its  recognized  equivalent,  under  conditions  conforming  to  the  requirements  pre- 
scribed by  this  board  as  the  minimum  amount  of  pedagogy. 

(c)  The  minimum  amount  of  pedagogy  which  section  1521,  subdivision  2 (a)  of  the 
political  code  directs  the  State  board  of  education  to  prescribe,  is  hereby  declared 
to  be  as  follows: 

Satisfactory  completion  of  courses,  suitable  and  essential  to  acquiring  efficient 
skill  in  teaching  and  an  intelligent  comprehension  of  the  scope,  and  the  attainable 
goals  in  high-school  instruction;  said  courses  to  be  equivalent  to  not  less  than  12 
hours  per  week  for  one-half  year;  provided,  that  at  least  one-third  of  this  work  shall 
consist  of  practical  teaching  under  the  direction  of  supervising  instructors  of  academic 
competency  and  breadth  of  pedagogic  comprehension  who  for  a period  of  not  less 
than  2 years  have  taught  the  subjects  in  which  they  supervise. 

PERSISTENCE  OF  CERTIFICATES. 

Certificates  are  granted  either  for  life  or  for  a term  of  years.  When- 
ever the  term  of  years  for  which  a certificate  has  been  issued  comes 
to  an  end,  one  of  four  things  occurs:  (1)  The  holder  is  not  given 
another  certificate;  (2)  the  same  kind  of  certificate  is  reissued  to 
him  after  fulfillment  of  the  same  conditions  upon  which  the  original 
certificate  was  granted;  (3)  the  same  certificate  is  renewed  or 
extended  by  fulfillment  of  other  conditions;  (4)  the  holder  obtains  a 
higher  certificate  through  the  fulfillment  of  additional  conditions. 
In  each  of  the  last  two  cases  the  effect  of  the  fulfillment  of  the  require- 
ments for  the  original  certificate  continues  with  full  force  in  the  grant- 
ing of  subsequent  certificates.  This  continuance  of  the  effect  of 
fulfilling  the  requirements  for,  or  the  holding  of,  a certificate  after  the 
certificate  itself  has  no  longer  any  validity  is  called  persistence.  The 
term  is  also  extended  to  cover  the  permanent  continuance  of  the 
effect  of  meeting  the  requirements  for  a life  certificate. 

Obviously,  persistence  is  absent  in  the  first  two  cases  mentioned 
above. 

It  exists  in  three  forms : 1 

(1)  Through  continuance  of  a life  certificate. 

1 In  the  study  of  this  subject  it  is  assumed  that  the  persistence  of  any  certificate  may  be  destroyed  by  the 
revocation  of  that  certificate,  or  of  a subsequent  certificate;  hut  no  mention  will  be  made  of  this  possible 
limitation  in  the  treatment  of  any  phase  of  the  question.  For  example,  the  so-called  life  or  permanent  cer- 
tificates or  that  issued  “during  good  behavior”  are  all  treated  alike  as  life  certificates  without  reference  to 
their  possible  revocation.  The  lapsing  of  a certificate  through  its  holder  failing  to  teach  is,  however,  men- 
tioned. 


218 


TEACHERS 9 CERTIFICATES. 


(2)  Through  renewal  or  extension  of  the  same  certificate. 

(3)  Through  obtaining  a higher  certificate. 

The  third  form  in  which  persistency  appears — the  obtaining  of  a 
higher  certificate — may  be  accomplished  in  a number  of  distinct 
ways.  The  following  factors  have  been  noted  as  entering  into  the 
determination:  (1)  Successful  experience  (this  requirement  is  uni- 
versal); (2)  professional  reading;  (3)  attendance  at  higher  insti- 
tutions of  learning;  (4)  examination  in  additional  subjects;  (5) 
raising  of  standings  in  same  subjects;  (6)  showing  progressive  effi- 
ciency in  other  ways. 

Whether  persistence  is  good  or  bad  depends  upon  (1)  the  scholar- 
ship requirements  for  the  certificate;  (2)  the  amount  of  experience 
required  for  the  certificate;  (3)  the  form  in  which  persistence  ap- 
pears; and  (4)  the  requirements  which  must  be  met  in  order  for 
persistence  to  operate.  It  should  be  so  regulated  as  to  promote  pro- 
gressive efficiency  in  all  cases.  That  such  is  not  always  the  case  is 
apparent  from  that  which  follows,  although  no  particular  examples 
are  cited.  Because  of  the  importance  of  the  first  two  factors  men- 
tioned, it  is  desirable  that  the  certificates  be  studied  by  classes, 
divided  according  to  the  educational  accomplishments  of  the  holders, 
the  same  method  as  that  followed  in  studying  scholarship  and  expe- 
rience requirements.  The  tables  previously  given  under  that  head 
contain  the  facts  relating  to  persistence  as  well. 

Certificates  issued  to  college  graduates  {see  Table  13). — Those  States 
issuing  certificates  to  college  graduates  grant,  with  few  exceptions,  a 
certificate  for  a limited  number  of  years,  upon  the  expiration  of  which 
a life  certificate  is  issued.  As  a rule  no  experience  is  required  for  this 
certificate  and  no  examination.  The  only  condition  which  must  be 
fulfilled  in  order  to  achieve  the  life  certificate  is  the  universal  one  of 
successful  experience.  The  number  of  years  required  varies,  as  shown 
in  the  following  table: 


Table  29. — Number  of  years  experience  required  of  college  graduates  under  provisional 
and  other  certificates  before  a permanent  life  certificate  is  issued. 


0. 

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 
12 


Number  of  years  experience. 


Number  of  States  requiring  each  num- 
ber of  years. 


8 

2 


Total 


4 

11 

2 

3 

1 

31 


The  median  number  of  years  required  is  3.  As  is  seen  in  this 
table,  8 States  admit  college  graduates  to  life  certificates  directly 
upon  graduation,  without  test  of  their  practical  ability.  In  some 


PERSISTENCE  OF  CERTIFICATES. 


219 


instances  the  list  of  institutions  is  restricted  to  a State  university,  as 
in  Michigan,  or  to  State  institutions,  as  in  Oklahoma. 

Virginia  and  West  Virginia  do  not  grant  life  certificates.  Vir- 
ginia’s highest  certificate,  requiring  no  specified  amount  of  experi- 
ence, is  renewable  for  similar  periods  at  the  discretion  of  the  board. 
The  12-year  certificate  of  West  Virginia  is  renewable,  but  9 years 
experience  is  required  for  its  issuance  and  4 additional  years  for  its 
renewal. 

No  State  makes  any  other  requirement  than  that  of  successful 
experience  for  the  awarding  of  a life  certificate  to  a graduate  of  a 
standard  college  holding  a provisional  certificate.  Virginia  is  the 
only  State  that  makes  any  other  requirement  for  the  renewal  of  any 
certificate  issued  primarily  on  the  basis  of  college  graduation,  and 
in  this  case  the  colleges  are  not  considered  of  standard  grade.  For 
its  5-year  certificate  it  requires  that  the  holder  keep  up  his  profes- 
sional reading.  North  Carolina  is  the  only  State  which  will  not 
renew  a certificate  based  on  graduation  from  a standard  college. 

Certificates  issued  to  State  normal  school  graduates  {see  Table  15). — 
There  is  a greater  number  of  certificates  based  upon  completion  of 
normal-school  courses  and  also  a wider  variety  of  practice  as  regards 
conditions  upon  which  certificates  are  issued  to  those  completing 
courses  in  normal  schools,  due  to  the  differences  in  the  courses  offered 
in  those  institutions.  There  is  usually  at  least  one  certificate  in  each 
State  which  may  be  obtained  by  normal-school  graduates  without 
experience,  that  one  being  granted  to  those  completing  the  highest 
course.  But  there  are  not  so  many  States  which  offer  life  certificates 
to  graduates  as  in  the  case  of  colleges.  Provisional  certificates  are 
issued,  but  they  are  not  quite  so  prominent  as  are  those  for  college 
graduates.  The  number  of  States  requiring  each  of  the  various 
numbers  of  years  of  experience  from  normal-school  graduates  apply- 
ing for  life  certificates  is  shown  in  the  following  table : 

Table  30. — Number  of  States  requiring  each  of  the  various  numbers  of  years  of  experi- 
ence from  normal-school  graduates  applying  for  life  certificates. 


Number  of  years  of  experience  required. 

Number  of  States  requiring. 

0 

4 

1 

7 

2 

5 

3 

4 

4 

0 

5 

6 

6 

1 

io : 

Total 

28 

220 


TEACHERS 9 CERTIFICATES. 


The  median  number  of  years  is  two,  one  year  less  than  in  the  case  of 
college  graduates.  Some  Southern  States  issue  to  normal-school 
graduates  certificates  which  are  not  included  in  this  list  by  reason  of 
lack  of  data. 

Kansas  is  the  only  State  that  requires  any  condition  other  than 
successful  experience  as  a prerequisite  for  awarding  a life  certificate 
to  a holder  of  a short-term  or  provisional  normal  graduates’  certificate. 
It  requires  an  examination  in  professional  branches.  No  doubt 
various  degrees  of  discretion  are  exercised  by  the  boards  of  other 
States  in  awarding  this  advancement  in  certificates,  and  doubtless 
they  take  into  account  other  matters  than  that  of  mere  experience. 
The  exercise  of  their  discretion  is  most  marked  probably  in  those 
States  in  which  the  laws  make  the  plainest  provision  for  it,  as  in 
California,  North  Dakota,  Nevada,  and  Idaho.  Among  the  condi- 
tions of  renewal  of  certificates  based  upon  shorter  courses  than  those 
required  for  graduates  are  found  the  following:  (1)  Attendance  at 
institutes — South  Dakota;  (2)  reading  circle  courses  must  be  main- 
tained— Wyoming;  (3)  completion  of  additional  year  in  normal 
school — Minnesota;  (4)  six  weeks’  attendance  at  a professional 
school — Wisconsin. 

Certificates  issued  to  high-school  graduates  {see  Table  16). — Graduates 
from  high  schools,  including  a normal  training  course,  are  given,  after 
a probationary  period,  a certificate  which  is  renewable  indefinitely  in 
the  States  of  Iowa,  North  Dakota,  and  Kansas.  The  same  is  true  of 
the  New  York  certificates  that  involve  a year  in  the  training  class  after 
the  completion  of  the  high-school  course.  New  Hampshire  issues  a 
life  certificate  to  high-school  graduates  making  the  required  stand- 
ings. Virginia,  Oregon,  and  Utah  make  provision  for  the  extension 
of  this  kind  of  certificate.  The  only  State  making  any  explicit  con- 
dition upon  which  renewal  is  based  is  Kansas,  which  requires  the 
holder  to  maintain  progressive  efficiency. 

Lower  grades  of  county  certificates. — The  following  table  shows  for 
each  State  the  provisions  relating  to  renewal  and  reissuance  of 
county  certificates  lower  than  first  grade  and  their  equivalents.  The 
examination  and  experience  requirements  for  these  certificates  are 
given  in  Table  17. 


PERSISTENCE  OF  CERTIFICATES. 


221 


Table  31. — Renewal  and  reissuance  of  certificates  below  first-grade  county  certificates  and 
their  equivalents.  Complement  of  Tables  17  and  22.  ( Successful  teaching  is  required 

for  all  renewals , whether  mentioned  or  not.) 


States. 

Renewal. 

1 

Reissuance. 

North  Atlantic  Divi- 
sion: 

None. 

New  Hampshire. . . 

Nonrenewable 

Do. 

Renewable 

Do. 

Rhode  Island 

Fourth  renewable  as  evening  school  cer- 
tificate only;  third,  4 years,  then  6. 

Do. 

Do. 

New  York 

Elementary  extended  1 year  for  each  8 
counts  of  academic  work. 

Do. 

New  Jersey 

Build  to  higher  certificate 

Build  to  higher  certificate. 

Pennsylvania 

Professional  renewable  3 times,  exam- 
ined on  2 additional  subjects. 

May  teach  only  5 terms  on  a provisional 

certificate. 

South  Atlantic  Divi- 

sion: 

Nonrenewable 

None. 

do 

Do. 

Virginia 

Second  grade,  completion  of  prescribed 
reading. 

Third  grade,  over  to  same  person. 

Not  issued  to  same  person  for  more  than 
two  years  in  succession. 

North  Carolina 

do 

None. 

South  Carolina 

Third  nonrenewable;  second  may,  op- 
tion of  board,  institute  attendance. 

Do. 

Nomenewable 

Do. 

do 

Do. 

South  Central  Division: 

Kentucky 

do 

Third  grade  issued  once  only  to  same 
person. 

None. 

Alabama 

Nonrenewable T 

Do. 

Mississippi 

do 

Do. 

Louisiana 

Extended  1 year  for  9 weeks’  attend- 
ance at  normal  schools. 

Do. 

Texas 

May  build  to  higher  certificate 

Do. 

Arkansas 

Second,  2 times;  third,  1 time 

Do. 

Oklahoma 

Second  renewable,  institute  attendance, 

Third  grade,  not  more  than  2 to  same 

standing,  and  experience. 

person. 

North  Central  Division: 

Ohio 

At  discretion  of  board 

None. 

Indiana 

Nonrenewable 

Do. 

Illinois 

Discretion  of  county  superintendent. . . 

Do. 

Michigan 

Renewable  if  standing  above  85  per 
cent  in  2 examinations  and  continu- 
ous teaching. 

Do. 

Wisconsin 

Second  and  third  renewable,  6 weeks  in- 

Third grade,  not  more  than  3 to  same 

stitutions,  2 credits,  advance  stand- 
ings. 

person. 

Minnesota 

Second  renewable  under  conditions  pre- 

Third grade,  not  more  than  2 issued  to 

scribed  by  State  superintendent. 

same  person  in  same  county. 

Iowa 

Second,  indefinitely;  third,  once;  pro- 
fessional study  for  second. 

None. 

Missouri 

Second  renewable  once  only 

Third  reissued  during  period  of  four  suc- 
cessive years. 

North  Dakota 

Under  rule  prescribed  by  State  superin- 
tendent. 

None. 

South  Dakota 

N onrenewable 

Do. 

Nebraska 

Second  renewed  if  standing  above  a cer- 

Third grade  issued  only  once  to  same 

tain  standard. 

person. 

Kansas 

Holders  second  grade  may  build  to 

Third  grade  reissued  once  if  holder  has 

Western  Division: 

higher  grade. 

taught  3 months. 

Montana 

Second  may  be  renewed 

Third  grade,  not  more  than  2 to  same 
person. 

Wyoming : 

i Second,  completion  of  reading  circle 
course. 

None. 

Colorado 

Renewable  once 

Do. 

New  Mexico 

N onrene  wab  le 

Do. 

Arizona 

do 

Do. 

Utah 

Renewable  under  regulations  of  State 
board. 

Do. 

Nevada 

Nonrenewable 

Third  grade,  only  once  to  same  person. 
None. 

Idaho 

Renewable  6 weeks’  attendance  profes- 
sional school  (2  credits). 

Washington 

Second  and  third,  attendance  educa- 
tional institutions. 

Do. 

222 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


Twelve  States  limit  the  number  of  times  a third-grade  certificate 
may  be  issued.  Five  of  these  States  are  in  the  North  Central  group, 
one  in  the  North  Atlantic,  and  two  in  each  of  the  remaining  divisions. 
Four  States  limit  the  number  of  third-grade  certificates  which  the 
same  person  may  hold  to  1,  four  other  States  to  2,  one  State  to  3, 
and  one  State  to  4.  Pennsylvania  limits  the  number  of  terms  which 
may  be  taught  under  a provisional  certificate  to  5,  while  West  Vir- 
ginia will  not  issue  more  than  2 third-grade  certificates  in  succession 
to  the  same  person. 

No  State  limits  the  number  of  times  that  a second-grade  certificate 
may  be  issued. 

Thirteen  States  do  not  permit  the  renewal  of  either  the  second  or 
third  grade  certificate,  13  permit  the  renewal  of  the  third,  but  fre- 
quently a limit  is  placed  upon  the  number  of  times.  In  five  States 
successful  experience  appears  to  be  a sufficient  reason — Connecticut, 
Tennessee,  Arkansas,  Iowa,  and  Colorado.  Louisiana,  Wisconsin, 
Idaho,  and  Washington  require  study  in  professional  schools.  In 
North  Dakota  and  Utah  the  matter  is  regulated  by  the  State  board 
and  in  Ohio  by  the  local  boards.  In  Michigan  it  depends  upon  the 
standing  made  in  examinations. 

The  second-grade  certificate,  when  there  is  such,  is  renewable  except 
in  the  13  States  just  referred  to.  These  13  States  are  New  Hampshire, 
Delaware,  Maryland,  West  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida, 
Kentucky,  Mississippi,  Indiana,  South  Dakota,  New  Mexico,  and 
Arizona.  In  many  of  these  there  is  a strong  tendency  against  the 
renewal  of  certificates  and  in  favor  of  a reissuance  after  reexamination. 
Successful  experience  is  the  only  ground  specified  in  about  eight  of  the 
States.  Among  additional  prerequisites  no  one  has  prominence. 
Additional  examinations  are  prescribed  in  1,  higher  standings  in  2, 
attendance  in  educational  institutions  in  4,  institute  attendance  alone 
in  3,  and  combined  with  high  standings  in  1,  discretion  of  officials  in 
2,  meeting  conditions  prescribed  in  regulations  in  3,  and  professional 
reading  in  4. 

Thus  a teacher  can  continue  teaching  for  life  or  the  lowest  grade 
certificate  in  all  but  12  States  and  can  continue  teaching  on  the 
second  or  next  to  the  lowest  certificate  in  all  the  States.  Thirteen 
States  permit  even  the  renewal  of  a third-grade  certificate.  All  but 
13  States  grant  renewals  of  the  second-grade  certificate,  and  appar- 
ently without  limit,  although  many  of  the  States  make  such  require- 
ments as  are  intended  to  bring  about  improvement  in  the  teachers 
holding  the  certificate. 

First-grade  certificates  {see  Table  22). — First-grade  certificates  are 
renewable  in  all  States  but  Delaware,  Maryland,  Georgia,  Florida,  and 
Tennessee.  Whether  the  renewal  is  for  stated  periods  or  for  life  the 
effect  is  the  same,  as  there  is  no  limitation  in  any  State  except  West 


PERSISTENCE  OF  CERTIFICATES, 


223 


Virginia  and  Kentucky  upon  the  number  of  times  renewal  may  occur, 
provided  the  required  conditions  are  met.  For  this  reason  the  first- 
grade  county  certificate  or  its  equivalent  or,  when  there  is  not  such, 
the  certificate  next  above  in  rank,  is  the  highest  certificate  that  the 
majority  of  the  teachers  in  the  United  States  ever  attain. 

The  conditions  of  renewal  vary  considerably,  but  most  of  them 
have  as  their  object  the  furnishing  of  an  incentive  for  the  improve- 
ment of  teachers  in  service.  This  incentive  is  most  effective  when 
conditions  for  renewal  depend  upon  future  acts  rather  than  past 
accomplishments.  For  example,  high  standings  in  previous  exami- 
nations do  not  give  so  strong  a stimulus  as  the  required  completion 
of  a course  in  professional  reading. 

The  various  conditions  and  the  States  in  which  they  prevail  are  as 
follows : 

1.  Successful  teaching  only:  West  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Mississippi,  Indiana,  Wis- 

consin, Arizona — 6.  (In  Indiana  particularly  and  in  Wisconsin  the  require- 
ments for  the  original  certificates  are  high,  and  so  there  is  not  so  good  a reason 
for  additional  requirements,  although  this  does  not  entirely  excuse  their 
absence.) 

2.  Continuance  in  same  position  and  5 years’  experience:  Missouri — 1. 

3.  Standings  in  2 previous  examinations:  Michigan — 1. 

4.  Discretion  of  county  superintendent  or  board:  North  Carolina,  Illinois,  Ohio, 

California — 4. 

5.  Meeting  requirements  prescribed  by  Sj;ate  superintendent  or  State  board:  North 

Dakota,  Nebraska,  New  Mexico,  Utah,  Nevada — 5. 

6.  Keeping  up  professional  reading  or  reading-circle  work:  Virginia,  Tennessee, 

Iowa,  Missouri,  Wyoming — 5. 

7.  Attendance  at  institutes:  South  Carolina,  Arkansas,  South  Dakota — 3. 

8.  Attendance  at  institutes  and  standings  previous  examination — 2. 

9.  Attendance  at  summer  normals:  Louisiana — 1. 

10.  Attendance  at  summer  normals  and  professional  reading:  Kansas — 1. 

11.  Attendance  at  higher  educational  institutions  one  year:  Wisconsin  and  Oregon — 2. 

12.  Continuous  teaching  and  satisfactory  evidence  of  progress  and  efficiency:  Mon- 

tana— 1 . 

Transfer  of  grades  from  lower  to  higher  certificates. — In  order  to 
encourage  the  advancement  of  the  professional  ability  of  teachers 
holding  county  and  equivalent  licenses,  a number  of  States  have 
made  provision  for  the  transfer  of  grades  from  the  lower  to  the  higher 
certificates.  This  process  is  known  in  certain  sections  as  “building 
up”  or  “building”  from  a lower  to  a higher  certificate.  A digest  of 
the  laws  in  accordance  with  which  this  is  accomplished  by  holders 
of  county  certificates  is  as  follows: 

IDAHO. 

The  county  superintendent  may  transfer  the  standings  of  a third-grade  certificate 
in  force  to  a second-grade  certificate,  and  those  of  a second-grade  to  a first-grade, 
provided  holder  has  had  eight  months  successful  experience  in  teaching  and  has 
attended  a professional  school  for  teachers  at  least  six  weeks  and  received  credits 
in  at  least  two  subjects.  Examination  in  additional  subjects  must  be  taken.  (Act 
of  1911,  H.  B.  No.  240,  pp.  79-81.) 


224 


teachers'  certificates. 


IOWA. 

An  applicant  for  life  validation  of  a limited  certificate  is  privileged  to  be  reexamined 
at  any  regular  examination  in  any  branch  or  branches  to  raise  his  percentage  to  the 
required  grade. 

Holder  of  a second-grade  certificate  may  build  to  a first-grade  certificate  by  making 
the  required  grades,  and  by  examination  in  the  additional  required  branches,  subject 
to  the  requirements  of  36  weeks’  experience.  Likewise  a holder  of  a third-grade 
certificate  may  build  to  a second  or  a first  grade,  applicant  having  the  privilege  of 
being  examined  in  one  or  more  of  such  branches  at  any  regular  examination.  (State 
Department  Circular  No.  5,  1911.) 

KANSAS. 

Any  person  holding  a second-grade  certificate  may  retain  for  two  years  any  grade 
of  90  per  cent  or  more,  secured  at  not  to  exceed  four  regular  county  teachers’  examina- 
tions, and  such  grades  shall  be  applied  toward  a first-grade  certificate,  but  no  grade 
received  prior  to  the  issuance  of  such  second-grade  certificate  shall  be  so  applied. 
(Act  of  Feb.  28,  1911,  chap.  277,  p.  506,  Session  Laws,  1911.) 

MISSOURI. 

A holder  of  a second  or  third-grade  certificate  “may  raise  the  grade  of  his  certificate 
by  passing  in  the  additional  subjects  required”  provided  the  average  for  the  higher 
certificate  is  obtained.  (Same  minimum  standing  for  all  certificates.)  (School  Laws, 
1909,  sec.  10942,  p.  99.) 

MONTANA. 

A holder  of  a first,  second,  or  third  grade  certificate  who  has  taught  one  year  or 
more  in  Montana  upon  making  application  for  a certificate  of  higher  grade  is  credited 
with  the  percentages  of  his  last  examination  for  the  certificate  which  he  holds,  and  is 
required  to  take  examination  in  only  those  subjects  in  which  his  grades  are  not  up 
to  the  required  standard  for  the  higher  grade  of  certificate  and  in  the  additional 
branches  required  for  such  certificate.  (Act  of  Mar.  3, 1905,  School  Laws,  1909,  p.  136.) 

NEVADA. 

Any  person  who  shall  at  any  regular  examination  make  a grade  of  85  per  cent  or 
more  in  any  subject  shall  receive  credit  for  such  subject  toward  a first-grade  elemen- 
tary certificate;  provided  that  no  such  credit  shall  be  held  for  a period  of  more  than 
two  years.  (Act  approved  Mar.  20,  1911,  Laws  of  Nevada,  p.  192.) 

NEW  MEXICO. 

“Standings  of  90  per  cent  or  more  in  subjects  on  an  unexpired  second-grade  certifi- 
cate may  be  accepted  in  granting  a first-grade  certificate.”  (Report  of  Superintend- 
ent of  Public  Instruction,  1908,  pp.  26,  28.) 

OREGON. 

Any  person  receiving  credits  of  90  per  cent  or  over  in  any  subject  or  subjects  at  any 
regular  teachers’  examination  in  this  State  shall  not  be  required  to  be  reexamined  in 
such  subject  or  subjects  in  order  to  receive  any  certificate  for  which  the  applicant  may 
be  eligible  to  apply;  provided,  that  credits  so  earned  shall  be  forfeited  if  such  person 
ceases  to  be  actually  engaged  in  educational  work  for  three  consecutive  years.  The 
holder  of  any  common-school  certificate  shall  be  entitled  to  write  on  one  or  more  sub- 
jects at  any  examination  for  the  purpose  of  securing  credits;  and  when  sufficient 
credits  have  been  earned  the  proper  certificate  shall  be  issued.  (Acts  of  1911,  S.  B. 
No.  101,  p.  15.) 

RHODE  ISLAND. 

Candidates  for  second-grade  certificates  who  have  held  third-grade  certificates  or 
passed  examinations  for  same  will  be  examined  in  additional  subjects  only. 


PERSISTENCE  OF  CERTIFICATES. 


225 


Candidates  for  first-grade  certificates  who  have  held  a second-grade  certificate  or 
passed  an  examination  for  same  will  be  examined  in  additional  subjects.  (Circular 
on  examination  and  certification  of  teachers,  June  30  and  July  1,  1910.) 

TEXAS. 

Holder  of  a State  second-grade  certificate  may  build  to  either  a State  first-grade 
certificate  or  to  a State  permanent  primary  certificate,  and  the  holder  of  a State  first- 
grade  certificate  may  build  to  a State  permanent  certificate  or  to  a State  permanent 
primary  certificate,  by  taking  examination  in  prescribed  additional  branches. 

Likewise  the  holder  of  a State  permanent  primary  certificate  thus  secured  may  build 
to  a State  permanent  certificate  during  the  first  six  years  of  the  validity  of  said  State 
permanent  primary  certificate. 

A State  certificate  issued  on  work  done  in  the  University  of  Texas,  a Texas  State 
normal  college,  or  any  college  or  university  of  the  first  class,  may  be  built  upon  through 
the  regular  examinations  to  a certificate  of  a higher  grade. 

In  all  cases  of  building  from  one  certificate  to  another  applicant  shall  have  the 
privilege  of  being  examined  in  one  or  more  of  the  additional  subjects  at  any  exam- 
ination. (Act  of  1911,  Bulletin  No.  8,  State  Department.) 

WASHINGTON. 

Any  person  who  receives  credits  of  90  per  cent  or  over  in  any  subject  at  any  regular 
teachers’  examination  shall  not  be  required  to  take  an  examination  again  in  such  sub- 
ject, so  long  as  he  is  actively  engaged  in  educational  work.  The  holder  of  any  common- 
school  certificate  shall  be  entitled  to  write  on  one  or  more  subjects  at  any  examination 
for  the  purpose  of  securing  credits;  and  when  sufficient  credits  have  been  earned  the 
proper  certificate  shall  be  issued.  (School  Laws,  1909,  Par.  316,  sec.  6,  p.  85.) 

WISCONSIN. 

Sec.  450-452.  County  or  city  superintendent  may  transfer  the  standings  of  a third- 
grade  certificate  in  force  to  a second-grade  certificate  if  holder  has  taught  successfully 
at  least  eight  months  and  has  attended  a professional  school  for  teachers  for  at  least 
six  weeks  and  received  credits  in  at  least  two  subjects. 

Sec.  450-453.  Contains  same  provision  in  relation  to  transfer  from  second  to  first- 
grade  certificate. 

The  superintendent  may  allow  any  holder  of  an  unexpired  third-grade  certificate 
or  county  training-school  certificate  to  write  on  any  two  or  more  of  the  additional 
branches  demanded  for  a second-grade  certificate.  If  applicant  secures  the  required 
standing  in  any  two  of  said  branches,  the  superintendent  shall  issue  a new  third-grade 
certificate  based  upon  the  previous  examination  or  upon  the  county  training-school 
certificate,  good  for  one  year;  and  if  on  expiration  of  such  new  third-grade  certificate 
the  applicant  completes  the  second-grade  examination,  the  superintendent  may 
issue  a second-grade  certificate. 

If  at  any  time  during  the  life  of  a second-grade  certificate  any  applicant  shall  suc- 
cessfully write  in  the  additional  branches  demanded  for  a first-grade  certificate  the 
superintendent  may  issue  such  first-grade  certificate.  (School  Laws,  1909,  p,  72, 
et  seq.) 

Of  the  12  States  in  which  “ building  up”  is  authorized  by  law  for 
county  certificates  or  their  equivalents,  all  but  Rhode  Island  and 
Texas  are  in  the  North  Central  and  Western  States.  In  3 States — 
Rhode  Island,  Texas,  and  Missouri — no  limitation  is  placed  upon  the 
grades  that  may  be  transferred.  (In  Missouri  it  is  necessary  that  the 
average  grade  for  the  higher  certificate  be  reached.)  Two  States  do 
not  permit  the  transfer  of  grades  of  teachers  who  have  not  taught  9 
months — Iowa  and  Montana;  while  two  others — Wisconsin  and 
10943°— 11 15 


226 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES, 


Idaho — add  the  experience  requirement  of  8 months  and  6 weeks 
attendance  at  professional  schools.  The  limitations  of  other  States 
have  to  do  with  the  standings  received  in  examinations.  Three  States 
permit  the  transfer  of  any  grade  of  90  per  cent  or  more  at  any  time — 
New  Mexico,  Washington,  and  Oregon — while  in  two  States — Kansas 
and  Nevada — it  is  further  provided  that  only  grades  received  within 
the  preceding  two  years  may  be  transferred.  In  Kansas  the  standing 
is  fixed  at  90  per  cent;  in  Nevada  at  85  per  cent. 

MINIMUM  AGE  REQUIREMENTS. 

The  most  frequent  minimum  age  requirement  for  the  lowest  grade 
of  certificate  is  18  years,  25  States  having  fixed  this  limit;  2 States 
require  16  years;  8 States,  17  years;  and  1 State,  21  years;  while  12 
States  have  no  fixed  minimum  age. 

The  following  table  gives  the  essential  facts  regarding  this  subject: 

Table _32. — Minimum  age  requirements. 


State  and  kinds  of  certificates. 

Minimum  age 
requirement. 

Arizona: 

18  years 

Arkansas: 

Any  certificate 

None 

California: 

Any  certificate 

18  years 

Colorado: 

Anv  certificate 

do 

Connecticut: 

Any  certificate 

None 

Delaware: 

Any  certificate 

18  years 

Florida: 

Any  certificate 

17  years 1 

Georgia: 

Any  certificate 

None 

Idaho: 

Any  certificate 

18  years 

Illinois: 

Any  certificate 

/18  years,  male 

\17  years,  female. . . 

None. . . 

Indiana: 

Any  certificate 

Iowa: 

Any  certificate 

18  years 

Kansas: 

First-grade  certificate 

20  years 

Second-grade  certificate 

18  years 

Third-grade  certificate 

do 

Temporary  certificate 

do 

Kentucky: 

State  diploma 

24  years 

State  certificate 

21  years 

County  certificate 

18  years 

! .ouisiana: 

Any  certificate 

do 

Maine: 

Any  certificate 

None 

Maryland: 

Any  certificate 

fl9  years,  male 

\18  years,  female. .. 

None 

Massachusetts: 

Any  certificate 

Source  of  information. 


School  laws  1907,  p.  40. 

Statement  of  State  superintendent  public 
instruction. 

School  laws  1909,  p.  77. 

School  laws  1909,  p.  96. 

Statement  of  secretary  of  State  board  of  edu- 
cation. 

Regulation  of  State  board  of  education. 
(Statement  of  secretary  State  board  of 
education.) 

Statement  of  State  superintendent  of  public 
instruction. 

Statement  of  State  school  commissioner. 

Acts  of  1911,  H.  B.  No.  240. 

►School  law  1909,  p.  48. 

Statement  of  State  superintendent  of  public 
instruction. 

Regulation  of  State  board  of  examinations. 
(Statement  of  State  superintendent.) 


Session  laws  1911,  p.  506. 


School  laws  1910,  pp.  28-30. 


Public  school  law  1911,  p.  147.  (Regula- 
tion of  State  board  of  education.) 

Statement  of  State  superintendent  of  public 
schools. 


[■Public  school  law  1908,  p.  40. 

Statement  of  State  commissioner  of  educa- 
tion. 


MINIMUM  AGE  REQUIREMENTS, 


227 


Table  32. — Minimum  age  requirements — Continued. 


State  and  kinds  of  certificates. 

Minimum  age 
requirement. 

Source  of  information. 

Michigan: 

General  school  laws  1909,  p.  79. 

Minnesota: 

do 

Circular  of  information  1908. 

Second-grade  certificate 

Limited  second-grade  certificate — 

do 

17  years 

School  laws  1907,  pp.  116-117. 

Mississippi: 

do 

School  laws  1910,  p.  35. 

Missouri: 

Any  certificate 

None 

Statement  of  State  superintendent  of  public 
schools. 

Montana: 

Any  certificate 

18  years 

School  laws  1909,  p.  113. 

Nebraska: 

Statement  of  examiner,  State  of  Nebraska. 

Nevada: 

20  years 

School  laws  1909,  p.  113. 

Act  of  1911.  (Statement  of  State  superin* 

First-grade  elementary  certificate  . . 
Any  other  certificate 

.....  do 

18  years 

tendent.) 

New  Hampshire: 

Any  certificate 

None 

Statement  of  State  superintendent  of  public 
instruction. 

New  Jersey: 

Supervisor’s  certificate 

Any  other  certificate 

25  years 

18  years 

Regulations  of  State  board  of  education. 

New  Mexico: 

Any  certificate 

17  years 1 .. 

Regulation  of  Territorial  board  of  education. 
(Statement  of  Territorial  superintendent 
of  public  instruction.) 

New  York: 

Education  law  1909,  p.  131. 

North  Carolina: 

do 

School  law  1909,  p.  69. 

North  Dakota: 

Any  professional  certificate 

First-grade  elementary  certificate  . . 
Second-grade  elementary  certificate. 

20  years 

do 

18  years 

Acts  of  1911,  Senate  bill  No.  60. 

Ohio: 

Any  certificate 

1 do 

Session  laws  1908,  p.  351. 

Oklahoma: 

First-grade  certificate 

20  years 

School  laws  1910,  pp.  66-67. 

Second-grade  certificate 

Third-grade  certificate 

18  years 

16  years 

Oregon: 

Any  certificate 

18  years 

Acts  of  1911,  S.  B.  No.  101. 

Pennsylvania: 

State  teachers’  permanent  certifi- 

21 years 

School  laws  1909,  pp.  137, 154. 

cate. 

Practical  teachers’  State  certificate 

I do 

(not  a regular  student  or  gradu- 
ate of  a normal  school). 

Rhode  Island: 

Any  certificate 

None 

! Statement  of  commissioner  of  public 
schools. 

South  Carolina: 

Any  certificate 

18  years. . 

School  laws  1909,  p.  60. 

South  Dakota: 

Any  certificate 

do 

School  law  1909,  p.  16. 

Tennessee: 

Any  certificate 

do 

Regulation  of  the  State  superintendent  of 
public  instruction. 

Texas: 

Any  certificate 

16  years 

Bulletin  8,  State  departmen  of  education. 

Utah: 

State  diploma 

20  years 

School  law  1909,  pp.  3-4, 17. 

State  certificate 

20  years 

Any  county  certificate 

18  years 

Vermont: 

Any  certificate 

17  years 

General  laws  of  the  State  of  Vermont  relat- 
ing to  public  instruction,  1907,  p.  267. 

Virginia: 

First-grade  certificate 

Second-grade  certificate 

19  years 

18  years 

Public  free  school  law  1907,  pp.  124,  125. 
(Regulations  of  State  board  of  education.) 

Third-grade  certificate 

do 

Washington: 

Temporary  certificate 

Code  of  public  instruction,  1909,  p.  85. 

Second-grade  certificate 

do. . . 

Third-grade  certificate 

do 

Any  certificate  other  than  above . . . 

19  years 

1 A general  rule  which  may  be  waived  in  some  instances. 

228 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  32. — Minimum  age  requirements — Continued. 


State  and  kinds  of  certificates. 

Minimum  age 
requirement. 

Source  of  information. 

West  Virginia: 

Any  certificate 

17  years 

School  law  1908,  p.  43. 

School  laws  1909,  p.  99.  (Comments  by 
State  superintendent.) 

School  laws  1909,  p.  125. 

Wisconsin: 

Any  certificate 

None 

Wyoming: 

A n v n arti  fi  ftat a 

1 7 vcars 

1 

FEES. 

The  following  table  dealing  with  fees  charged  for  teachers’  certifi- 
cates is  included  as  a matter  of  practical  interest  in  the  administra- 
tion of  systems  of  certification.  Generally,  higher  fees  are  charged 
for  the  more  advanced  certificates.  The  amounts  vary  greatly 
among  the  various  States,  ranging  from  $10  to  50  cents.  Some 
States  charge  no  fees.  There  is  great  variety  also  in  the  use  that  is 
made  of  the  fees  collected.  Most  frequently  they  go  toward  the 
payment  of  the  expenses  of  conducting  the  examinations  and  the 
maintenance  of  institutes. 

Table  33  .—Fees  required  for  teachers’  certificates  and  funds  to  which  they  are  credited. 


Names  or  kinds  of  certificates. 

Amount  of  fees. 

Funds  to  which  credited. 

Alabama  (public  school  laws, 
1908,  pp.  23-24): 

Life  certificate 

S3 

Paid  into  State  treasury  to  the  credit  of  edu- 
cational fund. 

Do. 

First-grade  certificate 

$2 

Second-grade  certificate 

Third-grade  certificate 

Si  .50 

Do. 

SI 

Do. 

Temporary  certificate 

No  fee 

Any  certificate  issued  upon 
special  examination. 
Arizona  (school  laws,  1907, 
pp.  9-14): 

Life  diploma 

S5 

Paid  to  State  board  of  examiners. 

$7. 

$2  paid  into  county  treasury  to  the  credit  of 
institute  fund;  S5  defrays  expenses  of  issu- 
ing. 

Defrays  expenses  of  issuing. 

Territorial  school  fund. 

Educational  diploma 

$5 

First-grade  certificate  issued 
without  examination. 
Any  other  certificate 

$2 

. . .do 

County  institute  fund. 

Paid  into  State  treasury  to  defray  expenses 
of  examination,  the  remainder  constitut- 
ing an  institute  fund  and  a library  fund  for 
the  office  of  the  department  of  public  in- 
struction. 

Do. 

Arkansas  (school  laws,  1910, 
pp.  15,  37): 

State  certificate 

S10 

Professional  license 

S5  

Any  county  certificate 

$2 

County  superintendent’s  fund  for  payment 
of  salary. 

Defrays  expense  of  issuing. 

California  (school  law,  1909, 
pp.  13-29): 

Life  diploma 

S2 

Temporary  certificate 

No  fee 

Any  county  certificate 

$2 

Paid  into  county  treasury;  one-half  is  cred- 
ited to  the  teachers’  institute  fund;  one- 
half  to  the  teachers’  library  fund. 

Colorado  (school  laws,  1909, 
p.  97): 

State  diploma  . 

Any  county  certificate . . . 

$1  

State  normal  institute  fund. 

Temporary  certificate 

School-district  certificate 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

FEES. 


229 


Table  33. — Fees  required  for  teachers'  certificates  and  funds  to  which  they  are  credited — 

Continued. 


Names  or  kinds  of  certificates. 

Amount  of  fees. 

Funds  to  which  credited. 

Florida  (school  laws,  1909, 

p.  28):  . 

$1. . . 

County  school  fund. 

Idaho  (acts  of  1911,  H.  B.  240, 
Art.  X,  secs.  90  and  100): 

S10 

State  board  of  education  fund. 

$5 

Do. 

First-grade  county  certifi- 
cate. 

Second-grade  county  certif- 
icate. 

Third-grade  county  certifi- 
cate. 

Illinois  (school  laws,  1909, 
pp.  38,  48,  49): 

$4 

$3  to  State  board  of  education  fund;  $1  to 
county  institute  fund. 

S2  to  State  board  of  education  fund;  SI  to 
county  institute  fund. 

SI  to  State  board  of  education  fund;  SI  to 

$3 

$2... 

SI  annual  registration  fee 

SI 

county  institute  fund. 

County  institute  fund. 
Do. 

Indiana  (school  laws,  1907, 
pp.  20,  21,  83): 

S5 

Professional  license 

All  State  licenses  other  than 

si 

Defrays  expenses  of  examination. 

Paid  into  State  treasury. 

Do. 

above. 

Iowa  (school  laws,  1907,  pp.  9- 
10, 16-20): 

State  diploma 

$5 

Any  State  certificate 

$2 

Any  certificate  validated 
for  life. 

Any  county  certificate 

S5 

Do. 

SI 

One-half  paid  into  State  treasury;  one-half 
credited  to  county  institute  fund. 

County  institute  fund. 

Do. 

All  certificates 

SI  annual  registration  fee — 
SI 

Kansas  (school  laws,  1909, 
pp.  28-29): 

Any  county  certificate 
(upon  examination  held 
at  a State  educational  in- 
stitution). 

Any  county  certificate 
(upon  examination  be- 
fore county  examining 
board). 

Kentucky  (school  laws,  1910, 
pp.  29-33): 

State  diploma 

$2 

SI  to  credit  of  county  institute  fund. 

Paid  to  the  two  members  of  State  board  of 

$5 

State  certificate 

S4  (besides  registration  fee 
for  forwarding  answers  to 
examination  questions  to 
State  board  of  examiners). 
SI 

examiners  appointed  by  the  State  super- 
intendent. 

$1  paid  to  the  county  board  of  examiners;  S3 
divided  between  the  two  professional 
members  of  the  State  board  of  examiners. 

Divided  between  the  two  members  of  county 
board  of  examiners  appointed  by  county 
superintendent. 

Paid  to  State  superintendent  to  credit  of  in- 
stitute fund 

Any  county  certificate 

Louisiana  (school  laws,  1908, 
p.  65): 

Any  parish  certificate 

SI 

Maine 

Maryland  (school  laws,  1910, 
P*  32). 

Massachusetts 

No  fee 

Michigan  (school  laws,  1909 
pp.  116-117): 

Any  certificate 

$1  to  male  applicant  and  an 
annual  fee  of  $1 : 50  cents  to 
female  applicant  and  an 
annual  fee  of  50  cents. 

Teachers’  institute  fund. 

Minnesota 

Mississippi  (school  laws,  1906 
pp.  25,  27,  41): 
Professional  license 

$5 

1 To  State  board  of  examiners  for  their  serv- 

State  license 

50  cents 

Transfer  license 

SI  .50 

1 ices. 

Special  license 

S2.50 

To  county  superintendent  for  his  services. 
Institute  fund. 

Any  county  license 

50  cents  on  application  for 
license  and  50  cents  addi- 
tional for  each  year’s  du- 
ration of  any  license  for 
more  than  one  year. 

230 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


Table  33. — Fees  required  for  teachers'  certificates  and  funds  to  which  they  are 
credited — Continued. 


Names  or  kinds  of  certificates. 


Amount  of  fees. 


Funds  to  which  credited. 


Missouri  (school  laws,  1909, 
pp.  89,  98): 

Any  State  certificate 

Any  county  certificate 


No  fee 

$3  to  white  applicants;  SI. 50 
to  colored  applicants  who 
present  certificates  of  at- 
tendance at  a colored  in- 
I stitute. 


Paid  to  county  treasurer  to  defray  expenses 
of  examination  and  teachers’  associations 
and  meetings. 


Montana  (school  laws,  1909, 
pp.  16, 137): 

Temporary  State  certificate. 


SI 


Any  county  certificate 

Nebraska  (school  laws,  1909, 
pp,  78,  102): 

Professional  State  certifi- 
cate. 

Any  county  certificate 


do. 


SI... 
SI.  50 


City  certificate 

Nevada 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

New  Mexico  (Department  of 
Education,  Circular  Let- 
ter No.  12): 

Professional  certificates— 

Life  certificate 

3-year  and  5-year  certifi- 
cates. 

New  York 

North  Carolina  (school  law, 
1909,  p.  67): 

Any  certificate  issued  upon 
private  examination. 
North  Dakota  (acts  of  1911, 
senate  bill  60): 

First-grade  professional 


SI. 


S10. 

S3.. 


S3. 

S5. 


Second-grade  professional  S3. 

or  a special  certificate. 
Elementary  certificates $2. 


Institute  fund  of  county  in  which  holder  is 
employed. 

County  institute  fund. 


Paid  to  State  superintendent  to  defray  ex- 
penses of  issuing. 

$1  to  teachers’  institute  fund,  50  cents  paid 
to  State  superintendent  to  defray  ex- 
penses of  issuing. 

City  institute  or  union  institute  fund. 


County  school  fund. 


Deposited  by  State  board  of  examiners  in 
State  treasury  to  aid  in  the  establishment 
of  teachers’  reading  circles  and  in  the  pro- 
fessionalizing of  teaching  in  the  State  and 
in  defraying  expenses  of  the  board. 

Do. 

$1  to  county  teachers’  institute  fund;  $1  to 
State  board  of  examiners. 


Ohio  (school  laws,  1910,  pp. 
134, 146): 

Any  life  certificate 

Any  State  professional  cer- 
tificate. 

Any  county  or  city  certifi- 
cate. 

Oklahoma  (school  laws,  1910, 
pp.  58,  67.  Department 
of  Education  Report, 
1908,  pp.  135,  138): 

Any  State  certificate  ex- 
cept an  elementary  State 
certificate. 

Elementary  State  certifi- 
cate. 

County  certificates  of  first, 
second,  and  third  grades. 

County  temporary  certifi- 
cate. 

Institute  conductor’s  certi- 
ficate. 

Institute  instructor’s  cer- 
tificate. 

Any  county  certificate 


$5 

$1.50 

50  cents 


$3. 


$2 

do 

No  fee  compulsory,  but  not 
to  exceed  $2. 

$2 

$1 

$2  (indorsement  fee  in  a 
county  other  than  that 
in  which  issued). 


Paid  to  State  treasurer. 

$1  to  State  general-revenue  fund;  50  cents 
to  county  institute  fund. 

County  or  city  institute  fund. 


Sent  to  county  superintendent  of  county 
where  applicant  resides. 

Normal  institute  fund. 


Oregon  (acts  of  1911,  S.  B. 
No.  101): 

Life  State  certificate 

Five-year  State  certificates 
or  renewal. 

Primary  5-year  State  certi- 
ficates or  renewal. 

One-year  State  certificates 
or  renewal. 

Special  certificates 


$6. 

$4. 


do. 


$2. 

$6. 


State  board  of  examiners’  fund. 
Do. 

Do. 


Do. 

Do. 


FEES. 


231 


Table  33. — Fees  required  for  teachers'  certificates  and  funds  to  which  they  are 
credited — Continued . 


Names  or  kinds  of  certificates. 

Amount  of  fees. 

Funds  to  which  credited. 

Oregon— Continued . 
Temporary  county  certifi- 
cate. 

Special  district  certificate. . . 
Pennsylvania 

$2.50 

State  board  of  examiners  fund 

Option  of  authority  issuing. . 

Rhode"  Island 

South  Carolina 

South  Dakota  (school  laws, 
1909,  pp.  6-16.  H.B.No. 
396,  legislature  1911): 

Life  diplomas— 

$10 

State  professional  fund. 

Upon  diploma 

No  fee 

State  certificates — 

Upon  examination 

$5 

Do. 

Upon  diploma 

No  fee 

$2 

Do. 

cate. 

First,  second,  and  third 
grade  certificates,  and 
primary  certificates. 
Tennessee 

$1 

50  cents  to  credit  of  institute  fund;  50  cents 
to  credit  of  general  fund  of  the  State. 

Texas  (Bulletin  No.  8,  State 
Department  of  Educa- 
tion, Apr.  1, 1911): 
First-grade  State,  second- 
grade  State,  or  perma- 
nent State  certificates. 
State  permanent  certificate 
based  on  diploma  or  work 
done  in  a college  or  uni- 
versity, or  life  certificate 
of  another  State. 

Any  county  certificate 

$2 

$1  to  county  board  of  examiners;  $1  to  State 
board  of  examiners. 

State  board  of  examiners. 

do 

do 

County  board  of  examiners. 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington  (Code  of  Public 
Instruction,  1909,  pp.  84- 
91): 

Any  certificate 

$1 

County  or  city  institute  fund. 

Expense  of  examination. 
State  general  school  fund. 

Do. 

West  Virginia  (act  of  1911, 
statement  of  state  de- 
partment; School  Laws, 
1908,  p.  59): 

State  professional  certifi- 
cate. 

Any  certificate  granted 
under  uniform  examina- 
tion system. 

Emergency  certificate. 

$5 

$1.50  (on  entire  examination). 
75  cents  (on  partial  exam- 
ination). 

$1.50 

Wisconsin  (School  Laws,  1909, 

p.  81): 

Any  certificate 

No  fee 

W yoming(  School  Laws,  1909, 
pp.  128-129): 

First-class  and  professional 
certificates. 

Second  and  third  class  cer- 

$1.50  

State  general  fund. 
Do. 

$1 

tificates  and  special  cer- 
tificates. 

Temporary  certificate 

50  cents 

Do. 

SUSPENSION  AND  REVOCATION  OF  CERTIFICATES. 

The  grounds  upon  which  certificates  may  be  suspended  or  revoked 
are  much  the  same  among  all  the  States;  immoral  or  unprofessional 
conduct,  unfitness  for  teaching,  refusal  to  comply  with  law  or  regula- 
tions or  with  directions  of  officers  constitute  the  most  prominent 
grounds.  The  rights  of  the  teacher  against  whom  charges  are  brought 
are  well  protected  in  most  States;  a fair  hearing  and,  frequently,  the 
right  of  appeal  being  specifically  provided  for.  The  officer  or  officers 
issuing  the  certificates  and  their  superior  officers  make  the  decisions. 
The  following  table  presents  the  essential  facts  regarding  the  subject. 


Table  34. — Suspension  and  revocation  of  certificates. 


232 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


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SUSPENSION  AND  REVOCATION  OF  CERTIFICATES, 


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Table  34. — Suspension  and  revocation  of  certificates — Continued. 


234 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


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SUSPENSION  AND  REVOCATION  OF  CERTIFICATES. 


235 


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34. — Suspension  and  revocation  of  certificates — Continued. 


236 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


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Table  34. — Suspension  and  revocation  of  certificates — Continued. 


238 


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SUSPENSION  AND  REVOCATION  OF  CERTIFICATES. 


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Table  34. — Suspension  and  revocation  of  certificates — Continued. 


240 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


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Table  34 — Suspension  and  revocation  of  certificates — Continued. 


242 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


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SUSPENSION  AND  REVOCATION  OF  CERTIFICATES, 


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244 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


RECOGNITION  OF  DIPLOMAS  AND  CERTIFICATES  OF  EDUCATIONAL 

INSTITUTIONS  GRANTED  IN  OTHER  STATES  AND  OF  TEACHERS’ 

CERTIFICATES  ISSUED  IN  OTHER  STATES. 

Diplomas  from  certain  educational  institutions  are  generally  recog- 
nized either  as  valid  teachers’  certificates  in  themselves  or  as  partial 
or  complete  fulfillment  of  the  requirements  for  a certificate  in  the 
State  in  which  the  institutions  are  located.  But  the  recognition  of 
diplomas  from  institutions  not  located  in  the  State  is  not  nearly  so 
general.  In  fact,  there  are  11  States  that  give  no  recognition  what- 
soever to  such  diplomas — Connecticut,  North  Carolina,  Georgia, 
Florida,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana, 
Arkansas,  and  Iowa.  But  in  addition  there  are  3 others  that  merely 
accept  the  grades  in  subjects  covered  by  the  certificates  and  require 
examination  in  the  remaining  subjects — Oklahoma,  Ohio,  and  Colo- 
rado, while  1 other — Maine — merely  gives  the  diploma  consideration 
in  determining  the  duration  of  the  certificate,  requiring  examination 
in  all  subjects.  There  thus  remain  33  States  in  which  recognition  is 
established  upon  a plane  of  comity. 

At  least  21  States  keep  accredited  or  approved  lists  of  educational 
institutions  whose  diplomas  are  recognized  by  them.  The  laws  of 
12  States  specifically  require  that  the  institutions  shall  be  of  equal 
rank  with  those  of  the  State  in  which  recognition  is  sought.  Five 
States  require  previous  experience  of  the  applicant — New  York, 
North  Dakota,  Montana,  Colorado,  and  Idaho. 

Recognition  of  certificates  issued  by  other  States  is  not  so  general 
as  recognition  of  diplomas  of  educational  institutions.  Only  30 
States  grant  recognition  of  any  kind.  Those  which  do  not  are: 

North  Atlantic:  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Connecticut. 

South  Atlantic:  Delaware,  Maryland,  North  Carolina,  Louisiana,  Florida. 

South  Central:  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  Texas, 
Arkansas. 

North  Central:  North  Dakota. 

Western:  Montana. 

The  following  States  demand  the  establishment  of  “ reciprocal 
relations”  before  the  certificates  of  another  State  will  be  recognized: 
New  Jersey,  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  South  Carolina,  Missouri,  Kan- 
sas, and  New  Mexico.  The  laws  or  regulations  or  practice  of  13 
States  sanction  the  recognition  of  only  the  highest  grade  or  grades  of 
certificates,  as  follows: 

North  Atlantic:  New  York,  New  Jersey. 

North  Central:  Ohio,  Maryland,  Delaware,  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Kansas. 

Western:  Wyoming,  New  Mexico,  Idaho. 

The  following  States  recognize  any  certificate  issued  by  a State 
department:  Virginia,  Iowa,  South  Dakota  (above  second  grade), 


RECOGNITION  OF  DIPLOMAS  AND  CERTIFICATES. 


245 


Nebraska,  Washington,  and  Oregon.  The  last  three  accept  credits 
only  and  those  must  be  above  specified  percentages. 

The  laws  of  11  States  require  that  the  certificates  be  of  equal  rank 
with  those  in  the  State.  Oklahoma  grants  merely  credits  which  the 
certificate  covers. 


A DIGEST  OF  THE  LAWS  AND  REGULATIONS  BEARING  UPON  THE 
RECOGNITION  OF  DIPLOMAS  AND  CERTIFICATES  IN  EACH  OF  THE 
STATES. 


ALABAMA. 

Diplomas. — None.  (Memorandum  from  the  State  office.) 
Certificates. — None.  (Memorandum  from  the  State  office.) 


246 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


ARIZONA. 

Diplomas. — A graduate  of  a standard  college  or  university  who  has  had  one  year’s 
work  in  pedagogy,  certified  to  by  a professor  of  pedagogy,  is  given  a first-grade  Terri- 
torial certificate. 

A graduate,  except  in  the  kindergarten  department,  of  a normal  school  whose 
courses  are  equivalent  to  the  Arizona  Normal  School  is  also  given  a first-grade  Terri- 
torial certificate.  (Regulations  of  Territorial  board  of  education,  in  School  Laws,  1907, 

p.  80.) 

Certificates. — A holder  of  a life  diploma  issued  by  State  authority  is  granted  a first- 
grade  certificate.  (Regulations  of  Territorial  board  of  education,  in  School  Laws,  1907, 

p.  80.) 

ARKANSAS. 

Diplomas.  — N one . 

Certificates. — N one . 

CALIFORNIA. 

Diplomas. — “No  credentials  shall  be  prescribed  or  allowed  unless  the  same  in  the 
judgment  of  said  [State]  board  [of  education]  are  the  equivalent  of  a diploma  of  gradu- 
ation from  the  University  of  California  and  are  satisfactory  evidence  that  the  holder 
thereof  has  taken  an  amount  of  pedagogy  equivalent  to  the  minimum  amount  of 
pedagogy  prescribed  by  the  state  board  of  education  of  this  State.  * * * 

“The  said  board  shall  also  consider  the  cases  of  individual  applicants  who  have 
taught  successfully  for  a period  of  not  less  than  20  school  months,  and  who  are 
not  possessed  of  the  credentials  prescribed  by  the  board  under  the  provisions  of  this 
section.  The  said  board,  in  its  discretion,  may  issue  to  such  applicants  special  cre- 
dentials, upon  which  they  may  be  granted  certificates  to  teach  in  the  high  schools  of 
the  State.  In  such  special  cases,  the  board  may  take  cognizance  of  any  adequate 
evidence  of  preparation  which  the  applicants  may  present  The  standards  of  qualifi- 
cation in  such  special  cases  shall  not  be  lower  than  that  represented  by  the  other 
credentials  named  by  the  board  under  the  provisions  of  this  section.  ” (School  Laws, 
1909,  pp.  12-13.) 

Certificates. — See  diplomas. 

COLORADO. 

Diplomas. — Grades  given  for  work  in  educational  subjects  accepted  the  same  as 
grades  from  the  State  institutions  of  Colorado,  provided  the  applicant  has  taught  two 
years.  (Memorandum  from  State  office.) 

Certificates . — None.  (Memorandum  from  State  superintendent.) 

CONNECTICUT. 

Diplomas. — None.  (Letter  from  secretary  of  State  board  of  education,  dated  Sept. 
12,  1910.) 

Certificates. — None.  (Letter  from  secretary  of  State  board  of  education,  dated  Sept 
12,  1910.) 

DELAWARE. 

Diplomas. — May  be  issued  at  the  discretion  of  the  county  superintendents  upon 
presentation  of  “diplomas  or  certificates  of  graduation  from  any  respectable  normal 
school  or  college.”  (School  Laws,  1908-9,  p.  55.) 

Certificates. — N one. 

FLORIDA. 

Diplomas. — None.  (Letter  from  State  office,  Sept.  14,  1910.) 

Certificates. — None.  (Letter  from  State  office,  Sept.  14,  1910.) 


RECOGNITION  OF  DIPLOMAS  AND  CERTIFICATES. 


247 


GEORGIA. 

Diplomas. — Strictly  forbidden.  (Laws,  1910,  p.  39.) 

Certificates. — None.  (Memorandum  from  State  office.) 

HAWAII. 

Diplomas. — Diplomas  and  certificates  of  other  States  or  Territories  may  be  received 
as  equivalent  to  Hawaiian  certificates  as  follows:  (a)  University  degree,  grammar- 
grade  certificate;  (6)  Normal  diplomas,  Hawaiian  normal  diploma;  (c)  State  or  Ter- 
ritorial grammar-grade  certificates,  grammar-grade  certificate;  ( d ) First-class  county 
certificates,  primary-grade  certificate. 

Certificates. — See  above. 

IDAHO. 

Diplomas. — The  State  board  of  education  may  issue  a State  certificate  to  a graduate 
of  an  advanced  course  of  a State  normal  school  of  another  State  who  holds  a State  or 
life  certificate  in  such  State,  or  to  a graduate  of  a chartered  college,  the  bachelor’s 
degree  of  which  is  accepted  by  the  State  university  of  the  same  State,  if  the  applicant 
has  taught  18  months,  provided  part  of  this  experience  has  been  within  two  years 
preceding  date  of  application.  (Acts  of  1911,  H.  B.  240,  art.  10,  sec.  91.) 

Certificates. — See  above. 

ILLINOIS. 

Diplomas. — Graduates  from  approved  colleges,  universities,  and  normal  schools  are 
admitted  to  examination  on  the  same  basis  as  graduates  of  like  institutions  within  the 
State.  (Circular,  department  of  public  instruction,  No.  42,  p.  4,  Nov.  1,  1909.) 

Certificates. — Holders  of  life  certificates  from  other  States,  the  requirements  of  which 
are  equal  to  those  of  Illinois,  may  enter  the  examination  for  any  one  of  the  certificates 
under  Plan  II,  which  requires  an  examination  in  three  professional  subjects  and  a 
thesis.  (Circular,  department  of  public  instruction,  No.  42,  p.  4,  Nov.  1,  1909.) 

INDIANA. 

Diplomas. — Graduates  of  approved  universities,  colleges,  and  State  normal  schools 
are  eligible  for  licenses  in  Indiana  upon  the  same  basis  as  graduates  of  like  institutions 
within  the  State. 

“A  State  normal  diploma  that  represents  three  full  years’  normal-school  work  pre- 
ceded by  four  years’  high-school  work  may  be  countersigned  by  the  superintendent  of 
public  instruction,  provided  the  holder  of  it  has  taught  successfully  for  two  years  since 
graduation.  When  so  signed  it  becomes  valid  for  life  in  any  of  the  public  schools  of 
the  State. 

“A  diploma  from  a kindergarten  training  school  that  has  been  approved  by  the 
State  board  of  education  may  be  countersigned  by  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction  and  made  a valid  life  license  for  kindergarten  work.”  (Indiana  Teachers’ 
Licenses,  Charles  A.  Greathouse,  1910,  p.  10;  School  Laws,  1907,  pp.  20-21.) 

C&'tificates. — A life  certificate  from  another  State  that  has  been  granted  upon  exam- 
ination and  is  equivalent  to  the  life  license  examination  in  Indiana  may  be  counter- 
signed by  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction.  When  so  signed  it  becomes  valid 
for  life  in  any  of  the  public  schools  of  the  State.  (Indiana  Teachers’  Licenses,  Charles 
A.  Greathouse,  1910,  p.  9.) 

IOWA. 

Diplomas. — None.  (School  Laws,  1907,  p.  11.) 

Certificates. — The  State  educational  board  of  examiners  is  empowered  “to  validate 
certificates  issued  by  State  departments  of  education  in  other  States  where  such 
certificates  were  issued  upon  evidence  of  scholarship  and  experience  equivalent  to 
that  required  for  like  certificates  ” under  the  laws  of  Iowa.  Such  validated  certificate 
is  valid  in  any  public  school  in  the  State  for  five  years  after  date  of  such  validation. 
(Department  of  public  instruction,  Circular  No.  5,  1911.) 


248 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


KANSAS. 

Diplomas. — Graduates  of  educational  institutions  on  the  accredited  list  are  granted 
a three-year  renewable  certificate  upon  presentation  of  proper  credentials.  Any  col- 
lege, university,  or  educational  institution  of  like  standing  which  requires  a four-year 
high-school  course,  or  its  equivalent,  approved  by  the  State  board  of  education,  as  a 
condition  of  admission  to  its  freshmen  class,  and  whose  course  of  study  and  the  charac- 
ter of  work  done  are,  in  the  judgment  of  said  board,  of  such  standing  as  to  prepare  its 
graduates  to  teach  successfully  in  the  public  schools  of  the  State,  and  which  has  a 
department  of  education,  the  prescribed  course  of  which  is  satisfactory  to  the  State 
board  of  education,  may  be  placed  on  the  accredited  list  by  said  board.  (Laws,  1911, 
ch.  276.) 

Certificates. — The  law  provides  that  when  the  State  board  of  education  is  satisfied 
that  any  resident  of  Kansas  holding  a State  certificate  of  another  State  secured  the 
same  by  passing  an  examination  equivalent  to  that  given  by  said  board,  it  may  issue 
to  said  person  a State  certificate.  The  practice  of  the  board  is  to  issue  a three-year 
renewable  certificate  to  persons  holding  State  life  certificates  or  certificates  which 
may  be  renewable  into  State  life  certificates,  from  those  States  whose  offices  extend 
reciprocal  relations.  (Manual  of  board  of  education,  State  of  Kansas,  1910,  p.  37; 
letter  from  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  dated  Sept.  27,  1910.) 

Reciprocal  relations. — Reciprocal  relations  covering  the  indorsement  of  the  highest 
grade  of  life  certificates  have  been  established  without  limitation  with  six  States,  as 
follows:  Iowa,  Nebraska,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  South  Dakota,  and  Virginia. 

The  following  limitations  have  been  placed  upon  indorsements  of  certificates  and 
diplomas  issued  in  other  States:  Indiana,  Missouri,  and  Oregon,  if  issued  on  examina- 
tion; North  Dakota,  if  applicant  is  a graduate  of  a normal  school,  college,  or  university; 
Michigan,  New  York,  Ohio,  Rhode  Island,  and  Utah,  each  case  is  considered  on  its 
merits;  Washington,  option  of  State  board. 

Forty-four  colleges,  located  in  16  different  States,  have  been  placed  upon  the 
accredited  list. 

Reciprocal  relations  have  been  established  without  limitation  in  the  recognition  of 
the  highest  grade  of  State  normal-school  diplomas  with  the  following  nine  States: 
Indiana,  Iowa,  Minnesota,  Nebraska,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  South 
Dakota,  and  Virginia.  Limitations  are  imposed  as  follows:  Michigan,  Rhode  Island, 
and  Utah,  each  case  is  considered  on  its  merits;  North  Dakota,  the  course  must  cover 
the  Kansas  requirements;  Arizona,  professional  examination  is  required;  Vermont, 
may  consider  certain  cases;  Washington,  option  of  State  board.  (Manual  of  the  board 
of  education,  1910,  pp.  35,  37-38.) 

KENTUCKY. 

Diplomas. — None.  (Memorandum  from  State  office.) 

Certificates. — None.  (Memorandum  from  State  office.) 

LOUISIANA. 

Diplomas. — None,  except  from  Peabody  Normal  College.  (Laws,  1908,  p.  68.) 

Certificates. — None.  (Memorandum  from  State  office.) 

MAINE. 

Diplomas. — No  exemption  from  examination  and  other  requirements.  Diplomas 
are  given  weight  in  the  determination  of  the  grade  of  certificate  to  be  issued  upon 
the  same  basis  as  graduates  of  institutions  within  the  State.  (Memorandum  from 
State  office.) 

Certificates. — None.  (Memorandum  from  State  office.) 


RECOGNITION  OF  DIPLOMAS  AND  CERTIFICATES. 


249 


MARYLAND. 

Diplomas. — The  State  superintendent  may,  with  the  approval  of  the  State  board  of 
education,  recognize  and  indorse  diplomas  of  State  normal  schools  and  of  other  normal 
schools,  and  of  colleges  with  a department  of  pedagogy  when  he  is  satisfied  with  the 
character  of  the  instruction  given  and  the  length  of  time  that  has  been  spent  in  such 
institution  by  the  applicant.  (School  Laws,  1910,  p.  12.) 

Certificates. — None.  (Memorandum  from  State  office.) 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

Diplomas. — Diplomas  of  standard  normal  schools,  colleges,  and  universities  are 
generally  recognized,  except  in  cities,  as  sufficient  warrant  for  the  granting  of  local 
certificates.  (Memorandum  from  State  office.) 

Certificates. — School  committees,  except  those  in  certain  cities,  generally  recognize 
certificates  issued  in  other  States  and  issue  certificates  based  upon  them.  Practice 
varies  greatly  as  to  the  grades  of  certificates  that  are  thus  recognized.  (Memorandum 
from  State  office.) 

MICHIGAN. 

Diplomas. — The  State  board  of  education  may  indorse  normal  school  diplomas  or 
certificates  “if  it  be  shown  to  the  satisfaction  of  said  board  that  such  certificates  are 
for  life  and  that  the  * * * examinations  required  or  courses  of  study  pursued  are 
fully  equal  to  the  requirements  of  this  State.”  (School  Law,  1909,  p.  140.) 

Certificates. — The  State  board  of  education  may  indorse  State  teachers’  certificates 
granted  upon  examinations  or  other  State  certificates  granted  in  other  States  “if  it  be 
shown  to  the  satisfaction  of  said  board  that  such  certificates  are  for  life  and  that  the 
examinations  required  or  courses  of  study  pursued  are  fully  equal  to  the  requirements 
of  this  State.”  (School  Law,  1909,  p.  140.) 

MINNESOTA. 

Diplomas. — Graduates  of  accredited  universities,  colleges,  and  of  advanced  courses 
of  State  normal  schools  are  placed  upon  the  same  basis  as  graduates  of  institutions 
within  the  State.  The  basis  for  determining  whether  a college  or  university  shall  be 
placed  upon  the  accredited  list  is  the  University  of  Minnesota,  including  its  depart- 
ment of  pedagogy.  (Pamphlet  issued  by  the  department  of  public  instruction,  1909, 
Certification  and  employment  of  teachers,  p.  5.) 

Seventy-six  universities  and  colleges  outside  of  Minnesota,  located  in  21  different 
States,  and  49  State  and  private  normal  schools,  located  in  23  different  States,  have 
been  placed  upon  the  accredited  list.  (Pamphlet  issued  by  the  department  of  public 
instruction,  1909,  Certification  and  employment  of  teachers,  pp.  6-8.) 

Certificates. — None.  (Pamphlet  issued  by  the  department  of  public  instruction, 
St.  Paul,  Minn.,  June,  1908,  entitled  “Circular  of  information  relating  to  examina- 
tions, certificates,”  etc.,  p.  7.) 

MISSISSIPPI. 

Diplomas. — None.  (Memorandum  from  State  office.) 

Certificates. — None.  (Memorandum  from  State  office.) 

MISSOURI. 

Diplomas.— Diplomas  from  colleges  and  universities  of  equal  rank  to  those  in  the 
“Missouri  College  Union”  are  placed  on  the  same  basis  as  graduates  of  those  institu- 
tions. (See  scholarship  requirements,  Table  1.)  Some  concessions  are  made  to  gradu- 
ates of  State  and  private  normal  schools  in  other  States.  (Memorandum  from  State 
office;  letter  from  State  office,  dated  Sept.  30,  1910.) 

Certificates. — The  State  superintendent  will  recognize  certificates  from  other  States 
with  which  reciprocal  relations  have  been  established,  provided  the  certificates  are 


250 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


equal  to  those  issued  in  Missouri,  and  provided  further,  applicant  has  had  experience 
in  teaching.  (Memorandum  from  State  office,  and  circular,  “ Requirements  for  State 
certificates,  1910.”) 

MONTANA. 

Diplomas. — The  law  provides' that  State  or  life  diplomas  may  be  granted  to  graduates 
of  educational  institutions  without  the  State  upon  conditions  established  by  the  State 
board  of  education.  The  board  grants  to  graduates  of  reputable  colleges,  universities, 
and  the  advanced  courses  of  normal  schools  certificates  without  examination  when 
such  graduates  have  had  18  months’  successful  experience  after  graduation  and  have 
become  resident  teachers  of  Montana.  (Laws,  1908,  p.  16;  report  of  State  superintend- 
ent of  public  instruction,  1908,  p.  51;  letter  from  State  office,  Sept.  29,  1910.) 

Certificates . — None . 

NEBRASKA. 

Diplomas. — Professional  State  certificates  may  be  granted  to  any  person  who  is  a 
graduate  of  a college  or  university  of  good  standing  and  who  has  had  three  years’  suc- 
cessful experience  in  Nebraska  and  who  holds  a first-grade  county  certificate.  The 
same  certificate  may  also  be  granted  to  the  holder  of  a life  diploma  from  a State  normal 
school  of  another  State.  (Laws,  1909,  p.  75.) 

Certificates. — A professional  State  certificate  may  be  granted  at  the  discretion  of  the 
State  superintendent  to  the  holder  of  a professional  State  certificate  from  another  State. 
(Laws,  1909,  p.  75.) 

“The  holder  of  a county  certificate  granted  by  another  State  who  desires  recogni- 
tion in  Nebraska  must  register  as  above  [in  the  county  in  which  he  desires  to  teach, 
pay  the  regular  fee,  and  secure  an  examination  number].  The  Nebraska  county 
superintendent  may  request  that  all  grades  of  80  or  above,  if  earned  before  a State 
examining  board,  be  recorded  by  the  State  department  and  require  the  applicant  to 
pass  examination  in  all  subjects  below  80  included  in  the  desired  certificate.  If  the 
grades  were  not  earned  before  a State  examining  board,  the  applicant  must  take  exami- 
nation in  arithmetic,  reading,  history,  geography,  and  grammar  and  in  all  other  sub- 
jects included  in  the  desired  certificate  for  which  no  grades  are  given.”  (Employ- 
ment and  certification  of  teachers.  Complete  rules,  1911,  pp.  20-21.) 

NEVADA. 

Diplomas. — “Graduates  of  universities,  colleges,  and  normal  schools  approved  by 
the  State  board  of  education  shall  be  permitted  to  submit  their  credentials  from  such 
institutions,  and  to  the  extent  that  these  credentials  give  evidence  of  scholarship  and 
professional  preparation  they  shall  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  examination;  provided,  that 
no  certificate  of  the  elementary  grade  shall  be  granted  upon  any  credentials  not  equiva- 
lent to  a diploma  of  graduation  from  the  Nevada  State  Normal  School;  and  provided 
further,  that  no  high-school  certificate  shall  be  granted  upon  any  credential  not 
equivalent  to  a diploma  of  graduation  from  a science  course  or  the  liberal  arts 
course  of  the  University  of  Nevada,  together  with  the  required  training  in  educational 
subjects.”  (Laws,  1911,  ch.  133.) 

Certificates. — “Any  teacher  holding  a life  certificate  from  another  State  shall  be 
permitted  to  submit  such  certificate  as  evidence  of  his  or  her  fitness  for  teaching,  and 
if  the  State  board  of  education  shall  be  satisfied  that  the  State  which  issued  such  cer- 
tificate maintains  a high  professional  standard,  said  board  may  issue  a certificate  for 
teaching  in  this  State  of  such  grade  as  it  shall  deem  proper.”  (School  Laws,  1909, 

p.  20.) 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

Diplomas. — Graduates  of  colleges,  universities,  and  normal  schools  outside  the 
State  are  treated  upon  the  same  basis  as  graduates  of  colleges  and  private  normal 


RECOGNITION  OF  DIPLOMAS  AND  CERTIFICATES. 


251 


schools  within  the  State — that  is,  credits  are  accepted  for  subjects  in  group  3,  exami- 
nation for  high-school  certificates.  See  Table  A.  (Memorandum  from  State  office.) 

Certificates. — None.  (Memorandum  from  State  office.) 

NEW  JERSEY. 

Diplomas. — “11.  In  any  examination  for  a teacher’s  certificate  the  diploma  of  a 
university  or  college  authorized  to  confer  degrees  may  be  accepted  in  lieu  of  an 
examination  in  the  subjects  prescribed  for  such  examination;  provided,  that  the 
course  of  study  covered  by  said  diploma  shall  include  said  prescribed  subjects  or 
their  equivalent,  shall  not  have  been  pursued  through  correspondence,  and  shall  have 
been  approved  by  the  State  board  of  examiners.” 

“14.  The  State  board  of  examiners  may  grant  a second-grade  State  certificate,  valid 
for  two  years,  to  the  holder  of  a diploma  of  any  normal  school  or  teachers’  college,  or 
a permanent  certificate  to  teach  in  another  State  and  valid  as  a State  certificate 
therein,  when  the  course  of  study  of  such  normal  school  or  teachers’  college  or  the 
requirements  for  such  certificate  shall  be,  in  the  judgment  of  said  board,  equivalent 
to  those  required  for  a State  certificate  to  teach  in  this  State;  provided,  that  such 
other  State  shall  grant  reciprocal  privileges  to  those  holding  similar  diplomas  or  cer- 
tificates issued  in  this  State.  After  the  expiration  of  said  two  years  the  said  normal 
school  diploma,  teachers’  college  diploma,  or  permanent  State  certificate  * * * 
may  be  indorsed  by  the  State  board  of  examiners;  provided,  the  holder  thereof  shall 
have  taught  not  less  than  two  years  in  this  State,  shall  have  given  satisfactory  evidence 
of  efficiency  and  success  as  a teacher,  and  shall  file  approved  testimonials.  When  so 
indorsed  such  diploma  or  certificate  shall  have  the  same  force  and  effect  as  if  issued 
in  this  State.  Normal  school  diplomas  issued  in  States  not  having  a State  system  of 
certification  * * * may  be  indorsed  as  hereinabove  provided.”  (Rules  and 
regulations  of  State  board  of  education,  in  School  Laws,  1908,  pp.  151-152.) 

Certificates. — See  last  paragraph  above. 

Reciprocal  relations  have  been  established  under  rule  14  with  Canada  and  with  11 
States,  as  follows:  Connecticut,  Indiana,  Kansas,  Massachusetts,  Michigan,  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island,  Washington,  West  Virginia,  and  Wisconsin. 
(Letter  from  State  superintendent,  Sept.  27,  1910.) 

NEW  MEXICO. 

Diplomas. — The  State  board  of  education  is  authorized  to  issue  certificates  “to 
persons  whom  it  may  deem  qualified.”  It  appears  from  this  that  credits  may  be 
accepted  for  studies  irrespective  of  graduation.  (School  Laws,  1909,  p.  202.) 

Certificates. — The  Territorial  board  of  education  is  “empowered  to  officially  indorse 
teachers’  certificates  granted  in  States  and  other  Territories,  under  such  rules  as  it 
may  prescribe.”  No  regulations  have  as  yet  been  printed.  The  acts  of  the  State 
board  as  found  in  the  reports  of  the  Territorial  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
make  it  appear  that  as  a rule  only  certificates  of  the  highest  grade  are  recognized  and 
only  from  those  States  with  which  reciprocal  relations  have  been  established.  (School 
Laws,  1909,  p.  202;  report  of  the  Territorial  superintendent  of  public  instruction  for 
biennium  ending  June,  1908,  p.  28.) 

The  Territorial  board  of  education  has  taken  the  following  action  regarding  the 
recognition  of  certificates  and  diplomas  issued  in  other  States: 

Consideration  is  given  transcripts  of  credits  submitted  from  educational  institu- 
tions in  all  States.  Reciprocal  relations  have  been  established  with  Michigan,  Mis- 
souri, Minnesota,  Nebraska,  Oklahoma,  Kansas,  and  Wyoming,  whereby  certificates 
equivalent  to  New  Mexico  county  first  grade  or  higher  are  recognized  in  so  far  as  the 
requirements  are  equivalent  to  those  specified  for  New  Mexico  licenses.  (Memo- 
randum from  State  office.) 


252 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


NEW  YORK. 

Diplomas. — The  commissioner  of  education  may  in  his  discretion  indorse  diplomas 
of  approved  colleges  and  normal  schools.  Graduates  of  colleges  approved  by  the 
education  department,  in  a course  approved  by  that  department,  may  be  granted  a 
limited  certificate,  valid  for  two  years.  If  the  course  taken  by  the  applicant  includes 
a course  in  education  under  the  regulations  of  the  education  department,  he  may  be 
granted  a college  graduate  professional  provisional  certificate,  valid  for  three  years. 
Life  certificates  are  granted  after  three  years’  successful  experience.  (Handbook  7, 
education  department,  1910,  pp.  25-29.  Education  Law,  1910,  p.  120.  Bulletin  474.) 

“The  commissioner  of  education  ‘may  also,  in  his  discretion,  indorse  a diploma 
issued  by  a State  normal  school  or  a certificate  issued  by  a State  superintendent  or 
State  board  of  education  in  any  other  State,  which  indorsement  shall  confer  upon  the 
holder  thereof  the  same  privileges  conferred  by  law  upon  the  holders  of  diplomas  or 
certificates  issued  by  State  normal  schools  or  by  the  commissioner  of  education  in 
this  State.’ 

“This  discretion  will  be  exercised  on  evidence  that  the  standards  on  which  such 
diplomas  and  certificates  were  based  are  equal  in  value  to  standards  in  this  State 
and  that  the  applicant  has  proved  to  be  a successful  teacher  for  at  least  two  years.’1 
(Handbook  7,  education  department,  July,  1908,  p.  26.) 

Certificates. — See  last  two  paragraphs  above. 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 

Diplomas. — Graduates  of  institutions  outside  the  State  are  placed  upon  the  same 
basis  as  graduates  of  institutions  within  the  State,  examination  being  required  of  all 
without  concessions.  (Memorandum  from  State  office.) 

Certificates. — None.  (Memorandum  from  State  office.) 

NORTH  DAKOTA. 

Diplomas. — Recognition  of  diplomas  granted  by  institutions  outside  of  State  placed 
on  the  same  basis  as  those  within.  A normal  school  must  have  a reputation  “for 
thoroughness;”  a college  or  university  must  be  “of  recognized  standing;”  and  the 
applicant  must  have  taught  for  at  least  18  months  after  graduation.  If  these  require- 
ments are  met,  a first-class  State  certificate  may  be  issued.  (School  Laws,  1908,  p.  78.) 

Certificates. — None.  (Memorandum  from  State  office.) 

OHIO. 

Diplomas. — The  law  makes  no  distinction  between  Ohio  institutions  and  those  of 
other  States.  “The  diploma  of  any  normal  school,  teachers’  college,  college,  or  univer- 
sity approved  by  the  State  commissioner  of  common  schools  shall  entitle  the  holder 
thereof  when  he  or  she  has  successfully  passed  the  examination  approved  in  section  5 of 
this  act  to  a professional  elementary-school  certificate.  * * * Provided,  said 
diploma  is  granted  only  to  such  students  as  have  taken  a full  two-year  academic  and 
professional  course,  entrance  to  which  shall  require  graduation  from  a high  school  of  the 
first  grade.”  If  the  course  is  a four-year  academic  and  professional  course,  a provisional 
high -school  certificate  may  be  issued.  It  is  required  that  each  of  these  courses  shall 
include  actual  teaching  under  supervision  in  a training  school,  including  elementary  or 
secondary  grades,  respectively.  A memorandum  from  the  State  office  states,  how- 
ever, “no  diplomas  honored.”  (Session  Laws,  1910,  p.  317;  memorandum  from  State 
office  dated  Sept.  19,  1910.) 

Certificates. — “Life  certificates  known  as  professional  State  certificates  issued  by 
other  States  may  be  recognized  by  the  board  under  the  following  conditions: 

‘ ‘ The  applicant  for  recognition  of  a certificate  issued  by  another  State  shall  registe 
in  the  regular  form. 

“He  shall  attend  the  examination  at  which  his  case  is  to  come  before  the  board. 


RECOGNITION  OF  DIPLOMAS  AND  CERTIFICATES. 


253 


“He  shall  file  the  certificate  to  be  honored  with  the  grades  in  the  branches  covered 
by  the  certificate  and  a copy  of  the  questions  upon  which  certificate  filed  was  granted. 

“He  shall  take  the  examination  in  the  branches  required  in  Ohio  not  covered  by 
his  certificate.’ ’ (Leaflet  from  Ohio  State  board  of  school  examiners,  respecting  date 
of  examination,  etc.) 

OKLAHOMA. 

Diplomas. — The  State  board  of  education  accepts  grades  received  in  subjects 
required  in  an  examination  from  those  State  institutions  which  appear  on  its  accred- 
ited list;  it  does  not  issue  certificates  upon  diplomas.  (Circular  issued  by  State 
superintendent.) 

Certificates. — The  State  board  of  education  accepts  grades  which  appear  upon  State 
certificates  issued  by  other  States,  or  which  are  certified  to  by  the  State  superintend- 
ent; it  does  not  issue  a certificate  upon  a State  certificate  from  another  State.  Grades 
from  a first-grade  county  certificate  and  reading  circle  grades  will  be  accepted  also, 
provided  they  are  of  the  required  average.  (Circular  issued  by  State  superintendent.) 

OREGON. 

Diplomas. — Credits  from  institutions  outside  the  State  are  placed  upon  the  same 
footing  as  credits  from  institutions  within  the  State.  (Memorandum  from  State 
office.) 

Certificates. — Credits  secured  upon  examination  by  State  authorities  from  other 
States  shall  be  accepted  by  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  when  secured 
in  accordance  with  the  following  requirements: 

1.  When  obtained  by  examination  for  the  corresponding  grade  of  certificate;  pro- 
vided, the  examination  questions  were  prepared  and  answer  papers  were  graded  by 
the  State  department  of  education,  the  standings  received  in  other  States  shall  be 
accepted  subject  for  subject;  provided,  that  the  passing  standing  shall  not  be  less 
than  80  per  cent  in  any  one  subject;  provided,  further,  that  in  determining  the 
corresponding  grade  of  certificate  this  recognition  of  credits  shall  apply  to  any  cer- 
tificate regardless  of  territorial  restrictions  in  the  State  wherein  such  certificate  was 
issued. 

2.  Equivalent  credits  for  any  subject  or  subjects  may  be  accepted  at  the  discretion 
of  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction  of  Oregon. 

3.  Credits  for  successful  teaching  experience  may  be  allowed  in  accordance  with 
the  regulations  in  force  in  this  State. 

4.  Certificates  or  credits  subject  to  interstate  recognition  shall  enjoy  the  same 
privileges  as  similar  certificates  or  diplomas  in  this  State  subject  to  the  experience 
requirements  of  this  State. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Diplomas. — The  superintendent  of  public  instruction  may  validate  in  this  Com- 
monwealth teachers’  certificates  issued  by  other  States  or  by  the  State  normal 
schools  or  colleges  of  other  States  whose  requirements  are  equivalent  to  those  of  this 
Commonwealth.  He  may  revoke  such  validation  of  certificates  at  any  time. 

Certificates. — (See  above.) 

RHODE  ISLAND. 

Diplomas. — Each  case  considered  on  its  merits.  No  discrimination  against  outside 
diplomas.  (Memorandum  from  commissioner  of  public  schools.) 

Certificates. — Each  case  considered  on  its  merits.  Qualifications  for  each  certificate 
considered.  When  approved,  apparently  full  recognition  and  no  discrimination 
against  outside  certificates.  (Memorandum  from  commissioner  of  public  schools.) 


254 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Diplomas. — Diploma  of  graduation  from  reputable  university  or  college  situated  in 
another  State  and  of  as  high  rank  as  leading  colleges  in  the  State  are  accepted  upon 
the  same  basis  as  diplomas  from  these  colleges.  A State  certificate  may  be  issued 
upon  such  a diploma,  without  examination.  (Regulations  of  board  of  education  in 
School  Laws,  1909,  p.  58,  rule  10.) 

Certificates. — Recognition  accorded  certificates  from  such  other  States  as  grant  sim- 
ilar recognition  to  certificates  in  South  Carolina.  (Memorandum  from  State  office.) 

SOUTH  DAKOTA. 

Diplomas. — A diploma  from  an  approved  university  or  college  giving  four  years’ 
work  above  a four-year  high-school  course  is  accepted  in  lieu  of  subjects  required  for  a 
life  diploma,  provided  one-fourth  of  such  university  or  college  course  for  18  months 
was  devoted  to  professional  training.  If  a less  amount  of  time  was  given  to  profes- 
sional subjects,  these  subjects  may  be  passed  by  examination. 

A diploma  from  any  approved  State  or  private  normal  school  having  a two-year 
course  of  study  above  a four-year  high-school  course  may  likewise  be  accepted  as 
above.  (Laws,  1909,  p.  5.) 

Certificates. — The  State  superintendent  may  validate  certificates  issued  by  other 
departments  of  education  which  are  of  the  rank  of  the  life  diploma,  State  certificate, 
and  first  and  second  grade  certificates  issued  in  South  Dakota,  provided  the  require- 
ments upon  which  they  are  based  are  equivalent  to  the  requirements  for  corresponding 
certificates  in  South  Dakota.  (Laws,  1909,  p.  6.) 

TENNESSEE. 

Dip  lomas. — N one . 

Certificates . — N one . 

TEXAS. 

Diplomas. — “Sec.  103.  Certificates  based  on  college  degrees. — Any  person  who  holds 
a diploma  conferring  on  him  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts,  or  any  equivalent  bachelor’s 
degree,  or  any  higher  academic  degree,  from  any  college  or  university  of  the  first  class, 
and  who  has  completed  four  full  courses  in  education  and  pedagogy  may  receive  from 
the  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction  a permanent  State  certificate,  which 
shall  be  valid  anywhere  in  this  State  during  good  behavior:  Provided , That  any  person 
who  holds  a diploma  conferring  on  him  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts,  or  any  equivalent 
bachelor’s  degree,  or  any  higher  academic  degree,  from  any  college  or  university  of 
the  first  class,  who  has  not  had  four  full  courses  in  education  but  who  has  taught 
three  years  in  the  State,  may  receive  from  the  State  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion a permanent  State  certificate  which  shall  be  valid  anywhere  in  this  State  during 
good  behavior.  The  institutions  to  be  recognized  as  colleges  or  universities  of  the 
first  class  shall  be  determined  by  the  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction  upon 
the  recommendation  of  the  State  board  of  examiners.”  (School  Laws,  1909,  pp.  40-41.) 

Certificates. — N one . 

UTAH. 

Diplomas. — “The  State  board  of  education  has  the  power  to  accept  credits,  cer- 
tificates, and  diplomas  from  other  States  and  from  institutions  of  learning  in  lieu  of 
examination.”  (Circular  letter  signed  by  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction.) 

Certificates. — “ Life  diplomas  issued  by  State  boards  in  other  States  and  shown  to  be 
of  equal  rank  with  those  issued  by  the  State  board  of  this  State  may  receive  equal 
recognition  after  the  holders  acquire  two  years’  successful  experience  in  schools  of 
this  State.  When  countersigned  by  the  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction 
under  the  direction  of  the  State  board,  such  diplomas  shall  have  equal  validity  with 


RECOGNITION  OF  DIPLOMAS  AND  CERTIFICATES. 


255 


those  of  corresponding  rank  issued  by  the  State  board.”  Temporary  certificates  are 
issued  to  those  who  lack  experience  in  Utah.  (School  Law,  1909,  p.  5.) 

See  also  diplomas,  above. 

VERMONT. 

Diplomas. — Graduates  of  institutions  outside  of  the  State  are  treated  upon  the 
same  basis  as  graduates  from  institutions  within  the  State.  Graduates  from  approved 
colleges  and  normal  schools  are  required  to  have  less  experience  in  the  granting  of 
all  certificates  than  those  persons  who  are  not  graduates.  (Act  1908,  ch.  37.) 

Certificates. — The  holder  of  any  certificate  that  is  valid  for  two  or  more  years  is 
eligible  to  a special  third-grade  or  one  year’s  certificate.  (Letter  from  State  super- 
intendent, Sept.  29,  1910.) 

VIRGINIA. 

Diplomas. — “For  schools  and  colleges  outside  Virginia  the  State  board  of  examiners 
may  accept  any  certificate  that  would  be  accepted  by  the  State  authorities  of  the 
State  from  which  the  certificate  comes  and  may  issue  a Virginia  certificate  of  such 
grade  and  life  as  may  seem  warranted  by  conditions  attending  the  individual  case.” 
(Regulations  State  board  of  education,  School  Laws,  1907,  p.  12.) 

Certificates. — The  State  board  of  examiners  endeavors  to  grant  the  same  recognition 
to  certificates  from  other  States  as  is  extended  Virginia  certificates  of  like  grade  by 
the  department  of  public  instruction  of  those  particular  States.  (Letter  from  E.  H. 
Russell,  Sept.  14,  1910.) 

WASHINGTON. 

Diplomas. — The  State  board  of  education  is  authorized  to  grant  certificates  without 
examination,  except  in  the  State  Manual  of  Washington,  to  graduates  of  those  normal 
schools,  colleges,  and  universities,  and  other  institutions  of  higher  education  which 
have  been  approved  by  it,  provided  the  entrance  and  graduation  requirements  of 
these  institutions  must  be  equal  to  those  of  the  University  of  Washington  or  of  the 
advanced  course  of  the  State  normal  schools  of  Washington.  (Laws,  1909,  p.13.) 

Certificates. — The  State  board  of  education  is  authorized  to  issue  certificates  with- 
out examination,  except  in  the  State  Manual  of  Washington,  to  the  holders  of  State 
life  certificates,  the  requirements  of  which  have  been  found  by  them  to  be  equal  to 
the  requirements  for  a life  certificate  in  Washington.  (Laws,  1909,  p.  13.) 

“Credits  of  90  per  cent  or  over  on  a valid  certificate  obtained  by  examination 
in  any  other  State  in  which  the  examination  questions  are  prepared  and  answer  papers 
graded  by  the  State  department  of  education  may  be  accepted  subject  for  subject 
in  accordance  with  the  rules  and  regulations  prescribed  by  the  State  board  of  educa- 
tion.” (Laws,  1911,  ch.  16.) 

WEST  VIRGINIA. 

Diplomas. — “The  State  board  of  education  may  also  issue  certificates  to  teachers 
coming  from  other  States  when  such  teachers  hold  certificates  or  diplomas  of  equal 
value  with  those  issued  under  this  act:  Provided , That  the  States  which  issue  such 
certificates  likewise  recognize  those  issued  in  this  State.”  (School  Laws,  1908,  p.  58.) 

Certificates. — See  diplomas  above. 

WISCONSIN. 

Diplomas. — The  holder  of  a diploma  of  a university  or  college  whose  regular  college 
courses  are  fully  and  fairly  equivalent  to  corresponding  courses  of  the  University  of 
Wisconsin,  or  the  holder  of  a diploma  granted  by  a State  normal  school  whose  courses 
of  study  are  fully  and  fairly  equivalent  to  the  courses  of  study  in  the  Wisconsin  normal 
schools  and  who  has  had  two  years’  experience  after  the  date  of  issuance  of  such 
diploma,  may,  if  recommended  favorably  by  the  State  board  of  examiners,  be  granted 
an  unlimited  State  certificate;  if  the  holder  of  the  diploma  is  lacking  in  experience, 


256  TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 

he  may  be  granted  a special  license  valid  for  two  years.  (School  Laws,  1909,  pp. 
83-84.) 

Certificates. — The  holder  of  a life  certificate  in  another  State,  the  requirements  for 
which  are  equivalent  to  those  of  the  unlimited  certificate  in  Wisconsin,  who  has  had 
two  years’  experience  in  Wisconsin  subsequent  to  the  date  of  the  foreign  certificate, 
may  be  granted  an  unlimited  certificate;  if  he  is  lacking  in  experience,  a special  license 
may  be  granted  him  valid  for  a period  of  two  years.  (School  Laws,  1909,  pp.  81-82.) 

WYOMING. 

Diplomas. — ‘ ‘ Exemption  certificates  granted  to  graduates  of  the  State  Normal  School 
and  other  schools  of  the  University  of  Wyoming  may  be  granted  to  the  graduates  of 
other  normal  schools  and  colleges  of  equivalent  rank.  The  State  board  of  examiners 
shall  be  the  judge  of  equivalency.”  (School  Laws,  1909,  p.  127.) 

These  certificates  are  made  valid  for  such  a period  as  is  necessary  to  give  the  holder 
the  experience  required  for  a life  certificate. 

Certificates. — “Certificates  granted  in  other  States  and  of  as  high  rank  as  the  first  or 
second  class  certificates  having  requirements  equivalent  to  those  in  this  State  may 
be  given  the  same  validity  in  this  State.  The  State  board  of  examiners  shall  be  the 
judge  of  equivalency.”  (School  Laws,  1909,  p.  127.) 

Under  this  regulation,  recognition  is  not  limited  to  “State”  certificates. 


APPENDIX. 


ACTS  OF  VARIOUS  LEGISLATURES  PASSED  DURING  THE  WINTER  OF 
1911  AND  NOT  REFERRED  TO  IN  TABLE  1. 

HAWAII. 

[Department  of  public  instruction  circular.] 

“Primary  and  grammar  grade  certificates  issued  by  this  department  and  diplomas 
granted  by  the  Honolulu  Normal  School  are  recognized  teaching  certificates.” 

Grammar  grade  certificates  issued  on  examination  embrace  the  following  subjects: 
(a)  subject  matter  of  course  of  study  except  manual  training  and  calisthenics:  (b) 
geometry,  book  I to  IV;  algebra  to  quadratics;  (c)  universal  history;  (d)  school  man- 
agement and  methods  of  teaching. 

Primary  certificates  issued  on  examination  embrace  the  following  subjects:  (a) 
same  as  above;  (b)  methods  of  teaching;  (c)  school  management. 

IOWA. 

[State  Department  circular  No.  5—1911.] 

County  first-grade  and  special  certificates  shall  be  validated  for  life  by  the  State 
board  of  educational  examiners  upon  fulfilling  the  following  conditions: 

1.  Testimonials  from  county  or  city  superintendents  or  from  the  principals  having 
immediate  supervision  of  his  school  work  and  from  a member  of  the  local  school  board 
that  applicant  has  had  at  least  five  years’  continuous  successful  teaching  experience 
(either  before  or  after  the  passage  of  this  act),  three  of  which  shall  have  been  imme- 
diately prior  to  the  time  validation  is  sought  and  under  the  grade  of  certificate  for 
which  such  validation  is  desired. 

2 • Applicant’s  certificate  must  show  an  average  of  not  less  than  85  per  cent  and  no 
branch  less  than  80  per  cent,  applicant  being  privileged  to  be  reexamined  at  any 
regular  examination  in  any  branch  or  branches  to  raise  his  percentage  to  the  required 
grade. 

3.  Applicant  must  furnish  proof  of  professional  study  during  the  entire  five-year 
period  such  as  is  made  necessary  in  the  case  of  term  renewals  of  certificates. 

OREGON. 

[Acts  of  1911,  Senate  bill  No.  101.] 

The  standardizing  of  colleges , universities,  and  normal  schools. — A standard  college, 
university,  or  normal  school  is  one  that  shall  be  standardized  by  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education,  of  Washington,  D.  C.  In  case  of  the  failure  of  said  bureau  to 
prepare  a list  of  standardized  colleges,  universities,  and  normal  schools,  or  to  pass 
upon  the  standard  of  any  college,  university,  or  normal  school  of  Oregon,  a board  of 
such  standardization,  composed  of  the  president  of  the  University  of  Oregon,  the 
president  of  the  Oregon  Agricultural  College,  the  president  of  the  Oregon  Normal 
School,  the  city  superintendent  of  the  largest  city  in  the  State,  one  person  selected 
by  the  Independent  College  Presidents’  Association  of  Oregon,  one  person  selected 
by  the  Catholic  Educational  Association  of  Oregon,  and  the  superintendent  of  public 
instruction,  shall  meet  from  time  to  time  in  the  statehouse  at  Salem,  Oreg.,  upon 
10943°— 11 17  257 


258 


TEACHERS  CERTIFICATES. 


the  call  of  the  superintendent  of  public  instruction,  and  shall  prepare  a list  of  the 
educational  institutions  of  Oregon,  which,  in  the  judgment  of  the  board,  shall  be  recog- 
nized as  the  standard  colleges  and  universities  of  Oregon,  and  shall  pass  upon  the 
standard  of  any  college,  university,  or  normal  School  of  other  States  seeking  recog- 
nition in  this  State. 

WEST  VIRGINIA. 

[Acts  of  1911,  House  bill  No.  242.] 

Amends  section  163  of  chapter  27,  acts  of  1908,  which  requires  a district  superintend- 
ent to  hold  a first-grade  certificate,  by  requiring  in  addition  thereto  a supervisor’s 
certificate,  which  shall  be  issued  upon  application  by  the  State  board  of  education 
to  persons  who  have  taken  at  least  six  courses  in  education  at  the  State  university, 
and  to  graduates  in  the  normal  departments  of  the  State  normal  school  and  its  branches, 
and  of  normal  departments  of  other  schools  of  equivalent  grade,  and  to  applicants 
who  shall  pass  a satisfactory  examination  in  school  law,  school  sanitation,  school 
supervision,  and  methods  of  teaching. 

NEBRASKA. 

The  following  table,  giving  the  principal  features  of  teachers’  certificates  in 
Nebraska,  was  prepared  by  J.  W.  Crabtree,  State  superintendent  of  public  instruc- 
tion. It  includes  the  city-State  certificates  which  were  authorized  by  the  legis- 
lature at  its  last  session.  The  legislature  gave  the  State  superintendent  authority 
to  determine  the  qualifications  for  the  various  grades  of  city-State  certificates.  His 
action  in  accordance  with  that  authorization  was  received  too  late  for  inclusion  in 
the  study  proper. 


NEBRASKA. 

[School  Laws,  1911,  pp.  70-79,  89.  Laws  of  Nebraska,  1897,  chap.  65;  1905,  chap.  135;  1907,  chap.  123;  1911,  chap.  120.] 


APPENDIX. 


259 


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260 


TEACHERS 


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4 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  TEACHERS’  CERTIFICATES. 

[Prepared  in  the  Library  Division  of  this  Office.] 

GENERAL  REFERENCES. 

Allen,  W.  O.  The  function  of  the  college  in  the  training  of  teachers.  In  Missouri 
State  teachers’  association.  Proceedings  and  addresses,  1909.  Fulton,  Mo.. 
Gazette  publishing  co.,  1910.  p.  80-85. 

Bachman,  Frank  P.  Certification  of  teachers  prepared  in  State  institutions.  Ohio 
teacher,  24:  185-87,  January,  1904. 

■ The  differentiation  of  teachers’  certificates.  Ohio  teacher,  26:  52-55,  Sep- 

tember, 1905. 

Barrett,  It.  C.  Reciprocity  in  licensing  teachers.  In  National  education  association. 
Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1902.  p.  299-305. 

Black,  Samuel  T.  The  certification  of  teachers.  Western  journal  of  education,  3:  5-6, 
January,  1898. 

Bolton,  F.  E.  Preparation  of  high  school  teachers.  School  review,  15:  97-122,  Feb- 
ruary, 1907. 

Cooper,  F.  B.  The  certification  of  the  teacher.  Northwest  journal  of  education, 
18:  15-18,  February,  1907. 

Cubberley,  Ellwood  P.  The  certification  of  teachers.  A consideration  of  present 
conditions,  with  suggestions  as  to  lines  of  future  improvement.  In  National 
society  for  the  scientific  study  of  education.  Fifth  yearbook.  Chicago,  Univer- 
sity of  Chicago  press,  1906.  pt.  2.  p.  1-88. 

Statistical. 

Dutton,  Samuel  T.  and  Snedden,  David.  Examination  and  certification  of  teachers. 
In  their  Administration  of  public  education  in  the  United  States.  New  York, 
The  Macmillan  company,  1908.  p.  245-249. 

Friend,  L.  L.  The  certification  of  teachers.  West  Virginia  school  journal,  36:  29-32, 
August,  1907. 

Hill,  Albert  Ross.  The  preparation  and  certification  of  teachers.  In  Missouri  State 
teachers’  association.  Proceedings  and  addresses,  1904.  p.  23-29. 

Hinsdale,  B.  A.,  and  others.  The  certification  of  college  and  university  graduates  as 
teachers  in  the  public  schools.  School  review,  7:  331-371,  June,  1899. 

Illinois.  Educational  commission.  The  certification  of  teachers.  In  its  Final  report 
[1909]  Springfield,  Illinois,  Illinois  State  journal  co.,  1909.  p.  147-85. 
Examining  system,  by  the  various  States,  p.  151-57. 

Recognition  of  normal  schools  by  the  various  States,  p.  159-C3. 

Uniform  examinations,  p.  163-70. 

Jackson,  William  Roberts.  The  present  status  of  the  certification  of  teachers  in  the 
United  States.  In  United  States.  Bureau  of  education.  Report  of  the  Com- 
missioner for  the  year  1903.  v.  1,  p.  463-519. 

Life  certificates  for  trained  teachers.  Ohio  teacher,  31:  2-3,  August-September,  1910. 
262 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


263 


McClure,  C.  H.  Preparation  and  certification  of  teachers.  In  Missouri  State  teachers’ 
association.  Proceedings  and  addresses,  1909.  Fulton,  Mo.,  Gazette  publish- 
ing co.,  1910.  p.  106-15. 

Nielson,  Erastus  A.  Are  we  ready  to  require  a minimum  of  professional  training 
before  giving  a certificate  to  a teacher?  Colorado  school  journal,  26:  122-26, 
191-94,  November,  December,  1910. 

Smalley,  A.  J.  A new  plan  of  certification.  Journal  of  education  (Pierre,  S.  D.) 
12:  9-10,  January,  1911. 

Snedden,  David.  Certification  of  high-school  teachers.  Education,  31:  335-338, 
January,  1911. 

South  Dakota.  Superintendent  of  public  instruction.  Interstate  recognition  of 
teachers’  certificates.  In  his  Biennial  report,  1905-1906.  Huron,  S.  D.,  John 
Longstaff.  p.  33-40. 

States,  with  regulations. 

The  State  certificate,  limited.  School  bulletin,  34:  99-100,  February,  1908. 

Thomas,  George  H.  The  examination  plan  vs.  the  credit  system  in  the  certification 
of  teachers.  In  Nebraska.  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction. 
Biennial  report,  1905-07.  Fremont,  Nebraska,  Hammond  printing  company, 
p.  253-64. 

Thompson,  William  Oxley,  and  Cook,  John  W.  Moral  character  in  the  recommenda- 
tion and  certification  of  teachers.  In  North  central  association  of  colleges  and 
secondary  schools.  Proceedings,  1908.  p.  123-35. 

United  States.  Bureau  of  education.  Legal  provisions  of  the  various  States  relating 
to  teachers’  examinations  and  certificates.  In  Report  of  the  Commissioner  for 
the  year  1897-98.  v.  2,  p.  1659-1691.  (Chapter  35.) 

Wheelock,  Charles  F.  Function  of  the  State  board  of  education  in  the  licensing  of 
teachers.  Pennsylvania  school  journal,  59:  311-15,  January,  1911. 

Wolfe,  L.  E.  Recognition  of  certificates  and  diplomas.  In  National  education  asso- 
ciation. Journal  of  proceedings  and  addresses,  1904.  p.  306-309. 

CALIFORNIA. 

[California]  [The  new  certification  measure].  Western  journal  of  education,  6:  30-37, 
April,  1901. 

In  effect  July  1, 1901. 

Doub,  W.  C.  Certification  of  teachers.  In  Educational  questions.  San  Francisco, 
Whitaker  & Ray,  1900.  p.  7-24. 

Public  school  certification  in  California.  Sierra  educational  news,  3:  1-6,  July  1907. 

ENGLAND. 

Watson,  Foster.  The  licensing  of  teachers  in  England  in  the  past.  Educational 
times  (London)  53:  138-40,  March  1900. 

Historical  account. 

FRANCE. 

Boitel,  Julien.  Manuel  d’examen  pour  le  brevet  superieur  de  l’enseignement  pri- 
maire,  nouv.  ed.  . . . Paris,  Hachette  et  cie,  1908.  2v.  illus.  12°. 

France.  Ministere  de  l’instruction  publique  et  des  beaux  arts.  Programmes  des 
examens  pour  l’obtention  des  brevets  de  capacite  de  l’enseignement  primaire 
et  du  certificat  d’aptitude  pedagogique.  Paris,  Hachette  et  cie,  1907-08. 
30  p.  12°. 

GERMANY. 

Bolton,  Frederick  Elmer.  Teachers.  Examination  and  certification.  In  his  The 
secondary  school  system  of  Germany.  New  York,  D.  Appleton  and  company, 
1900.  p.  55-119. 


264 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


ILLINOIS. 

[Chicago  high  school  instructors  and  graded  school  principals  must  possess  a degree 
given  by  reputable  college  or  university  to  be  eligible  for  examination  for 
position]  Wisconsin  journal  of  education,  42:  216-17,  October,  1910. 

Illinois.  Educational  commission.  A tentative  plan  for  the  certification  of  teachers. 
Proposed  by  the  Educational  commission  of  Illinois.  Springfield,  Illinois, 
Phillips  Bros.,  State  printers,  1908.  (Bulletin  No.  3.) 

Bibliography;  p.  51-53. 

Illinois.  Laws,  statutes,  etc.  Bills  providing  for  (1)  a State  board  of  education;  (2) 
the  certification  of  teachers,  and  (3)  township  organization  of  rural  schools; 
proposed  by  the  Educational  commission  of  Illinois.  Springfield,  Illinois, 
Allied  printing  trades  council,  1909.  8 p.  8°.  (The  Educational  commis- 

sion. Bulletin  No.  8). 

ITALY. 

Italy.  Laws,  statutes,  etc.  Legge  pel  conferimento  del  titolo  di  abilitazione  alio 
ufficio  di  direttord  didattico,  28  febbraio  1907  . . . Napoli,  E.  Pietrocola,  1907. 
5 p.  12°. 

IOWA. 

Bayliss,  Alfred.  The  Hawkeye  certification  plan.  School  news,  21:  482-83,  July, 
1908. 

Iowa.  Department  of  public  instruction.  One  year  under  the  uniform  county  cer- 
tificate law.  In  its  Report,  1907-08.  p.  31-35. 

Became  effective  October  1 1906. 

Iowa.  Superintendent  of  public  instruction.  The  licensing  of  teachers.  In  Ms 
Biennial  report,  1905.  p.  147-54. 

LOUISIANA. 

Act  providing  for  a State  teachers’  certificate.  In  Louisiana.  General  laws,  1906. 
p.  88-89. 

Extension  of  certificates  of  teachers  who  have  attended  the  summer  normal  schools. 
In  Louisiana  State  school  report,  1905.  p.  99. 

MAINE. 

Maine.  Educational  department.  Examination  for  State  certificates,  1904.  [Augusta, 
Maine]  1904.  22  p.  8°. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

[Boston,  Mass.,  rule  requiring  all  teachers  in  the  high  schools  to  have  A.  B.  degree  has 
been  modified  to  rule  requiring  A.  A.  (associate  of  arts).  Harvard,  Tufts,  Rad- 
cliffe,  Boston  college,  Boston  university,  have  decided  to  grant  the  new  degree, 
obtainable  by  attending  summer  or  evening  courses]  American  primary  teacher, 
29:  77,  October,  1910. 

Hill,  Frank  A.  State  examination  and  certification  of  teachers.  In  Massachusetts. 
Board  of  education.  Annual  report,  58:  283-304. 

MICHIGAN. 

Michigan.  Superintendent  of  public  schools.  Teachers’  certificates  (Circular  No.  11). 

NEBRASKA. 

Employment  and  certification  of  teachers.  New  official  regulations  of  the  State 
department  of  education.  Nebraska  teacher,  14:  68-77,  August,  1911. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


265 


Thomaa,  George  H.  The  examination  plan  vs.  the  credit  system  in  the  certification 
of  teachers.  In  Nebraska.  State  superintendent  of  public  instruction.  Bien- 
nial report,  1905-07.  Fremont,  Nebraska,  Hammond  printing  company,  p. 
253-64. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

New  Hampshire.  Department  of  public  instruction.  Abstract  of  regulations  govern- 
ing State  examination  and  certification  of  teachers  in  public  schools.  [Con- 
cord? 1904?]  7 p.  8°. 

NEW  MEXICO. 

Hofer,  Jos.  S.  Should  the  Territorial  board  of  education  undertake  at  present  to 
issue  special  certificates  to  teachers  of  special  subjects  or  departments?  New 
Mexico  journal  of  education,  7:  47-49,  March,  1911. 

NEW  YORK. 

New  York  (City)  Dept,  of  education.  Information  respecting  licenses  to  teach  in 
the  high  schools  and  training  schools  of  the  city  of  New  York  ...  [New 
York,  190-?]  12  p.  8°. 

New  York  (State).  First  grade  New  York  State  certificates  explained.  Table  of 
the  principal  kinds  of  New  York  certificates.  School  bulletin,  33:  124-25, 
March,  1907. 

OHIO. 

Zeller,  John  W.  The  new  certification  law.  Ohio  teacher,  30:  506-507,  June,  1910. 

OREGON. 

Certificates  of  teachers.  Oregon  teachers’  monthly,  15:  425-40,  March,  1911  (Alter- 
nate pages,  in  part). 

Oregon.  Department  of  education.  Circular  of  information  for  persons  who  wish  to 
secure  State  certificates  or  diplomas  to  teach  in  Oregon.  Salem,  Ore.,  W.  S. 
Duniway,  State  printer,  1909.  4 p.  8°. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Brecht,  M.  J.  The  certification  of  teachers.  Pennsylvania  school  journal,  56:  375-81, 
March,  1908. 

Discussion,  p.  381-82. 

Russell,  I.  H.  How  to  improve  certification  of  teachers  in  Pennsylvania.  In  Penn- 
sylvania State  educational  association.  Department  of  county  superintend- 
ence. Proceedings,  1910.  p.  1-4. 

TEXAS. 

[Texas]  New  certificate  law  [in  effect  June  9,  1911].  Texas  school  journal,  28:  35, 
37,  39,  April,  1911;  Texas  school  magazine,  14:  5-6,  April,  1911. 

VIRGINIA. 

Chandler,  A.  B.  Certification  of  teachers — new  legislation.  Virginia  journal  of 
education,  4:  398-400,  March,  1911. 

Virginia  State  teachers’  association.  Information  concerning  certification  of  teachers. 
Issued  by  State  board  of  examiners.  May  1,  1908.  In  its  Sixth  annual  bulletin 
[1908].  p.  21-25. 

WASHINGTON. 

Dewey,  Henry  B.  Circular  regarding  certification  of  teachers  . . . Northwest 
journal  of  education,  20:  14-17,  June,  1909. 


266 


TEACHERS*  CERTIFICATES. 


WEST  VIRGINIA. 


Friend,  L.  L.  The  certification  of  teachers.  West  Virginia  school  journal,  36:  29-32, 
August,  1907. 


WISCONSIN. 


Brewer,  C.  J.  Recent  legislation  affecting  our  public  schools  . . . [New  Richmond, 
Wis.,  The  Van  Meter-Welch  printing  co.,  1909.]  13  p.  8°. 

Paper  read  at  convention  of  the  Northwestern  teachers’  association,  October  15,  1909. 


INDEX 


Age  requirements,  minimum,  226-228. 

Agencies  that  issue  certificates  (city,  county,  State, 
and  town),  138-148. 

Alabama,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition, 
245;  laws  and  regulations,  12;  teachers’  certifi- 
cates, 140. 

Arizona,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition,  246; 
laws  and  regulations,  12, 15. 

Arkansas,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition, 
246;  laws  and  regulations,  14-15. 

Bibliography,  teachers’  certificates,  262-266. 

“ Building-up.”  See  Transfer  of  grades. 

California,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition, 
246;  laws  and  regulations,  16-19;  primary  and 
kindergarten  certificates,  156;  requirements  for 
teachers’  certificates,  216-217. 

Central  agencies,  certificates  that  are  valid  in  a sin- 
gle county,  151;  certificates  that  are  valid  in  a sin- 
gle town  or  district,  151;  certificates  that  are  valid 
throughout  the  State,  147-148. 

Central,  county,  and  local  agencies,  summary  of  cer- 
tificates issued  by,  153. 

Centralizing  authority,  State  agencies,  141-143. 

Certificates,  based  on  examination,  187-196;  based 
on  graduation  from  college,  164-174;  based  on 
high-school  graduation,  182-187;  based  on  normal 
school  courses,  174-182;  first-grade,  of  various 
durations,  subjects  required,  190-191;  first,  sec- 
ond, and  third  grade,  and  their  equivalents,  187- 
200;  highest  scholarship  and  experience  require- 
ments, based  on  examinations,  201-204;  recogni- 
tion, 244-256.  See  also  under  names  of  States. 

College,  graduation  from,  certificates  based  on,  164- 
174. 

College  graduates,  experience  required  for  perma- 
nent life  certificate,  218-219. 

Colorado,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition, 
246;  laws  and  regulations,  18-22. 

Connecticut,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition, 
246;  elementary  certificate,  examinations,  214- 
216;  elementary  certificate,  preliminary  papers, 
212-214;  laws  and  regulations,  20-23;  measuring 
efficiency  of  teachers,  212-216. 

County  agencies,  certificates  that  are  valid  in  a 
single  district,  152;  certificates  that  are  valid 
throughout  the  county,  149-150;  preparation  of 
questions  and  examination  of  papers  for  certifi- 
cates, 143-144. 

County  certificates,  and  their  equivalents,  number 
and  character  of  subjects  in  which  examination  is 
required,  188-189;  first-grade,  subjects  in  which 
examination  is  required,  194-196;  scholarship  and 
experience  requirements,  based  on  examinations 
next  higher  in  rank  to  first-grade,  196-200;  sub- 
jects required  for  third  or  lowest  and  for  first- 
grade,  190-192. 


County  system,  certificates,  139, 141. 

Delaware,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition, 
246;  laws  and  regulations,  22-23. 

Diplomas,  recognition,  244-256.  See  also  under 
names  of  States. 

Duration  of  statistics,  159-163. 

Elementary  certificates,  examinations,  Connecti- 
cut, 214-216;  preliminary  papers,  Connecticut, 
212-214. 

Elementary  schools,  certificates,  156-157. 

Examinations,  certificates  based  on,  187-196;  first- 
grade  county  certificates,  subjects  required,  194- 
196;  highest  certificates,  scholarship  and  experi- 
ence requirements,  201-204;  number  and  charac- 
ter of  subjects  required  for  county  certificates, 
188-189;  of  papers,  143-144;  requirements,  effect 
of  duration,  190;  requirements,  subjects,  164. 

Fees,  required  for  certificates  and  funds  to  which 
they  are  credited,  228-231. 

First-grade  certificates,  or  equivalents,  number  of 
States  requiring  various  numbers  of  each  class  of 
subjects,  192-193. 

Florida,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition,  246; 
laws  and  regulations,  24-25. 

Georgia,  centralizing  authority  to  certificate  teach- 
ers, 141;  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition, 
247;  laws  and  regulations,  24-29;  special  certifi- 
cates, through  county  agencies,  156. 

Hawaii,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition,  247; 
legislation,  257. 

High  schools,  certificates,  156, 182-187,  220,  Kansas, 
186,  Missouri,  186,  New  York,  186-187;  diploma, 
license  to  teach  in  North  Dakota,  139. 

Idaho,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition,  247; 
laws  and  regulations,  26-27;  transfer  of  grades  from 
lower  to  higher  certificates,  223. 

Illinois,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition,  247; 
laws  and  regulations,  28-31;  special  certificates, 
through  county  agencies,  156. 

Indiana,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition, 
247;  laws  and  regulations,  30-35;  measuring  effi- 
ciency of  teachers,  211;  primary  and  kindergarten 
certificates,  156;  scholarship  and  experience  re- 
quirements, 210. 

Introduction,  7-10. 

Iowa,  centralizing  authority  to  certificate  teachers, 
141;  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition,  247; 
laws  and  regulations,  34-37, 257;  transfer  of  grades 
from  lower  to  higher  certificates,  224. 

Kansas,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition,  248; 
law  regarding  certificates  based  on  high-school 
graduation,  186;  laws  and  regulations,  36-41; 
transfer  of  grades  from  lower  to  higher  certificates, 
224. 

Kentucky,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition, 
248;  laws  and  regulations,  42-43. 


267 


268 


INDEX. 


Kindergarten,  certificates  valid  only  in,  157. 

Kindergarten  and  primary  certificates,  scholarship 
and  experience  requirements,  207. 

Laws  and  regulations,  State,  10-35. 

Legislation,  passed  during  winter  of  1911,  not  refer- 
red to  in  Table  1,  257-258. 

Letter  of  transmittal,  5-6. 

Life  certificate,  college  graduates,  number  of  years  of 
experience,  218-219. 

Local  agencies,  certificates  issued  by,  152. 

Louisiana,  centralizing  authority  to  certificate 
teachers,  141;  diplomas  and  certificates,  recogni- 
tion, 248;  laws  and  regulations,  44-45;  special  cer- 
tificates, through  county  agencies,  150. 

Maine,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition,  248; 
laws  and  regulations,  46-47;  measuring  efficiency 
of  teachers,  211;  scholarship  and  experience  re- 
quirements, 210-211. 

Maryland,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition, 
249;  laws  and  regulations,  48-49;  measuring  effi- 
ciency of  teachers,  211. 

Massachusetts,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recogni- 
tion, 249;  laws  and  regulations,  50-51. 

Michigan,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition, 
249;  laws  and  regulations,  50-53;  primary  and 
kindergarten  certificates,  156;  right  of  cities  to 
examine  and  certificate  teachers  increased,  143. 

Minimum  age  requirements,  226-228. 

Minnesota,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition, 
249;  laws  and  regulations,  52-57;  teachers’  certifi- 
cates, 139. 

Mississippi,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition, 
249;  laws  and  regulations,  54-55. 

Missouri,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition,  249- 
250;  law  regarding  certificates  based  on  high- 
school  graduation,  186;  laws  and  regulations,  56- 
59;  transfer  of  grades  from  lower  to  higher  certifi- 
cates, 224. 

Montana,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition, 
250;  laws  and  regulations,  60-63;  transfer  of  grades 
from  lower  to  higher  certificates,  224. 

Names  of  certificates,  137. 

Nebraska,  authority  of  cities  in  certification  of  teach- 
ers removed,  142;  centralizing  authority  to  certi- 
ficate teachers,  141;  diplomas  and  certificates 
recognition,  250;  laws  and  regulations,  62-65,  139, 
258-261. 

Nevada,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition,  250; 
laws  and  regulations,  66-67;  transfer  of  grades 
from  lower  to  higher  certificates,  224. 

New  Hampshire,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recog- 
nition, 250-251;  laws  and  regulations,  68-69. 

New  Jersey,  authority  of  cities  in  certification  of 
teachers  removed,  142;  centralizing  authority  to 
certificate  teachers,  141;  diplomas  and  certificates, 
recognition,  251;  laws  and  regulations,  70-73; 
temporary  permits  to  teach,  139. 

New  Mexico,  laws  and  regulations,  74-75, 140;  cen- 
tralizing authority  to  certificate  teachers,  141; 
diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition,  251;  schol- 
arship requirements,  216;  transfer  of  grades  from 
lower  to  higher  certificates,  224. 

New  York,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition, 
252;  law  regarding  certificates  based  on  high- 
school  graduation,  186;  laws  and  regulations,  76- 
79;  scholarship  and  experience  requirements,  210. 


Normal  schools,  courses,  certificates  based  on, 
174-182;  graduates,  certificates  issued,  219-220. 

North  Carolina,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recogni- 
tion, 252;  laws  and  regulations,  80-81. 

North  Dakota,  diplomas  and  certificates,  252;  high 
school  diploma  (training  school)  license  to  teach, 
139;  laws  and  regulations,  80-85;  temporary  per- 
mits to  teach,  139. 

Number  of  certificates,  136-137. 

Ohio,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition.  252-253; 
laws  and  regulations,  84-89;  special  certificates, 
through  county  agencies,  156. 

Oklahoma,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition, 
253:  laws  and  regulations,  88-93. 

Oregon,  centralizing  authority  to  certificate  teach- 
ers, 141;  certificates,  140;  diplomas  and  certificates, 
recognition,  253;  laws  and  regulations,  92-97  257; 
transfer  of  grades  from  lower  to  higher  certificates 
224. 

Pennsylvania,  centralizing  authority  to  certificate 
teachers,  141;  diplomas  and  certificates,  recogni- 
tion, 253;  laws  and  regulations,  96-97;  special  cer- 
tificates, through  county  agencies,  156. 

Percentage  of  certificates,  valid  in  county,  156;  valid 
in  State,  156. 

Persistence  of  certificates,  217-226. 

Primary  and  kindergarten  certificates,  156;  scholar- 
ship and  experience  requirements,  207. 

Primary  grades,  certificates,  157. 

Professional  study,  required  for  certificates  based 
on  college  graduation,  173. 

Provisions  of  certificates,  145-153. 

Questions  and  examination  of  papers,  preparation, 
143-144. 

Reissuance  and  renewal,  below  first-grade  county 
certificates,  221-223. 

Renewal  and  reissuance,  below  first-grade  county 
certificates,  221-223. 

Renewal  of  certificates,  conditions  and  the  States  in 
which  they  prevail,  223. 

Rhode  Island,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recogni- 
tion, 253;  laws  and  regulations,  98-101;  transfer  of 
grades  from  lower  to  higher  certificates,  224-225. 

Scholarship  and  experience  requirements,  163-164; 
Indiana,  210;  Maine,  210-211;  New  Mexico,  216; 
New  York,  210;  Utah,  216;  Virginia,  209-210. 

South  Carolina,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recogni- 
tion, 254;  laws  and  regulations,  100-101. 

South  Dakota,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recogni- 
tion, 254;  laws  and  regulations,  102-105;  teachers 
certificates,  139. 

Special  branches,  certificates  valid  only  in,  157. 

Special  certificates,  156;  scholarship  and  experience 
requirements,  208. 

State  agencies,  centralizing  authority,  141-142. 

State-county-local  system,  139,  141. 

State-county  system,  139,  141. 

State  laws  and  regulations,  10-135.  See  also  under 
names  of  States. 

State-local  system,  139, 141. 

State  system,  139,  141. 

Subjects,  secondary  and  professional,  States  having, 
205. 

Supervisors’  certificates,  scholarship  and  experience 
requirements,  209. 

Suspension  and  revocation  of  certificates,  231-243. 


INDEX 


269 


Teachers,  measuring  efficiency,  Connecticut,  212; 
Indiana,  211;  Maine,  211;  Maryland,  211. 

Teachers’  certificates,  principal  features,  10-135. 

Tennossee,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition, 
254;  laws  and  regulations,  104-107. 

Territory  covered  by  certificate,  154-155. 

Texas,  centralizing  authority  to  certificate  teachers, 
141;  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition,  254; 
laws  and  regulations,  106-111;  teachers’  certifi- 
cates, 140;  transfer  of  grades  from  lower  to  higher 
certificates,  225. 

Transfer  of  grades,  from  lower  to  higher  certificates, 
223-226.  See  also  under  names  of  States. 

Utah,  centralizing  authority  to  certificate  teachers, 
141;  certificates,  140;  diplomas  and  certificates, 
recognition,  254-255;  laws  and  regulations,  110— 
113;  scholarship  requirements,  216. 

Validity  of  certificates,  schools  or  positions,  156-159. 

Vermont,  centralizing  authority  to  certificate  teach- 
ers, 141;  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition, 
255;  laws  and  regulations,  112-115. 


Virginia,  centralizing  authority  to  certificate  teach- 
ers, 141;  diplomas  and  certificates,  recognition, 
255;  laws  and  regulations,  116-121;  scholarship 
and  experience  requirements,  209-210. 

Washington,  certificates,  140;  diplomas  and  certifi- 
cates, recognition,  255;  laws  and  regulations,  120- 
125;  special  certificates,  through  county  agencies, 
156;  transfer  of  grades  from  lower  to  higher  cer- 
tificates, 225. 

West  Virginia,  diplomas  and  certificates,  recogni- 
tion, 255-256;  laws  and  regulations,  124-127;  leg- 
islation, 258. 

Wisconsin,  laws  and  regulations,  126-133;  primary 
and  kindergarten  certificates,  156;  transfer  of 
grades  from  lower  to  higher  certificates,  225. 

Wyoming,  centralizing  authority  to  certificate 
teachers,  141;  certificates,  140;  diplomas  and  cer- 
tificates, recognition,  256;  laws  and  regulations, 
132-135. 


O 


UNITED  STATES  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION 

BULLETIN,  1911,  NO.  19 WHOLE  NUMBER  468 


STATISTICS  OF  STATE  UNIVERSITIES  AND 
OTHER  INSTITUTIONS  OF  HIGHER 
EDUCATION  PARTIALLY  SUP- 
PORTED BY  THE  STATE 

FOR  THE  YEAR  ENDED 
JUNE  30,  1911 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1912 


STATISTICS  OF  STATE  UNIVERSITIES  AND  OTHER  INSTITU- 
TIONS OF  HIGHER  EDUCATION  PARTIALLY  SUPPORTED  BY 
THE  STATE,  FOR  THE  YEAR  ENDED  JUNE  30,  1911. 

This  annual  bulletin,  formerly  prepared  and  published  by  the 
National  Association  of  State  Universities,  has  been  published  by  the 
Bureau  of  Education  for  the  past  three  years.  The  data  given  are 
taken  from  reports  received  from  the  offices  of  the  presidents  of  the 
various  institutions,  and  the  figures  printed  are  substantially  as 
given  in  those  reports.  Apparent  errors  have  been  called  to  the 
attention  of  the  authorities  making  the  report  and  opportunity 
given  for  correction.  In  the  preparation  of  these  bulletins  the 
bureau  makes  no  investigation,  but  simply  tabulates  the  returns  as 
reported  by  the  several  institutions. 

CHANGES  IN  COURSES  AND  METHODS  OF  INSTRUCTION. 

University  of  Arizona. — In  addition  to  the  two-year  short  course 
previously  offered,  four-year  courses  are  now  offered  in  agronomy, 
horticulture,  and  animal  husbandry. 

Colorado  State  Agricultural  College. — A course  in  mechanic  arts 
parallel  to  the  work  in  agriculture  is  now  given  in  the  school  of 
agriculture,  a secondary  school  maintained  by  the  college. 

University  of  Colorado. — The  Denver  and  Gross  College  of  Medicine 
has  been  united  with  the  university  medical  school.  The  last  two 
years’  work  in  the  medical  school  is  now  given  in  Denver.  A course 
in  pharmacy  was  added  in  September,  1911 ; and  the  entrance  require- 
ments to  the  law  school  were  increased  to  the  equivalent  of  two 
years’  college  work. 

Connecticut  Agricultural  College. — Two  four-year  courses  in  agricul- 
ture are  now  given,  a diploma  course  requiring  the  completion  of  two 
years  of  higli-school  work  for  entrance  and  a degree  course  requiring 
four  years  of  high-school  work  for  entrance.  Two-year  courses  in 
agriculture  and  in  home  economics  are  offered  to  students  having  the 
equivalent  of  a common-school  education. 

University  of  Florida.— A one-year  short  course  in  agriculture  and 
a four  weeks’  short  course  for  farmers  have  been  introduced.  The 
scope  of  the  corresponding  courses  in  agriculture  has  been  increased. 

University  of  Idaho. — “ High-school  courses  in  agriculture,  domestic 
economy,  commerce,  and  the  industrial  arts  will  be  accepted  in 
fulfillment  of  the  entrance  requirements  of  all  the  colleges  of  the 
university  on  a par  with  the  most  favored  subject  of  the  high-school 
curricula.” 


(3) 


4 


Purdue  University  {Indiana). — A department  of  agricultural 
extension  has  been  established  in  the  university  by  legislative  enact- 
ment. Under  the  terms  of  the  enactment  the  new  department 
includes  the  administration  of  farmers'  institutes.  The  annual 
appropriation  for  this  department  is  $30,000.  The  university  has 
been  accepted  by  the  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of 
Teaching  as  eligible  to  benefits  of  retiring  allowances  for  professors. 

Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts. — A department 
of  agricultural  education  offering  a four-year  course,  intended  to  fit 
men  for  special  teachers  of  agriculture,  has  been  established.  The 
course  contains  largely  prescribed  subjects  with  work  in  agriculture, 
general  education,  and  in  special  methods  of  teaching  agriculture  in 
secondary  schools. 

Massachusetts  Agricultural  College. — The  board  of  trustees  at  their 
annual  meeting  in  June,  1911,  adopted  a general  plan  of  department 
and  division  organization.  The  departments  of  instruction  include 
now  divisions  of  agriculture,  horticulture,  science,  humanities,  rural 
social  science,  and  physical  training. 

University  of  Minnesota. — The  four-year  course  in  engineering  has 
been  discontinued  and  replaced  by  a five-year  course  leading  to  the 
engineering  degree.  Classes  are  now  in  operation  in  the  freshman, 
sophomore,  and  junior  years  of  the  new  five-year  course.  The 
courses  in  the  college  of  agriculture  have  within  the  past  year  been 
enlarged  to  include  a special  six  weeks'  course  equivalent  to  one 
semester's  work  on  the  basis  of  college  credit  for  the  special  assistance 
of  those  who  desire  to  teach  agriculture  and  mechanic  arts. 

University  of  Missouri. — The  entrance  requirements  for  all  divisions 
of  the  university  except  the  college  of  arts  and  science  and  the  college 
of  agriculture  have  been  raised  to  include  two  years  of  college  work. 
Chairs  of  preventive  medicine,  forestry,  and  poultry  husbandry  have 
been  established. 

Mississippi  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College. — A school  of 
industrial  education  has  been  established  for  the  purpose  of  preparing 
teachers  of  agriculture  and  manual  training.  All  pedagogical  depart- 
ments of  the  institution  are  now  included  in  the  school  of  industrial 
education;  also  the  preparatory  department,  which  is  now  used  as  a 
practice  school  for  advanced  students  preparing  to  teach. 

Montana  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts. — A secretarial 
course,  chiefly  for  women,  has  been  established.  The  course  extends 
through  four  years  and  leads  to  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  science. 

University  of  Nevada. — A college  of  education  leading  to  the 
degree  of  bachelor  of  science  has  been  established. 

University  of  New  Mexico. — The  requirements  for  admission  to  the 
preparatory  department  have  been  raised  to  include  a minimum  of 
two  years  of  high-school  work.  A summer  school  for  high-school 


5 


teachers  was  conducted  during  the  past  summer.  Extension  courses 
were  inaugurated  in  Albuquerque  and  Santa  Fe. 

Ohio  State  University. — A department  of  agricultural  education 
has  been  added  to  the  school  of  education,  offering  courses  in  agri- 
cultural pedagogy,  including  methods  of  teaching  secondary  agri- 
culture. This  department  proposes  to  aid  teachers  actively  engaged 
in  teaching  agriculture  throughout  the  State,  wherever  their  aid 
may  be  desired. 

Oklahoma  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College. — Students  to  enter 
the  business  courses  in  the  future  must  be  at  least  18  years  of  age. 
Students  to  enter  the  preparatory  department  of  the  college  must 
be  at  least  16  years  of  age  if  they  come  from  towns  which  support 
high  schools. 

Oregon  Agricultural  College. — A chair  in  highway  engineering  and 
a chair  in  rural  economics  have  been  established. 

University  of  Oregon. — The  entrance  requirements  to  the  school  of 
medicine  at  Portland  have  been  raised  to  include  one  year  of  college 
work. 

University  of  Porto  Rico. — The  entrance  requirements  to  the  college 
of  agriculture  have  been  raised  to  include  the  completion  of  the 
eighth  grade. 

Rhode  Island  State  College. — The  requirements  for  admission  have 
been  raised  by  one  unit,  making  the  entrance  requirements  to  all 
courses  14  units  of  standard  high-school  work. 

University  of  Tennessee. — During  the  past  year  the  requirements 
for  admission  were  advanced  from  12  to  14  units  in  the  college  of 
liberal  arts  and  from  11  to  12  units  in  the  colleges  of  engineering  and 
agriculture.  For  entrance  into  the  school  of  law  and  medicine  14 
units  are  required.  A prescribed  four-year  course  in  agricultural 
education  is  now  given  by  the  school  of  education,  the  work  includ- 
ing mechanical  courses  in  agriculture,  courses  in  education,  and  in 
educational  pedagogy. 

Agricultural  College  of  Utah. — Three  years  of  high-school  work  are 
now  required  for  admission  to  the  college  course.  A school  of  agri- 
cultural engineering  has  been  established  which  includes  courses  in 
irrigation  and  drainage,  road  building,  rural  surveying,  construction 
of  farm  buildings,  and  the  operation  of  farm  machinery. 

University  of  Utah. — The  law  now  provides  that  400  scholarships 
shall  be  maintained  in  the  school  of  education,  not  more  than  200  of 
which  shall  be  in  the  secondary  training  school.  The  school  of 
education  is  the  State  normal  school. 

University  of  Washington. — Twenty-three  instructors  have  been 
added  to  the  faculty.  A course  in  library  science  has  been  estab- 
lished. Provision  has  been  made  for  a course  in  music  leading  to 
the  degree  of  bachelor  of  music.  Twelve  credits  in  music  have  been 


6 


allowed  toward  the  degree  of  bachelor  of  arts.  An  endowment  of 
$30,000  has  been  provided  to  establish  a bureau  of  child  welfare. 

University  of  West  Virginia . — The  preparatory  school  of  the  uni- 
versity is  being  gradually  abolished.  Nine  units  of  high-school 
work  are  now  required  for  entrance  to  the  preparatory  school. 

GIFTS,  BUILDINGS,  AND  IMPROVEMENTS. 

Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute. — A new  engineering  building  to  be 
known  as  the  William  LeRoy  Brown  Engineering  Hall  has  been 
completed  and  furnished. 

University  of  Arizona. — Farm  buildings  costing  $2,000  and  a 
water  system  costing  $1,000  have  been  completed  during  the  year. 

Colorado  State  Agricultural  College. — The  Simon  Guggenheim  hall 
of  useful  arts,  a gift  from  United  States  Senator  Simon  Guggenheim, 
has  been  completed  at  a cost  of  $50,000. 

University  of  Colorado. — A science  building  costing  $55,000  has 
been  completed,  and  an  auditorium  to  cost  $300,000  is  in  process  of 
erection. 

Delaware  College. — New  farm  buddings  have  been  erected,  and 
alterations  in  the  college  buildings  to  provide  facilities  for  a labora- 
tory for  agricultural  and  horticultural  purposes  have  been  made 
during  the  year  at  a total  cost  for  both  purposes  of  $8,500. 

University  of  Florida. — The  sum  of  $40,000  has  been  expended  in 
the  erection  of  an  engineering  building. 

University  of  Georgia. — A farm  barn  and  a veterinary  hospital, 
costing  together  $65,000,  have  been  erected. 

College  of  Hawaii. — A dairy  building  containing  a cattle  barn,  a 
laboratory,  and  a feed  room  has  been  constructed  at  a cost  of  $2,600. 

University  of  Idaho. — An  auditorium  wing  to  the  administration 
building  is  under  construction,  to  cost  $85,000.  A dairy  barn  and  a 
stock-judging  pavdion,  also  under  construction,  will  cost  $9,500. 

University  of  Illinois. — The  State  legislature  has  appropriated  the 
sum  of  $3,519,300  for  the  support  of  the  university  for  the  next  two 
years,  and  it  has  made  provision  for  the  future  by  levying  a 1-mill 
tax  for  its  continued  support.  This  tax  should  allow  the  university 
two  years  hence  about  $2,250,000  a year.  During  the  next  two 
years  $724,000  is  avadable  for  new  buildings.  Of  this  amount, 
$200,000  is  to  be  expended  for  an  engineering  building  and  grounds; 
$153,000  for  agricultural  building;  $125,000  for  a women’s  building, 
and  $100,000  for  an  armory.  For  maintenance  and  support  of  the 
college  of  engineering  $180,000  has  been  allotted  for  the  biennium, 
and  for  the  college  of  agriculture  and  the  agricultural  experiment 
station  $800,000. 

Purdue  University  {Indiana). — Apparatus  and  equipment  costing 
$40,000  has  been  secured  for  the  new  mechanic  arts  building. 


7 


Iowa  State  Teachers  College. — A library  building  has  been  com- 
pleted during  the  year,  costing  $175,000. 

University  of  Kansas. — An  addition  has  been  completed  to  the 
administration  building,  costing  $125,000.  The  new  portion  is  to 
be  used  for  general  recitation  purposes.  A hospital  has  been  erected 
at  a cost  of  $50,000,  located  at  Rosedale. 

Kansas  Agricultural  College. — An  armory  and  gymnasium  building 
has  just  been  completed.  * The  cost  of  the  building  and  equipment 
was  $122,000. 

Massachusetts  Agricultural  College. — A new  laboratory  for  ento- 
mology and  zoology  was  completed  and  dedicated  November  11, 
1910.  The  cost  of  the  building  and  equipment  was  $95,000.  A 
stock-judging  pavilion  costing  $10,000  and  a pomology  building 
costing  $12,000  have  been  completed  during  the  year. 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. — The  institute  has  received 
under  the  will  of  Mrs.  Emma  Rogers,  widow  of  a former  president 
of  the  institution,  the  residue  of  her  estate,  valued  at  about  $410,000; 
from  T.  C.  DuPont  $500,000,  and  from  Francis  B.  Greene  a trust 
fund  amounting  to  $500,000,  granted  for  the  assistance  of  students. 

Michigan  Agricultural  College. — A chemistry  building  63  by  74 
feet,  two  stories  in  height,  has  been  completed.  It  is  of  reenforced 
concrete  construction  and  cost  about  $22,000. 

University  of  Minnesota. — The  following  buildings  have  been 
erected  during  the  past  year,  or  are  now  in  process  of  erection: 
Women’s  dormitory,  costing  $50,000;  mechanic  arts  building  for 
the  college  of  agriculture,  with  equipment,  costing  $260,000;  an 
administration  building,  containing  the  library  and  auditorium, 
costing  $200,000;  and  an  experimental  engineering  building,  with 
equipment,  costing  $25,000.  Expenditures  for  an  enlarged  campus, 
amounting  to  $184,000,  have  been  made  during  the  year. 

Mississippi  Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College. — The  expendi- 
tures for  buildings  during  the  past  year  include  $15,000  for  com- 
pleting and  equipping  a new  dormitory  erected  in  1908,  $6,000  for 
building  the  new  chemical  laboratory,  and  $17,000  for  completing 
and  furnishing  the  chapel. 

University  of  Missouri . — A veterinary  building  costing  $32,500  and 
an  addition  to  the  ore-dressing  laboratory  costing  $18,000  have  been 
completed  during  the  year. 

Montana  School  of  Mines. — A $15,000  gymnasium  building  is  in 
process  of  erection. 

Montana  College  of  Agriculture. — Buildings  just  completed  or  under 
process  of  construction  include  a greenhouse,  costing  $10,000;  farm 
machinery  building,  $4,000;  civil  and  electrical  engineering  building, 
$60,000. 


8 


University  of  Nevada. — A building  for  electrical  engineering,  to 
cost  $40,000,  is  in  process  of  erection. 

Rutgers  College  ( New  Jersey ). — A chemistry  building,  begun  last 
year,  was  opened  for  use  in  May,  1911.  For  the  equipment  of  an 
entomological  building  and  the  physics  laboratory  $10,000  is  available. 

Cornell  University  ( New  York). — A new  dormitory,  to  accommo- 
date 175  women  students,  is  in  process  of  erection.  The  site  of  this 
building  was  purchased  by  means  of  a gift  of  $20,000  from  Mr. 
Emerson  McMillan,  of  New  York.  For  the  building  itself  Mrs.  Russell 
Sage  donated  $300,000.  A new  building  for  a department  of  domes- 
tic science,  to.  cost  $154,000,  and  one  for  the  department  of  poultry 
husbandry,  to  cost  $90,000,  and  a new  barn,  to  cost  $20,000,  are  in 
course  of  construction.  Plans  are  completed  for  a $50,000  heating 
plant;  an  auditorium,  to  cost  $138,000;  and  a new  veterinary  college 
hospital,  to  cost  $140,000.  For  these  buildings  and  others  in  process 
of  erection  the  university  will  spend  $1,052,000.  The  institution 
has  received  in  gifts  during  the  past  year  $629,613. 

North  Carolina  College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts. — A 
dormitory,  costing  $32,000,  has  been  completed  during  the  past  year. 
An  animal-husbandry  building,  to  cost  $30,000,  and  a dining  hall, 
which  will  accommodate  750  students  and  will  cost  $37,000,  are  in 
process  of  erection. 

Ohio  State  University. — A new  library,  to  cost  about  $100,000,  is 
under  process  of  construction. 

University  of  Oklahoma. — An  appropriation  of  $125,000  for  a law 
building  is  available.  Work  has  not  yet  been  started. 

Oklahoma  Agricultural  and.  Mechanical  College. — New  buildings 
completed  during  the  past  year  include  a dairy  barn,  costing  $1,000; 
veterinary  hospital,  $2,500;  sheep  barn,  $1,500;  greenhouse,  $5,000; 
a central  heating  plant,  $40,000;  a boys’  dormitory,  $25,000;  and  a 
girls’  dormitory,  $65,000.  The  girls’  dormitory  building  contains 
classrooms  and  laboratories  for  domestic  science  and  domestic  arts. 
The  last  legislature  has  made  provision  for  a library  and  chapel 
building,  to  cost  $84,000;  an  engineering  building,  to  cost  $75,000; 
and  for  additions  to  present  buildings,  $12,000. 

Oregon  Agricultural  College. — The  1911  State  legislature  increased 
the  State  appropriation  for  maintenance  or  current  expenses  from 
$80,000  to  $150,000  per  year;  provided  $60,000  for  equipment, 
$133,500  for  buildings,  $15,000  for  books  for  the  library,  $25,000  for 
improvements,  and  $15,000  for  general  repairs. 

University  of  Porto  Rico. — A library  building  to  cost  $10,000  is 
being  constructed.  To  complete  the  manual-training  shop  and  for 
equipment,  $6,000  has  been  expended.  A new  poultry  building  has 
been  completed,  costing  $1,000. 


9 


Rhode  Island  State  College.-  The  sum  of  $2,750  lias  been  paid  for 
an  athletic  lield  and  for  the  erection  of  dressing  quarters  on  the  field. 

Clemson  College  ( South  Carolina). — The  new  building  operations 
include  a model  dairy  building,  $20,000;  dairy  barns,  $15,000; 
dormitories,  $28,000. 

University  of  South  Carolina. — A total  of  $25,000  has  been  expended 
on  a new  science  building,  a heating  plant,  and  for  apparatus  and 
equipment. 

University  of  South  Dakota. — A new  library  has  been  completed 
at  a cost  of  $47,500. 

University  of  Tennessee. — A new  library  building,  costing  $56,000, 
has  been  completed.  Mr.  Andrew  Carnegie  contributed  $40,000  for 
this  building. 

Agricultural  College  of  Utah. — A gymnasium,  to  cost  $60,000,  for 
men  and  women  is  under  construction. 

University  of  T Vest  Virginia. — For  providing  additions  to  several 
of  the  instructional  and  laboratory  buildings  $50,000  has  been 
expended. 

University  of  Wisconsin. — The  total  expenditure  for  new  build- 
ings during  the  year  was  $161,191.50.  Of  this  amount,  $59,937 
was  expended  for  a biology  building,  $22,538  for  a horticultural 
building,  $31,738  on  a building  for  a shop  and  store,  and  $20,522  on 
an  addition  to  the  engineering  building. 

Directory  of  State  universities  and  other  State-aided  institutions  of  higher  education. 

[Names  in  italics  are  institutions  endowed  by  Federal  Government  under  Morrill  Acts.] 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 
9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 
21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 


Name. 


President. 


Auburn,  Ala 

University,  Ala. . 

Tucson,  Ariz 

Fayetteville,  Ark. 

Berkeley,  Cal 

Boulder,  Colo 
Fort  Collins,  Colo 

Golden,  Colo 

Storrs,  Conn 

Newark,  Del 

Gainesville,  Fla. . 
Tallahassee,  Fla.. 
Athens,  Ga 


Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute 

University  of  Alabama 

University  of  A rizona 

University  of  Arkansas 

University  of  California 

University  of  Colorado 

State  Agricultural  College  {Colo.) . 

Colorado  School  of  Mines 

Connecticut  Agricultural  College. 

Delaware  College 

! University  of  Florida 

Florida  State  College  for  Women 
University  of  Georgia 


Atlanta,  Ga 

Dahlonega,  Ga . . . 
Honolulu,  Hawaii 
Moscow,  Idaho . . . 

Urbana,  111 

Bloomington,  Ind 

Lafayette,  Ind 

Ames,  Iowa 

Cedar  Falls,  Iowa. 
Iowa  City,  Iowa . . 
Lawrence,  Kans. . 
Manhattan,  Kans. 
Lexington,  Ky . . . 
Baton  Rouge," La. 

Orono,  Me 

College  Park,  Md. 
Amherst,  Mass . . . 
Boston,  Mass 


Georgia  School  of  Technology 

North  Georgia  Agricultural  College 

College  of  Hawaii. 

University  of  Idaho 

University  of  Illinois 

Indiana  University 

Purdue  University  {Ind.) 

Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture  and 
Mechanic  Arts. 

Iowa  State  Teachers’  College 

State  University  of  Iowa 

University  of  Kansas 

Kansas  State  Agricultural  College 

State  University  {Ky.)  

Louisiana  State  University  and  Agri- 
cultural and  Mechanical  College. 

University  of  Maine 

Maryland  Agricultural  College ; 

Massachusetts  Agricultural  College ! 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology  . ,| 


Charles  C.  Thach,  LL.  D. 

George  H.  Denny,  LL.  D. 
Arthur  H.  Wilde,  Ph.  D. 

John  N.  Tillman,  LL.  D. 

Benj.  Ide  Wheeler,  LL.  D. 

James  H.  Baker,  LL.  D. 

Chas.  A.  Lory,  M.  S. 

Victor  C.  Alderson,  Sc.  D. 

C.  H.  Beach,  B.  S. 

Geo.  A.  Harter,  Ph.  D. 

Albert  A.  Murphree,  LL.  D. 
Edward  Conradi,  Ph.  D. 

David  C.  Barrow,  LL.  D.,  chan- 
cellor. 

Kenneth  G.  Matheson,  LL.  D. 
G.  R.  Glenn,  LL.  D. 

John  G.  Gilmore,  M.  S.  A. 

James  A.  MacLean,  LL.  D. 
Edmund  J.  James,  LL.  D. 
William  L.  Bryan,  LL.  D. 

W.  E.  Stone,  LL.  D. 

E.  W.  Stanton,  LL.  D.,  acting. 

Homer  H.  Seerley,  LL.  D. 

John  G.  Bowman,  M.  A. 

Frank  Strong,  LL.  D. 

Henry  J.  Waters,  B.  S.  A. 

Henry  S.  Barker,  LL.  D. 
Thomas  D.  Boyd,  LL.  D. 

Richard  J.  Aley,  LL.  D. 

R.  W.  Silvester,  LL.  D. 

K.  L.  Butterfield,  LL.  D. 
Richard  C.  Maclaurin,  LL'.  D. 


19628°— 12 2 


10 


Directory  of  State  universities  and  other  State-aided  institutions  of  higher  education — 

Continued. 


Location. 


N am 


President. 


32 

33 

34 

35 
30 


37 


38 

39 

40 

41 

42 


43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 
60 

51 

52 


54 

55 

56 

57 

58 

59 

60 
61 
62 

63 

64 

65 

66 

67 

68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 

74 

75 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 
81 
82 

83 

84 


Ann  Arbor,  Mich 

East  Lansing,  Mich 

Houghton,  Mich 

Minneapolis,  Minn 

Agricultural  College,  Miss. 

University,  Mich 


University  of  Michigan 

Michigan  Agricultural  College 

Michigan  College  of  Mines 

University  of  Minnesota 

Mississippi  Agricultural  and  Mechan- 
ical College. 

University  of  Mississippi 


Columbia,  Mo.. 
Bozeman,  Mont 

Butte,  Mont 

Missoula,  Mont. 
Lincoln,  Nebr . . 


University  of  Missouri 

Montana  College  of  Agricultural  and 
Mechanic  Arts. 

Montana  State  School  of  Mines 

University  of  Montana 

University  of  Nebraska 


Harry  B.  Hutchins,  LL.  D. 

J.  L.  Snyder,  LL.  D. 

F.  W.  McNair,  Sc.  D. 

George  E.  Vincent,  LL.  D. 

J.  C.  Hardy,  LL.  D. 

A.  A.  Kincannon,  LL.  D.,  chan- 
cellor. 

Albert  Ross  Hill,  LL.  D. 

James  M.  Hamilton,  M.  S. 

Charles  H.  Bowman,  M.  S. 

C.  A.  Duniway,  Ph.  D. 

Samuel  Avery,  LL.  D.,  chancel- 
lor. 


Reno,  Nev 

Durham,  N.  H 

New  Brunswick,  N.  J . ... 
Agricultural  College, 
N.  Mex. 

Albuquerque,  N.  Mex 

Socorro,  N.  Mex 

Ithaca,  N.  Y 

Chapel  Hill,  N.  C 

West  Raleigh,  N.  C 

Agricultural  College, 
N.  Dak. 

University,  N.  Dak 

Athens,  Ohio 

Columbus,  Ohio 

Oxford,  Ohio 

Norman,  Okla 

Stillwater,  Okla 

Corvallis,  Oreg 

Eugene,  Oreg 

State  College,  Pa 

Rio  Piedras,  P.  R 

Kingston,  R.  I 

Charleston,  S.  C 

Clemson,  S.  C 

Columbia,  S.  C 

Brookings,  S.  Dak 

Rapid  City,  S.  Dak 

Vermilion,  S.  Dak 

Knoxville,  Tenn 

Austin,  Tex 

College  Station,  Tex 

Logan,  Utah 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah 

Burlington,  Vt 

Blacksburg,  Va 

Charlottesville,  Va 

Lexington,  Va 

Williamsburg,  Va 

Pullman,  Wash 

Seattle,  Wash 

Morgantown,  W.  Va 

Madison,  Wis 

Laramie,  Wyo 


University  of  Nevada 

New  Hampshire  College  of  Agriculture 
and  Mechanic  A rts. 

Rutgers  College  (N.  J.) 

New  Mexico  College  of  Agriculture  and 
Mechanic  Arts. 

University  of  New  Mexico 

New  Mexico  School  of  Mines 

Cornell  University  (N.  Y.) 

University  of  North  Carolina 

North  Carolina  College  of  Agriculture 
and  Mechanic  Arts. 

North  Dakota  Agricultural  College 

State  University  and  School  of  Mines 
(N.  Dak.) 

Ohio  University 

Ohio  State  University 

Miami  University  (Ohio) 

University  of  Oklahoma 

Oklahoma  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
College. 

Oregon  State  Agricultural  College 

University  of  Oregon 

Pennsylvania  State  College 

University  of  Porto  Rico 

Rhode  Island  State  College 

South  Carolina  Military  Academy 

Clemson  Agricultural  College  ( S . C.)... 

University  of  South  Carolina 

South  Dakota  Agricultural  College 

South  Dakota  State  School  of  Mines. . . 

University  of  South  Dakota 

University  of  Tennessee 

University  of  Texas 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  of 
Texas. 

Agricultural  College  of  Utah 

University  of  Utah 

University  of  Vermont  and  State  Agri- 
cultural College. 

Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute 

University  of  Virginia 

Virginia  Military  Institute 

College  of  William  and  Mary  (Va.).  . . 

State  College  of  Washington 

University  of  Washington 

West  Virginia  University 

University  of  Wisconsin 

University  of  Wyoming 


J.  E.  Stubbs,  LL.  D. 
W.  D.  Gibbs,  Sc.  D. 


Wm.  H.  S.  Demarest,  LL.  I). 

W.  E.  Garrison,  Ph.  D. 

Edward  McQueen  Gray,  Ph.  D. 
Emmet  A.  Drake,  M.  A. 

J.  G.  Schurman,  LL.  D. 

F.  P.  Venable,  LL.  D. 

Daniel  H.  Hill,  Litt.  D. 

J.  H.  Worst,  LL.  D. 

Frank  L.  McVey,  Ph.  D. 

Alston  Ellis,  LL.  D. 

Rev.  W.  O.  Thompson,  LL.  D. 

R.  W.  Hughes,  acting. 

Julien  C.  Monnet,  acting. 

J.  H.  Connell,  M.  S. 

W.  J.  Kerr,  Sc.  D. 

Prince  L.  Campbell,  A.  B. 
Edwin  E.  Sparks,  LL.  D. 

Edwin  G.  Dexter,  Ph.  D. 
Howard  Edwards,  LL.  D. 

Col.  O.  J.  Bond,  A.  M.,  supt. 
Walter  M.  Riggs,  E.  M.  E. 

S.  C.  Mitchell,  LL.  D. 

Robert  L.  Slagle,  Ph.  D. 

Charles  H.  Fulton,  E.  M. 
Franklin  B.  Gault,  Ph.  D. 
Brown  Ayres,  LL.  D. 

Sidney  E.  Mezes,  Ph.  D. 

Robert  T.  Milner. 

John  A.  Widtsoe,  Ph.  D. 

Joseph  T.  Kingsbury,  Sc.  D. 

Guy  P.  Benton,  LL.  D. 

P.  B.  Barringer,  LL.  D. 

E.  A.  Alderman,  LL.  D. 

Edward  W.  Nichols,  supt. 

L.  G.  Tyler,  LL.  D. 

E.  A.  Bryan,  LL.  D. 

Thomas  F.  Kane,  Ph.  D. 
Thomas  E.  Hodges,  Ph.  D. 
Charles  R.  Van  Hise.LL.  1). 
Charles  O.  Merica,  LL.  D. 


Agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges  for  colored  students. 


1 Normal,  Ala 

2 Pine  Bluff,  Ark. . . 

3 Dover,  Del 

4 Tallahassee,  Fla. . . 

5 Savannah,  Ga 

0 Frankfort,  Ky 

7 New  Orleans,  La. . 

8 Princess  Anne,  Md 


Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  for 
Negroes. 

Branch  Normal  College 

State  College  for  Colored  Students 

Florida  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
College  for  Negroes. 

Georgia  Slate  Industrial  College 

Kentucky  Normal  and  Industrial  Insti- 
tute for  Colored  Persons. 

Southern  University 

Princess  Anne  Academy 


Walter  S.  Buchanan. 

W.  S.  Harris. 

W.  C.  Jason,  A.  M. 

N.  B.  Young,  A.  M. 

R.  R.  Wright,  LL.  D. 
James  S.  Hathaway. 

II.  A.  Hill. 

J.  O.  Spencer,  Ph.  D. 


11 


Agricultural  and  mechanical  colleges  for  colored  students — Continued. 


Locat  ion. 

Name. 

President. 

9 

Alcorn,  Miss 

Alcorn  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
College. 

J.  A.  Martin,  A.  M. 

10 

Jefferson  City,  Mo 

Lincoln  Institute 

B.  F.  Allen,  Ph.  D. 

James  13.  Dudley,  LL.  D. 

11 

Greensboro,  N.  C 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College 
for  the  Colored  Race. 

12 

Langston,  Okla 

Colored  Agricultural  and  Normal  uni- 

Inman E.  Page,  A.  M. 

13 

Orangeburg,  S.  C 

versity. 

Colored  Normal,  Industrial,  Agricul- 
tural, and  Mechanical  College. 

Robert  S.  Wilkinson,  Ph.  I). 

14 

Prairie  View,  Tex 

Prairie  View  State  Normal  and  Indus- 
trial College. 

E.  L.  Blaekshear. 

15 

Hampton,  Va 

Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural 
Institute. 

H.  B.  Frissell,  D.  D. 

1G 

Institute,  W.  Va 

West  Virginia  Colored  Institute 

Byrd  Prillerman,  A.  M. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

57 


12 


Table  1. — The  teaching  force  in  State  universities 


1 ho  lessors  and  instructors. 

President’s  salary. 

Maximum 
and  minimum 
salaries. 

Names  cf  institutions. 

Preparatory  depart- 
ment. 

Collegiate  depart- 
ment. 

Professional  depart- 
ments. 

Total  (excluding 
duplicates). 

Deans. 

Men. 

s 

a 

Total. 

Maximum. 

Minimum,  j 

> 

2 

3 

4 

* 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute 

0 

61 

9 

61 

0 

61 

83, 600 

$2,400 

$2,400 

University  of  Alabama 

0 

36 

28 

64 

0 

64 

4,000 

2,800 

2, 400 

7 

25 

0 

23 

g 

32 

4,000 

73 

43 

117 

14 

131 

4,000 

U niversity  of  California 

0 

269 

145 

406 

15 

421 

12,000 

4,500 

1,000 

University  of  Colorado 

0 

77 

97 

153 

15 

168 

5,000 

3,000 

3,000 

30 

55 

0 

55 

11 

66 

0 

21 

0 

21 

0 

21 

5,500 

Connecticut  Agricultural  College 

9 

23 

0 

18 

5 

23 

4,000 

3,000 

3,  COO 

0 

24 

0 

23 

1 

24 

3,000 

University  of  Florida 

4 

27 

3 

34 

0 

34 

3,300 

2, 300 

1,900 

Florida  State  College  for  Women 

17 

18 

0 

11 

16 

27 

3,000 

2,000 

1,800 

0 

45 

6 

51 

0 

51 

5,000 

Georgia  School  of  Technology 

0 

59 

0 

57 

2 

59 

6,000 

2,500 

2,500 

North  Georgia  Agricultural  College 

2 

12 

0 

13 

1 

14 

2,600 

College  of  Hawaii 

0 

17 

q 

14 

3 

17 

4,800 

University  of  Idaho 

8 

58 

9 

51 

10 

61 

4,500 

3,500 

2,200 

University  of  Illinois 

18 

400 

212 

530 

85 

615 

10,000 

5,000 

3,750 

Indiana  University 

0 

81 

199 

252 

11 

263 

5,000 

Purdue  University  (Ind.) 

0 

15S 

0 

150 

8 

158 

6,000 

4,000 

2.500 

Iowa  State  College  of  Agriculture  and  Me- 

0 

154 

0 

118 

36 

154 

5,000 

4,000 

2,000 

chanic  Arts. 

* 

Iowa  State  Teachers  College 

0 

104 

0 

43 

61 

104 

6,000 

2.100 

1,600 

State  Universitv  of  Iowa 

0 

140 

162 

183 

11 

193 

6,000 

5,000 

1,600 

University  of  Kansas 

0 

119 

119 

111 

28 

139 

6,000 

3,000 

2,600 

Kansas  State  Agricultural  College 

15 

109 

7 

95 

36 

131 

6,000 

3,000 

2,000 

State  University  (Ky.) 

6 

70 

6 

77 

5 

82 

5,500 

3, 000 

2, 000 

Louisiana  State  University  and  Agricul- 

7 

70 

4 

68 

12 

80 

tural  and  Mechanical  College. 

University  of  Maine 

0 

67 

12 

89 

9 

98 

5,000 

2,800 

2,400 

Maryland  Agricultural  College 

7 

23 

0 

23 

0 

23 

3, 600 

1,800 

1,80-0 

Massachusetts  Agricultural  College 

0 

42 

0 

41 

1 

42 

5,000 

3,000 

3,000 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology. . . . 

0 

230 

0 

229 

1 

230 

University  of  Michigan 

311 

8,500 

5,000 

1,800 

Michigan  State  Agricultural  College 

115 

3 

95 

20 

115 

5,000 

3,000 

1,700 

Michigan  College  of  Mines 

o 

28 

0 

28 

0 

28 

University  of  Minnesota 

44 

181 

71 

269 

27 

296 

10,000 

6,000 

2,500 

Mississippi  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 

6 

46 

0 

66 

66 

3,500 

2,500 

2.500 

College. 

Unirersity  of  Mississippi 

0 

29 

11 

39 

1 

40 

5,000 

2,500 

2,500 

University  of  Missouri 

145 

28 

163 

10 

173 

7,500 

4, 000 

3, 300 

Montana  College  of  Agriculture  and  Me- 

13 

39 

33 

9 

42 

chanic  Arts. 

Montana  St.at.fi  School  of  Mines 

7 

0 

7 

0 

7 

3,500 

U niversity  of  Montana 

27 

0 

26 

6 

32 

4, 500 

Universitv  of  Nebraska 

0 

150 

93 

246 

87 

333 

6,000 

3,000 

2, 600 

University  of  "Nevada 

16 

35 

0 

32 

10 

42 

4.500 

New  Hampshire  College  of  Agriculture 

0 

38 

0 

35 

3 

38 

4.000 

2,200 

2,200 

and  Mechanic  Arts. 

Rutgers  College  (N.  J.) 

12 

47 

0 

52 

6 

58 

6,000 

3,000 

3.000 

New  Mexico  College  of  Agriculture  and 

3 

40 

0 

36 

7 

43 

4,500 

3,000 

3,000 

Mechanic  Arts. 

University  of  New  Mexico 

3 

21 

0 

13 

10 

23 

2,400 

1,950 

1,950 

New  Mexico  School  of  Mines 

1 

7 

0 

8 

0 

8 

3,000 

1,700 

i,;co 

Cornell  University  (N.  Y.) 

0 

466 

183 

631 

21 

652 

10,000 

6,000 

3,560 

University  of  North  Carolina 

0 

44 

31 

56 

0 

56 

4,000 

2.  500 

2,300 

North  Carolina  College  of  Agriculture  and 

0 

48 

4 

48 

0 

48 

3, 500 

2, 550 

2, 550 

Mechanic  Arts. 

North  Dakota  Agricultural  College 

61 

55 

6 

69 

11 

80 

5.400 

3,500 

1,800 

State  Universitv  and  School  of  Mines  (N. 

0 

65 

7 

59 

6 

65 

6,000 

3,300 

3,000 

Dak.). 

Ohio  University 

23 

39 

0 

41 

31 

72 

5 000 

3.000 

3.000 

Ohio  State  Universitv 

0 

245 

22 

241 

26 

267 

7.000 

5.000 

2. 500 

Miami  Universitv  (Ohio) 

0 

30 

0 

29 

1 

30 

5,000 

3,000 

3.000 

University  of  Oklahoma 

2 

56 

45 

81 

11 

92 

4,000 

4,000 

1.750 

1 


and  other  State-aided  institutions  of  higher  education. 


Maximum  and  minimum  salaries— Continued. 

Houses  in 
addition 
to  salaries. 

Professors. 

Associate 

professors. 

Assistant 

professors. 

Adjunct 

professors. 

Instructors. 

Tutors  and 
others. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

President. 

Professors. 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

$2, 400 

$2,000 

$2,000 

$1,600 

$2,000 

$1,600 

$2,000 

1 

$1,600 

$1, 400 

$900 

$900 

$250 

No. 

0 

2,  400 

1,000 

1,800 

1,800 

1,000 

1,000 

1,600 

1,200 

1,000 

600 

200 

200 

Yes. 

2 

2, 400 

1,800 

1,600 

1,400 

1,400 

1,000 

Yes. 

0 

2, 500 

2;  000 

1,600 

1,400 

1,  100 

1,200 

1,200 

1,000 

900 

750 

300 

250 

No. 

0 

4 000 

2.000 

2,700 

2,100 

2, 200 

1, 3n0 

1,500 

900 

1,500 

500 

Yes. 

3 

2, 800 

i;soo 

1,800 

1,400 

1,200 

800 

400 

200 

Yes. 

0 

3,000 

1,800 

2, 200 

1,600 

1,200 

1,000 

Yes. 

0 

2, 500 

1,000 

1,600 

1,500 

1,700 

750 

300 

150 

No. 

0 

3'  000 

l',  750 

1,500 

1,500 

1,000 

500 

No. 

0 

1,800 

1,500 

1, 500 

1,200 

800 

400 

100 

100 

No. 

0 

1,800 

1,600 

i;3oo 

i;ooo 

800 

600 

No. 

0 

3,200 

2'  000 

1,800 

1,800 

1, 500 

1,500 

1,200 

900 

600 

600 

Yes. 

0 

2,000 

l' 800 

1,500 

1,200 

1,350 

8C0 

300 

300 

Yes. 

0 

l”  500 

1,500 

1^  200 

1,200 

1,000 

1,000 

No. 

0 

2,750 

2,000 

1 , 800 

1,500 

1,400 

1,200 

2, 000 

1 , 800 

1,700 

1,600 

1, 500 

l’  400 

No. 

6 

5,000 

2, 500 

2,  750 

2, 100 

2,500 

1,320 

2, 100 

800 

1,200 

400 

Yes. 

0 

2, 500 

1,800 

i,eoo 

1,500 

1,300 

1,000 

1,200 

600 

3,000 

1,800 

1,800 

* 1 , 500 

1,400 

1,000 

800 

500 

No. 

1 

3, 400 

1,800 

2,100 

1,200 

2,000 

950 

1,800 

600 

Yes. 

9 

2, 000 

1,300 

1,200 

1,000 

1,200 

450 

Yes. 

0 

4, 400 

850 

1,800 

750 

1,500 

600 

500 

50 

Yes. 

0 

2,500 

2,200 

2,100 

1.500 

1.500 

1,200 

1,000 

500 

280 

250 

Yes. 

0 

3,000 

1,750 

1,500 

1.800 

1,800 

2,000 

1,300 

1,600 

850 

900 

480 

No. 

0 

2, 000 

1,800 

1,400 

1,400 

1,000 

1,000 

600 

500 

100 

No. 

0 

2,400 

1,500 

1,800 

1,500 

1,500 

1,200 

1 400 

600 

500 

200 

Yes. 

0 

1,000 

800 

800 

500 

No. 

0 

3,000 

2,500 

2, 300 

1,600 

2, 000 

1,600 

1,600 

1,200 

960 

600 

Yes. 

0 

4,000 

2,000 

2,200 

2,000 

1,000 

1,600 

1,400 

900 

800 

800 

No. 

0 

3,000 

1,000 

1,600 

1,600 

1,S00 

1,400 

1,200 

1,200 

Yes. 

7 

3,500 

2, 000 

3,200 

3,000 

2,400 

1,500 

1,500 

800 

No. 

0 

2,000 

1,800 

1,500 

1,200 

1,200 

1,000 

900 

600 

300 

90 

Yes. 

27 

2,000 

1,500 

1,200 

600 

300 

Yes. 

3 

3,300 

1,400 

2,000 

1,500 

2,000 

600 

1,000 

300 

No. 

1 

3,000 

2,000 

2,000 

1,800 

1,500 

' 960 

No. 

0 

2,250 

1,800 

1,200 

1,350 

1,000 

No. 

0 

2,500 

1,500 

1,600 

1.200 

1,500 

1,000 

1,300 

| 800 

1,200 

400 

850 

100 

No. 

0 

2,400 

2,400 

2,100 

1 , 600 

1,800 

1,500 

1,500 

1,200 

600 

300 

No. 

0 

2,500 

1,600 

1,600 

900 

1,600 

1,300 

2,000 

500 

1,200 

150 

Yes. 

0 

3,  COO 

2,000 

1,800 

1,500 

1,600 

1,000 

840 

500 

Yes. 

' 0 

2, 100 

1,000 

1,650 

1,250 

1,400 

1,200 

1,200 

900 

1,800 

1,800 

1,400 

1,200 

1,200 

1,000 

450 

1,000 

150 

No. 

0 

1,200 

1,000 

No. 

0 

6, 000 

2,500 

2,000 

1,500 

1,200 

800 

600 

50 

Yes. 

2 

2,500 

2,000 

1,600 

1,000 

1,500 

500 

Yes. 

0 

2,500 

1,800 

1,600 

1 , 600 

1,500 

1,200 

1,800 

600 

No. 

0 

2, 500 

1,500 

2,000 

1,300 

1,500 

450 

400 

125 

No. 

0 

3,000 

2,500 

2,500 

2,000 

2,000 

1,400 

1,500 

800 

500 

500 

Yes. 

0 

2,500 

2,000 

1,500 

1,000 

1,000 

800 

1,000 

600 

No. 

0 

3,000 

2,000 

2,000 

1,000 

1,700 

1,100 

1,300 

900 

300 

250 

Yes. 

0 

2, 300 

2,000 

1,700 

1,500 

1,500 

1,200 

1,200 

850 

800 

400 

Yes. 

0 

2,250 

1,500 

1,750 

1,350 

1,350 

1,250 

1.200 

900 

No. 

0 

l 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

. 7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

. 16 

17 

18 

. 19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

. 27 

28 

29 

30 

. 31 

32 

33 

. 34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

. 39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

44 

45 

. 46 

47 

48 

49 

50 

51 

52 

53 

b5 

56 

157 


14 


Table  1. — The  teaching  force  in  State  universities 


Names  of  institutions. 

Professors  and  instructors. 

President’s  salary. 

! 

Maximum 
and  minimum 
salaries. 

Preparatory  depart- 
ment. 

Collegiate  depart- 
ment. 

Professional  depart- 
ments. 

Total  (excluding 
duplicates). 

Deans. 

Men. 

a 

I 

£ 

Total. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

58 

Oklahoma  Agricultural  and  Mechanical 

7 

48 

0 

45 

10 

55 

$4,500 

$2,200 

$2, 200 

College. 

59 

Oregon  State  Agricultural  College 

0 

95 

0 

74 

21 

95 

5,000 

2,500 

2,200 

CO 

University  of  Oregon 

0 

49 

53 

113 

7 

120 

4,000 

2,500 

2,000 

61 

Pennsylvania  State  College 

0 

183 

0 

172 

11 

183 

8,000 

5, 000 

1,200 

62 

University  of  Porto  Rico 

11 

33 

0 

18 

26 

44 

4,000 

2,000 

63 

Rhode  Island  State  College 

0 

29 

0 

23 

6 

29 

4,000 

3,600 

3,600 

64 

South  Carolina  Military  Academy 

0 

12 

0 

0 

0 

12 

2,500 

65 

Clemson  Agricultural  College  (S.  C.) 

2 

53 

0 

55 

0 

55 

3,500 

2,500 

2, 500 

66 

University  of  South  Carolina 

0 

34 

0 

31 

3 

34 

3,500 

2,500 

1,700 

67 

South  Dakota  Agricultural  College 

5 

51 

0 

46 

10 

56 

3,500 

1,900 

68 

South  Dakota  State  School  of  Mines 

2 

10 

0 

12 

0 

12 

2,800 

69 

University  of  South  Dakota 

13 

36 

16 

38 

16 

54 

4,000 

2, 750 

1,920 

70 

University  of  Tennessee 

8 

64 

86 

127 

9 

136 

4,500 

2, 300 

2,300 

71 

University  of  Texas 

0 

74 

27 

99 

8 

107 

5.000 

4,000 

3.000 

72 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical  College  of 

9 

68 

0 

68 

0 

68 

4,000 

2, 700 

2,700 

Texas. 

73 

Agricultural  College  of  Utah 

23 

38 

1 

48 

14 

62 

4,000 

2,800 

1,800 

74 

University  of  Utah 

0 

64 

19 

53 

11 

64 

75 

University  of  Vermont  and  Agricultural 

0 

53 

40 

92 

1 

93 

3,750 

3,000 

1,600 

College. 

76 

Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute 

0 

61 

0 

61 

0 

61 

5,000 

2,200 

2,000 

77 

University  of  Virginia 

0 

47 

26 

74 

0 

74 

8,000 

1300 

1250 

78 

Virginia  Military  Institute 

0 

19 

0 

19 

0 

19 

4,000 

79 

College  of  William  and  Mary  (Va.) 

9 

11 

0 

20 

0 

20 

2,760 

2,000 

2,000 

80 

State  College  of  W ashington 

5 

86 

25 

76 

15 

81 

81 

University  of  Washington 

0 

93 

10 

99 

4 

103 

5,000 

2,700 

1,500 

82 

West  Virginia  University 

8 

60 

12 

62 

4 

66 

4,200 

3,750 

2,500 

83 

University  of  Wisconsin 

0 

464 

22 

438 

48 

486 

7,000 

4,500 

3,750 

84 

Universitv  of  Wyoming 

13 

32 

0 

33 

12 

45 

5,000 

1 

1 Additional  to  salary  as  a professor. 


15 


and  other  Stale-aided  institutions  of  higher  education — Continued. 


Maximum  and  minimum  salaries — Continued. 


Professors. 

Associate 

professors. 

Assistant 

professors. 

Adjunct 

professors. 

Instructors. 

Tutors  and 
others. 

to  salaries. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

President. 

Professors. 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

$2,000 

$1,600 

$1,600 

$1, 400 

$1,400 

$900 

$900 

$720 

No. 

0 

2, 400 

1,500 

2,000 

1,800 

1,S00 

1,400 

1,500 

800 

No. 

0 

2,500 

1,600 

1,600 

1,400 

1,200 

600 

' $400* 

" $400 

Yes. 

o 

3,000 

1,600 

2,000 

1,500 

2, 100 

1,000 

1,200 

750 

1,000 

650 

Yes. 

11 

1,700 

1,000 

1,300 

1,100 

1,800 

700 

700 

400 

No. 

1 

2,350 

1,500 

1,300 

1,100 

1,500 

150 

No. 

0 

1,800 

1,500 

1,000 

900 

No. 

0 

1,000 

1,900 

1,900 

1,700 

1,500 

1,500 

1,200 

800 

Yes. 

5 

2,000 

1,700 

1,500 

1,500 

$1,200 

$1,200 

800 

800 

600 

300 

Yes. 

15 

2,700 

1,200 

1,400 

1,300 

1,200 

600 

Yes. 

0 

1,800 

1,300 

1,100 

1,000 

900 

200 

No. 

1 

1,800 

1,420 

1,200 

1,000 

900 

600 

- 300 

120 

No. 

0 

2,200 

1,800 

1,700 

1,700 

1,500 

1,200 

1,200 

400 

400 

100 

Yes. 

0 

3,000 

2, 500 

2, 500 

2,000 

2,000 

1,800 

1,800 

900 

900 

500 

No. 

0 

2,700 

1,800 

2, 000 

1,600 

1,600 

1,300 

1,300 

1,000 

900 

| 300 

Yes. 

6 

2, 200 

1,700 

1,350 

1,350 

1,600 

1,300 

1,500 

100 

800 

100 

Yes. 

1 

2,500 

1,800 

2,100 

1,750 

1,700 

1,300 

1,250 

1,250 

No. 

0 

2,200 

1,500 

2,000 

1,350 

1,150 

200 

1,200 

75 

300 

75 

Yes. 

0 

2,000 

1,800 

1,300 

1,000 

1,000 

750 

250 

125 

Yes. 

1 

3,200 

2,000 

2,500 

2,000 

1,500 

1,200 

1,000 

100 

Yes. 

10 

2, 000 

2,000 

2,000 

2,000 

800 

600 

1,500 

1,200 

Yes. 

12 

1,800 

1,800 

1,200 

900 

700 

400 

Yes. 

0 

2,700 

1,600 

2,000 

1,600 

1,900 

1,500 

1,500 

900 

1,050 

450 

Yes. 

3 

2,500 

2,200 

2,000 

2,000 

1,800 

1,600 

2,200 

900 

Yes. 

0 

4,000 

2,700 

2,750 

2,000 

2,500 

1,650 

2,000 

1,000 

1,700 

400 

Yes. 

5 

2,200 

2,000 

1,800 

1,500 

1,500 

1,500 

1 

1,400 

800 

No. 

0 

Houses  in 


1 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

1G 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

2G 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

44 

45 

4G 

47 

48 

49 


16 


Table  2. — Student  enrollment  in  State  universities 


Names  of  institutions. 

Regular  term  of  enrollment. 

Prepara- 
tory de- 
partment. 

Collegiate 

department. 

Graduate 

depart- 

ment. 

Profes- 
sional de- 
partments. 

Total  (excluding 
duplicates). 

d 

d 

d 

i 

g 

a 

d 

<& 

I 

o 

d 

CD 

5 

s 

§ 

d 

<L> 

a 

o 

13 

C 

S 

!> 

s 

r' 

1 ^ 

Et* 

1 

2 

3 

4 

_____ 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

Alabama  Polytechnic  Insti- 

0 

0 

707 

10 

18 

2 

105 

1 

725 

12 

737 

tute. 

University  of  Alabama 

0 

0 

260 

49 

9 

0 

248 

0 

516 

49 

565 

University  of  Arizona 

54 

29 

76 

33 

2 

1 

0 

0 

132 

63 

195 

University  of  Arkansas 

111 

55 

499 

194 

7 

2 

186 

1 

617 

251 

868 

University  of  California 

0 

0 

2,232 

1,308 

260 

244 

354 

19 

2,766 

1,548 

4,314 

University  of  Colorado 

0 

0 

572 

417 

37 

1 19 

251 

9 

844 

440 

1,284 

State  Agricultural  College 

202 

89 

206 

159 

406 

418 

824 

(Colo)." 

Colorado  School  of  Mines 

0 

0 

342 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

342 

0 

342 

Connecticut  Agricultural 

27 

13 

130 

13 

0 

0 

0 

0 

157 

26 

183 

College. 

Delaware  College 

0 

0 

157 

0 

2 

0 

0 

0 

159 

0 

159 

University  of  Florida 

33 

0 

160 

0 

7 

0 

41 

0 

241 

0 

241 

Florida  State  College  for 

0 

140 

0 

138 

0 

2 

0 

0 

0 

280 

280 

Women. 

\ 

University  of  Georgia 

0 

0 

456 

0 

7 

0 

74 

0 

537 

0 

537 

Georgia  School  of  Technology 

153 

0 

514 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

514 

0 

514 

North  Georgia  Agricultural 

84 

12 

86 

36 

0 

0 

0 

0 

170 

48 

218 

College. 

College  of  Hawaii 

0 

0 

33 

111 

0 

1 

0 

0 

34 

111, 

145 

University  of  Idaho 

58 

60 

231 

133 

7 

4 

24 

0 

320 

197 

517 

University  of  Illinois 

237 

67 

2,612 

713 

243 

51 

933 

40 

4,025 

871 

4,896 

Indiana  University 

0 

0 

1,065 

629 

94 

46 

281 

97 

1,440 

682 

2,122 

Purdue  University  (Indj 

0 

0 

1,435 

104 

98 

4 

74 

1 

1,607 

109 

1,716 

Iowa  State  College  of  Agri- 

0 

0 

1,191 

258 

14 

1 

100 

0 

1,305 

259 

1,564 

culture  and  Mechanic  Arts. 

Iowa  State  Teachers’  College. 

0 

0 

244 

1,180 

0 

0 

0 

0 

244 

1,180 

1,424 

State  University  of  Iowa 

0 

0 

720 

497 

83 

64 

525 

10 

1,346 

709 

2,055 

University  of  Kansas 

0 

0 

1,019 

560 

101 

55 

395 

26 

1,400 

778 

2,178 

Kansas  State  Agricultural 

283 

81 

952 

575 

14 

20 

61 

0 

1,272 

632 

1,904 

College. 

State  University  (Ky.) 

111 

14 

413 

100 

49 

3 

54 

1 

627 

118 

745 

Louisiana  State  University 

87 

2 

456 

50 

11 

2 

57 

0 

601 

54 

655 

and  Agricultural  and  Me- 

chanical College. 

University  of  Maine 

0 

0 

499 

39 

39 

3 

75 

0 

768 

90 

858 

Maryland  Agricultural  Col- 

61 

0 

109 

0 

6 

0 

0 

0 

176 

0 

176 

lege. 

Massachusetts  Agricultural 

0 

0 

416 

3 

14 

1 

0 

0 

430 

4 

434 

College. 

Massachusetts  Institute  of 

0 

0 

1,460 

10 

39 

0 

0 

0 

1,499 

10 

1,509 

Technology. 

University  of  Michigan 

0 

0 

2,588 

663 

130 

42 

1,449 

30 

4,021 

730 

4,751 

Michigan  State  Agricultural 

116 

19 

891 

216 

6 

1 

0 

0 

1,332 

236 

1,568 

College. 

Michigan  College  of  Mines 

0 

0 

,222 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

222 

0 

222 

University  of  Minnesota 

1,251 

378 

1,540 

1,193 

88 

43 

888 

41 

3,967 

1, 655 

5,622 

Mississippi  Agricultural  and 

320 

0 

749 

6 

10 

2 

0 

0 

1,087 

6 

1,093 

Mechanical  College. 

University  of  Mississippi i 

0 

0 

272 

52 

19 

6 

146 

3 

420 

60 

^80 

University  of  Missouri 

0 

0 

1,546 

667 

92 

37 

263 

12 

2, 109 

632 

2,711 

Montana  College  of  Agricul- 

85 

30 

122 

83 

0 

0 

0 

0 

204 

113 

317 

ture  and  Mechanic  Arts. 

Montana  State  School  of 

0 

0 

59 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

59 

1 

GO 

Mines. 

University  of  Montana 

0 

0 

108 

78 

1 

3 

0 

0 

109 

81 

190 

University  of  Nebraska 

0 

0 

1,123 

1.030 

94 

75 

441 

13 

1,586 

1,253 

2,839 

University  of  Nevada 

49 

50 

112 

100 

1 

5 

0 

0 

161 

150 

311 

New  Hampshire  College  of 

0 

0 

190 

17 

1 

0 

0 

0 

191 

17 

208 

Agriculture  and  Mechanic 

Arts. 

Rutgers  College  (N.  J.) 

152 

29 

346 

0 

4 

0 

0 

0 

502 

29 

531 

New  Mexico  College  of  Agri- 

104 

50 

48 

18 

2 

0 

0 

0 

154 

68 

222 

culture  and  Mechanic  Arts. 

University  of  New  Mexico. . . 

22 

20 

41 

28 

4 

2 

0 

0 

67 

50 

117 

New  Mexico  School  of  Mines. 

11 

4 

43 

2 

0 

0 

0 

0 

54 

6 

60 

Cornell  University  (N.  Y.). . . 

0 

0 

3,186 

356 

308 

64 

535 

28 

3,984 

428 

4,412 

17 


and  other  State-aided  institutions  of  higher  education. 


Enrolled 
only  in 
summer 
school. 

Enrolled  in 
other  short 
courses. 

Enrollment  by  courses  of  study. 

In  professional  departments. 

Classical  and  general 
culture. 

General  science. 

Engineering. 

Agriculture  and  hor- 
ticulture. 

Forestry. 

Household  economy. 

Training  courses  for 
teachers. 

Law. 

Medicine. 

Dentistry. 

Pharmacy. 

Veterinary  surgery. 

Men. 

Women. 

Men. 

Women. 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

U 

0 

0 

0 

0 

49 

315 

227 

22 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

55 

51 

1 

75 

167 

0 

0 

157 

74 

75 

0 

0 

0 

0 

80 

154 

0 

14 

0 

2 

9 

0 

0 

0 

38 

28 

33 

10 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

3 

27 

71 

0 

0 

417 

0 

236 

30 

0 

0 

95 

80 

106 

0 

3 

0 

4 

421 

630 

118 

5 

1,323 

609 

786 

280 

0 

0 

0 

141 

82 

64 

85 

0 

5 

81 

105 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

108 

152 

0 

0 

0 

6 

0 

0 

114 

110 

8 

85 

20 

3 

49 

34 

7 

0 

342 

0 

0 

0 

0 

342 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

8 

27 

87 

46 

10 

0 

0 

13 

118 

0 

12 

0 

o. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

9 

0 

0 

4 

0 

15 

15 

111 

16 

0 

0 

2 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

10 

0 

0 

0 

0 

37 

17 

40 

30 

0 

0 

25 

41 

0 

0 

0 

0 

11 

0 

0 

0 

0 

70 

0 

0 

0 

0 

20 

190 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

12 

0 

0 

0 

0 

184 

179 

43 

97 

62 

0 

0 

55 

0 

0 

19 

0 

13 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

514 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

14 

0 

0 

0 

0 

142 

22 

20 

0 

0 

34 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

15 

0 

0 

0 

0 

132 

9 

2 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

16 

0 

0 

10 

0 

107 

39 

90 

48 

19 

40 

0 

24 

0 

0 

0 

0 

17 

463 

214 

0 

0 

604 

248 

1,064 

630 

0 

175 

0 

157 

518 

140 

158 

0 

18 

388 

349 

0 

0 

1,065 

629 

0 

0 

0 

0 

440 

0 

106 

0 

0 

0 

19 

0 

0 

148 

21 

0 

0 

1,212 

164 

18 

46 

59 

0 

0 

0 

75 

0 

20 

0 

0 

146 

3 

0 

84 

576 

310 

34 

149 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

100 

21 

134 

1,140 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1,424 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

22 

157 

190 

0 

0 

1,037 

0 

172 

0 

0 

0 

275 

211 

118 

145 

43 

0 

23 

202 

186 

0 

0 

1,144 

0 

435 

0 

0 

50 

188 

244 

99 

0 

78 

0 

24 

5 

24 

315 

159 

0 

147 

347 

411 

0 

474 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

61 

25 

0 

0 

58 

0 

84 

57 

290 

83 

0 

14 

54 

55 

0 

0 

0 

o 

26 

244 

308 

122 

9 

184 

0 

120 

56 

0 

0 

47 

57 

0 

0 

0 

0 

27 

103 

51 

63 

1 

74 

15 

301 

58 

37 

6 

2 

75 

0 

0 

0 

0 

28 

0 

0 

107 

44 

7 

7 

73 

26 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

29 

75 

154 

107 

7 

0 

0 

0 

419 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

30 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

2 

891 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

31 

973 

264 

0 

o 

1,286 

792 

359 

238 

90 

o 

32 

0 

0 

319 

2 

0 

0 

440 

382 

0 

216 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

33 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

222 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

34 

126 

189 

215 

72 

1,529 

149 

537 

107 

113 

69 

94 

442 

191 

206 

90 

0 

35 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

257 

307 

0 

0 

107 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

36 

47 

334 

0 

0 

76 

183 

32 

0 

0 

0 

95 

69 

49 

0 

31 

0 

37 

306 

291 

298 

1 

1,056 

14 

577 

356 

0 

19 

191 

228 

47 

0 

0 

0 

38 

0 

0 

113 

0 

30 

58 

39 

30 

11 

39 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

60 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

40 

0 

0 

29 

1 

129 

0 

1 

0 

2 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

41 

144 

302 

0 

0 

1,155 

0 

412 

104 

46 

97 

533 

259 

165 

0 

30 

0 

42 

0 

0 

0 

0 

67 

16 

80 

25 

0 

0 

18 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

43 

0 

0 

239 

66 

0 

53 

105 

49 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

41 

0 

0 

81 

2 

66 

46 

156 

39 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

45 

0 

0 

0 

0 

17 

5 

14 

5 

46 

8 

22 

0 

0 

47 

0 

0 

o 

0 

0 

0 

41 

0 

0 

0 1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

48 

699 

458  i 

422  1 

55 

1,017 

0 

1,631  | 

671 

0 

90 

0 

279 

179 

0 

0 

105 

49 

50 

51 

52 

53 

54 

55 

56 

57 

58 

59 

60 

61 

62 

63 

64 

65 

66 

67 

68 

69 

70 

71 

72 

73 

74 

75 

76 

77 

78 

79 

80 

81 

82 

83 

84 


18 


Table  2. — Student  enrollment  in  State 


Regular  term  of  enrollment. 


Names  of  institutions. 

Prepara- 
tory de- 
partment. 

Collegiate 

department. 

Graduate 

depart- 

ment. 

Profes- 
sional de- 
partments. 

Total 

du] 

Men. 

Women. 

Men. 

Women. 

Men. 

Q 

1 

£ 

Men. 

Women. 

Men. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

« 

7 

8 

9 

10 

University  of  North  Carolina 

0 

0 

579 

5 

24 

2 

193 

•0 

781 

North  Carolina  College  of 

0 

0 

498 

0 

13 

0 

0 

0 

511 

Agriculture  and  Mechanic 
Arts. 

North  Dakota  Agricultural 

306 

154 

115 

100 

3 

0 

29 

2 

453 

College. 

State  University  and  School 

0 

0 

209 

176 

6 

1 

98 

5 

308 

of  Mines  (N.  Dak.). 

Ohio  University 

115 

86 

294 

301 

9 

6 

0 

0 

418 

Ohio  State  University 

0 

0 

1,747 

627 

50 

20 

436 

5 

2,224 

Miami  University  (Ohio) 

0 

0 

247 

106 

2 

0 

0 

0 

247 

University  of  Oklahoma 

0 

0 

291 

148 

17 

6 

199 

11 

462 

Oklahoma  Agricultural  and 

162 

51 

449 

212 

3 

0 

0 

0 

614 

Mechanical  College. 

Oregon  State  Agricultural 

0 

0 

510 

199 

12 

3 

38 

9 

705 

College. 

University  of  Oregon 

0 

0 

369 

283 

6 

3 

250 

9 

625 

Pennsylvania  State  College. . 

0 

0 

1,349 

32 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1,349 

University  of  Porto  Rico. . .. 

122 

256 

85 

132 

0 

0 

0 

0 

207 

Rhode  Island  State  College... 

0 

0 

133 

26 

2 

1 

0 

0 

152 

South  Carolina  Military 

0 

0 

256 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

256 

Academy. 

Clemson  Agricultural  College 

80 

0 

604 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

684 

(S.C.). 

University  of  South  Carolina. 

329 

14 

0 

0 

14 

15 

48 

0 

387 

South  Dakota  Agricultural 

178 

61 

131 

57 

3 

2 

0 

0 

310 

College. 

South  Dakota  State  School 

20 

6 

41 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

61 

Mines. 

University  of  South  Dakota. . 

21 

16 

107 

117 

7 

10 

87 

2 

255 

University  of  Tennessee 

49 

78 

326 

95 

6 

2 

279 

0 

655 

University  of  Texas 

0 

0 

838 

538 

27 

10 

496 

50 

1,341 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical 

100 

0 

952 

0 

5 

0 

0 

0 

1,057 

College  of  Texas. 

535 

Agricultural  College  of  Utah. . 

285 

102 

248 

109 

2 

3 

0 

0 

University  of  Utah 

59 

119 

356 

245 

9 

3 

64 

3 

488 

University  of  Vermont  and 

0 

0 

258 

59 

0 

1 

196 

0 

454 

Agricultural  College. 

471 

Virginia  Polytechnic  Insti- 

34 

0 

426 

0 

11 

0 

0 

0 

tute. 

University  of  Virginia 

0 

0 

440 

0 

35 

0 

270 

0 

725 

Virginia  Military  Institute. . . 

0 

0 

383 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

383 

College  of  William  and  Mary 
(Va). 

State  College  of  W ashington . . 

114 

0 

110 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

224 

136 

2 

718 

361 

9 

0 

0 

0 

863 

University  of  Washington. . . 

0 

0 

970 

830 

35 

30 

255 

22 

1,260 

West  Virginia  University 

79 

21 

344 

100 

7 

7 

95 

0 

423 

University  of  Wisconsin 

0 

0 

2,356 

1,024 

260 

87 

181 

4 

2,899 

University  of  Wyoming 

37 

40 

59 

67 

3 

5 

0 

0 

108 

19 


and  other  State-aided  institutions  of  higher  education — Continued. 


Enrolled 
only  in 
summer 
school. 

Enrolled  in 
other  short 
courses. 

Enrollment  by  courses  of  study. 

In  professional  departments. 

Classical  and  general 
culture. 

9 

a 

be 

Agriculture  and  hor- 
ticulture. 

! §■ 

0 

1 
8 

i <u 

1 Training  courses  for 
teachers. 

e3 

Medicine. 

to 

0 

QJ 

Q 

r*^» 

a 

03 

| 

c3 

A 

Veterinary  surgery. 

Men. 

a 

3 

i 

o 

£ 

Men. 

Women. 

o 

<z> 

Ui 

o 

jg 

Engineerin 

Forestry. 

i o 

1 

a 

o 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

66 

130 

0 

0 

469 

0 

67 

0 

0 

0 

44 

108 

51 

0 

34 

0 

50 

10 

22 

87 

0 

0 

0 

271 

192 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

51 

128 

116 

289 

0 

0 

46 

35 

40 

0 

84 

5 

0 

0 

0 

31 

0 

52 

33 

27 

0 

0 

169 

0 

103 

0 

0 

0 

112 

64 

39 

0 

0 

0 

53 

0 

0 

0 

0 

49 

138 

131 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

54 

404 

235 

183 

0 

439 

356 

706 

285 

56 

187 

70 

170 

0 

87 

0 

184 

55 

156 

439 

0 

0 

56 

74 

89 

0 

0 

0 

0 

45 

0 

0 

0 

0 

92 

63 

. 0 

55 

0 

57 

67 

199 

622 

162 

0 

66 

156 

168 

0 

63 

17 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

58 

23 

136 

436 

213 

0 

0 

222 

171 

23 

106 

0 

0 

0 

0 

47 

0 

59 

26 

54 

0 

0 

514 

0 

138 

0 

0 

0 

0 

185 

74 

0 

0 

0 

60 

40 

106 

113 

8 

39 

12 

771 

654 

0 

40 

146 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

61 

242 

346 

0 

0 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

191 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

62 

5 

34 

24 

4 

0 

0 

90 

26 

0 

19 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

63 

15 

64 

0 

0 

19 

0 

0 

0 

307 

77 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

65 

0 

0 

0 

0 

176 

65 

29 

0 

0 

0 

73 

48 

0 

0 

0 

0 

66 

13 

85 

66 

10 

37 

45 

47 

34 

23 

67 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

41 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

68 

0 

0 

0 

0 

157 

67 

34 

0 

0 

0 

35 

82 

7 

0 

0 

0 

69 

57 

50 

734 

9 

92 

80 

125 

60 

0 

49 

21 

41 

197 

41 

0 

0 

70 

294 

468 

0 

0 

13 

306 

285 

178 

51 

71 

140 

30 

25 

0 

0 

0 

505 

406 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

72 

31 

72 

195 

22 

0 

75 

0 

148 

0 

73 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

73 

292 

677 

0 

0 

0 

0 

174 

0 

0 

0 

180 

28 

39 

0 

0 

0 

74 

0 

0 

0 

0 

83 

0 

133 

60 

0 

6 

2 

0 

196 

0 

0 

0 

75 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

1 

307 

81 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

o ! 

76 

0 

0 

0 

0 

344 

0 

96 

0 

0 

0 

0 

191 

79 

0 

0 

0 

77 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

129 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

o ! 

78 

0 

0 

0 

0 

110 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

41 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

79 

115 

224 

186 

21 

161 

163 

10 

103 

18 

9 

5 

80 

100 

203 

58 

0 

1,184 

0 

466 

0 

£7 

45 

16 

206 

0 

0 

71 

0 i 

81 

57 

50 

0 

0 

255 

89 

17 

0 

4 

0 

74 

17 

0 

0 

4 

82 

466 

363 

609 

0 

763 

369 

o 

100 

425 

130 

8 

0 

47 

1 

83 

4 

50 

0 

0 

57 

25 

11 

0 

12 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

o 1 

1 

84 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 

35 

36 

37 

38 

39 

40 

41 

42 

43 

44 

45 

46 

47 

48 

49 

50 


20 


Table  3. — Property  and  income  in 


Property. 


Names  of  institutions. 


Bound 
vol- 
umes 
in  li- 
braries. 


Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute. 

University  of  Alabama 

University  of  Arizona 

University  of  Arkansas 

University  of  California 

University  of  Colorado 

State  Agricultural  College  (Colo.) 

Colorado  School  of  Mines 

Connecticut  Agricultural  College 

Delaware  College 

University  of  Florida 

Florida  State  College  for  Women 

University  of  Georgia 

Georgia  School  of  Technology... 
North  Georgia  Agricultural  Col- 
lege. 

College  of  Hawaii 

University  of  Idaho 

University  of  Illinois 

Indiana  University 

Purdue  University  (Ind.) 

Iowa  State  College  of  Agricul- 
ture and  Mechanic  Arts. 

Iowa  State  Teachers  College 

State  University  of  Iowa 

University  of  Kansas 

Kansas  State  Agricultural  Col- 
lege. 

State  University  (Ky.) 

Louisiana  State  University  and 
Agricultural  and  Mechanical 
College. 

University  of  Maine 

Maryland  Agricultural  College. 
Massachusetts  Agricultural  Col- 
lege. 

Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology. 

University  of  Michigan 

Michigan"'  State  Agricultural 
College. 

Michigan  College  of  Mines 

University  of  Minnesota 

Mississippi  Agricultural  and 
Mechanical  College. 

University  of  Mississippi 

University  of  Missouri 

Montana  College  of  Agriculture 
and  Mechanic  Arts. 

Montana  State  School  of  Mines  . 

University  of  Montana 

University  of  Nebraska 

University  of  Nevada 

New  Hampshire  College  of  Agri- 
culture and  Mechanic  Arts. 

Rutgers  College  (N.  J.) 

New  Mexico  College  of  Agri- 
culture and  Mechanic  Arts. 

University  of  New  Mexico 

New  Mexico  School  of  Mines 


239,974 

20,000 

16.500 
15,420 

244, 000 

56. 000 

48. 000 
9,500 

12.000 

18, 000 

12.500 

9.000 

36.000 

7.000 

4.000 

8,650 
23,861 
188, 186 

85.000 
29,867 

32.500 

35.000 

75.000 

75.000 
36,973 

7,533 

33.000 


43,811 
6,000 
34, 448 

87,710 

288,358 

34,218 


24,630 
150, 000 
25, 428 

25.000 
114,134 

11,300 

8.000 

18.000 
93, 678 
19,500 
28, 000 

64,521 
13, 676 

10,000 
5,200 
395,209 
60, 000 


Approxi- 
mate 
value 
of  li- 
braries. 


$75,000 

60,000 

33.000 

41.000 

750.000 

75.000 

50.000 
24,247 

20.000 

25.000 

14.000 

15.000 

42.000 

20.000 

2,500 

16,500 
30, 125 

380.000 

88,000 

55.000 

115.000 

45.000 
149,428 

148.000 
61,942 

15,916 

44.000 


57,387 

8.500 
56,680 

187,586 

314,700 

70. 000 

70,200 

475. 000 
34,818 

25.000 
172,628 

20.000 

5.000 

50.000 

176. 000 
43, 046 

31.000 

65.000 
38,668 

12.500 

9.000 
771,397 

100.000 


Value  of 
scientific 
appara- 
tus, ma- 
chinery, 
and  fur- 
niture. 


$75,747 

137.000 
70, 630 

165.000 

(2) 

152.000 
130, 493 
220,883 

55.000 

90.000 

65.000 

15.000 
89,200 

125.000 
3,000 


104,688 

1,399,283 

21,250 

290.000 
333,942 

200.000 
658,044 
175,000 
217, 788 

25,000 

113,350 


101,922 

70.000 
221,504 

401,945 

1,341,325 

160,000 

245,772 

700.000 
334,307 

48.000 
408,918 

99.500 

75.000 

60.000 
197, 050 
100, 167 

75.000 

155.000 
89,828 

15.000 

10.500 
1,269,383 

75.000 


Value 
of  live 
stock. 


$4,576 


1,545 

5,000 

(2) 

500 

10,138 


16,600 

9,200 

4,000 


10,010 

0 

1,500 

4,000 

8,685 

22,152 


16,000 

53,943 


200 

34,104 


6,639 

1,280 

17,632 


0 

35,000 


40,000 
45, 792 

650 
25, 406 
8,750 


200 

31,800 

8,225 

6,000 


5,492 


Value  of 
grounds, 
includ- 
ing farm. 


$9,000 


33.000 

25.000 
*8, 738, 122 

180,000 

225.000 
68,939 
36,500 

45.000 

15.000 

20. 000 

475.000 

155.000 

10,000 

100.000 

57,775 

410.000 

36.000 

120.000 

147,798 

10.000 
870,330 
100,000 
259,500 

275,000 

151,040 


11,000 

30,000 

67,656 

708,200 

404,015 
74, 400 


1,834,000 

80,000 

75.000 
534,237 

74.000 


50.000 

550.000 
83,892 

31.000 

175.000 
107,900 

10.000 
2,000 

269,232 

70,000 


Cornell  University  (N.Y.) 

University  of  North  Carolina. . . 

1 Includes  appropriation  for  the  experiment  stations. 

2 Value  of  apparatus,  machinery,  live  stock,  buildings,  all  included  under  vail 
» For  current  expenses  and  building  purposes. 


21 


and  other  State-aided  institutions  of  higher  education. 


Income  from- 


Student 
fees,  ex- 
cluding 
board 
and 
room 
rent. 

Pro- 

ductive 

funds. 

The 
State. 1 

United 

States 

Gov- 

ern- 

ment.1 

Private 

benefac- 

tions. 

All 

other 

sources. 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

$13,590 

$21,490 

S40, 000 

§54,628 

§25, 237 

24, 3bl 

3^000 

116,000 

59, 097 

4, 658 

l',020 

53, 550 

75,000 

§2,000 

3,319 

9, 600 

3,900 

147,900 

62, 727 

528 

19, 221 

130,421 

203,382 

1,0  2,558 

75,000 

104,906 

146,456 

43,000 

5,000 

235,000 

9;  350 

127',  869 

73,638 

28,606 

43, 981 

78'  920 

17,090 

4,743 

17,610 

57,500 

60,000 

33, 689 

8,529 

4,980 

14,500 

67,000 

6, 296 

2,499 

6,970 

90,000 

52,500 

1,500 

1,477 

8, 500 

1,975 

72,000 

12',  449 

25;  314 

105,000 

30,000 

7,978 

8,739 

31,768 

0 

110,000 

0 

18,236 

2,680 

1,500 

21,500 

2,000 

160 

9,993 

45,000 

784 

59,437 

103,000 

75,000 

1,956 

244,347 

32,468 

1,097,000 

75,000 

111,226 

41,414 

44, 105 

303,259 

601 

59,561 

17,000 

331,837 

75,000 

99,219 

67,268 

35,743 

507,474 

75,000 

84,070 

23,725 

210, 775 

46, 308 

59, 716 

6,960 

508,698 

73, 954 

47, 201 

9,074 

544, 122 

2,492 

17,027 

29,418 

338,900 

75,000 

31,813 

4,407 

8,644 

85,938 

68,475 

4,922 

10,626 

14,556 

124,000 

51,917 

11,358 

38,804 

9,915 

115,688 

75,000 

25,937 

0 

5,797 

34,000 

4 75,000 

3,485 

10,613 

242,778 

60,000 

70,371 

354,549 

5,307 

29,000 

15,000 

156,130 

19,212 

339.542 

56,463 

659,287 

0 

231,612 

350,720 

26, 494 

70,304 

173,410 

75,000 

71,183 

27,872 

65,000 

8,737 

188,197 

59,157 

1,470,662 

73,000 

15,784 

770 

14,388 

264,222 

52,820 

250 

51,728 

23,000 

42,000 

32,500 

0 

0 

0 

20,968 

61,160 

638, 330 

72,187 

57,747 

8,496 

21,218 

53,466 

75,000 

12,601 

380 

50,000 

2,600 

415 

70,000 

2,000 

71,303 

42,250 

480. 9u0 

75,000 

58,929 

4. 108 

176,565 

75,000 

6,000 

5, 133 

6,406 

40,130 

9,460 

75,000 

38,665 

21,744 

41,313 

48,892 

75,000 

39,146 

46,028 

l,o44 

1,083 

17,036 

75,000 

11,932 

1,000 

1,000 

80,000 

10,000 

700 

19,000 

469. 141 

438,488 

280,433 

75,000 

329,025 

189,483 

44,210 

12,500 

90,000 

15, 743 

Analysis  of  State  appropriations. 


Total 

working 

income. 


Mill- 

tax 

rate. 


16 


§154,945 

202.458 
139,547 
243,  936 

1,672, 716 
284,000 
239,463 
139, 991 
173,542 
101,305 
154,946 
82,475 
189,480 
162, 684 
25,000 

55,937 
239,393 
1,560,040 
389,378 
582,593 
769, 555 

380,808 
649,328 
602,889 
495, 158 

172,386 

215.458 


266,930 

146,919 

387,247 

579, 19S 

1,637,624 

417,304 

101,608 

1,806,800 

384,177 

97,500 

853,394 

170,781 

50,380 
75,015 
728, 442 
276,807 
170,661 

272,120 

106,675 

48,800 

19,700 

1,781,945 

162,453 


To 


TOTS 


Receipts 
from 
mill  tax. 


§710,774 

160,000 

75,000 

78,920 


173,648 
173,888 
3 106,522 


U35,000 


48,938 


650,287 

173,410 


410,285 


385,960 


Appro- 
priation 
for  cur- 
rent ex- 
penses. 

Appro- 

priation 

for 

building 
and  per- 
manent 
improve- 
ments. 

18 

19 

§66,000 

§50,000 

42, 050 

11,500 

147,900 

0 

149,829 

44, 848 

30,000 

45,000 

44,486 

8,383 

27,000 

30,500 

9,500 

5,000 

27,500 

62,500 

40,000 

32,000 

105,000 

1 

75,000 

35,000 

21,500 

9,993 

52,000 

51,000 

663,000 

434,000 

17,500 

112,111 

100,945 

57,003 

295,960 

58,992 

155,775 

55,000 

328,698 

45,000 

368,978 

175,144 

264,900 

77,000 

37,000 

124,000 

3 115, 688 

34,000 

123,125 

121,153 

29,000 

9,000 

65,000 

644,377 

4i6,ooo 

179,822 

84,400 

32,500 

463,630 

17-1,700 

53,466 

35,000 

15,000 

70,000 

35,000 

60,000 

121,565 

55,000 

3,000 

6,460 

32,836 

16,055 

17,036 

32,000 

4,800 

19,000 

280, 433 

75,000 

15,000 

* Part  of  this  money  is  used  for  the  benefit  of  affiliated  school  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts  for 
negroes. 

6 Includes  value  of  grounds. 


22 


Table  3. — Property  and  income  in  Slate  universities  and 


Property. 


Names  of  institutions. 

Bound 
vol- 
umes 
in  li- 
braries. 

Approxi- 
mate 
value 
of  li- 
braries. 

Value  of 
scientific 
appara- 
tus, ma- 
chinery, 
and  fur- 
niture. 

Value 
of  live 
stock. 

Value  of 
grounds, 
includ- 
ing farm. 

Value  of 
build- 
ings. 

Endow- 

ment 

funds. 

' 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

North  Carolina  College  of  Agri- 

10, 028 

$18,305 

$195, 164 

$10, 105 

$70,311 

$422, 750 

$125,000 

culture  and  Mechanic  Arts. 

North  Dakota  Agricultural  Col- 

22, 800 

26,500 

130,000 

14,000 

65,000 

512,000 

978,587 

lege. 

State  University  and  School  of 

44,916 

55,000 

180,000 

118,000 

490,000 

1, 680, 000 

Mines  (N.  Dak.). 

35,000 

106,390 

40,000 

278,318 

146, 000 
662,347 

480,813 

1,540,000 

548, 000 

Ohio  State  University 

20, 000 

1,733,000 

393,319 

Miami  University  (Ohio) 

34, 000 
18,238 
14,506 

50,000 
30,460 
26, 060 

149, 660 
70,000 
193, 468 

50. 000 

75.000 

50.000 

555. 000 
307,500 

325.000 

108,000 

Oklahoma  Agricultural  and 

22, 130 

Mechanical  College. 

Oregon  State  Agricultural  Col- 

15,563 

35,000 

160,000 

7,000 

360,000 

560,000 

196,519 

lege. 

University  of  Oregon 

35,000 

60, 000 

129, 152 

300,000 

293,000 

55,000 

Pennsylvania  State  College 

43,510 

75,000 

387,802 

17, 935 

52, 800 

1,391,570 

517,000 

University  of  Porto  Rico 

3,729 

8,000 

17,749 

11,219 

36,068 

67,439 

534 

Rhode  Island  State  College 

South  Carolina  Military  Acad- 

22,031 

5,450 

35,961 

10,000 

83,927 
25, 000 

4,742 

14,855 

192,308 
3 310,000 

50,000 

emy. 

Clemson  Agricultural  College 

16, 488 

25, 628 

214,971 

23, 219 

87, 600 

154,439 

(S.  C.). 

University  of  South  Carolina — 
South  Dakota  Agricultural  Col- 

44,000 

12,500 

100,000 

36,000 

150, 000 
47,000 

275, 000 
65,000 

450.000 

300.000 

12,000 

136,738 

lege. 

South  Dakota  State  School  of 
Mines. 

4,000 

9,000 

113,000 

15,000 

85,000 

University  of  South  Dakota — 
University  of  Tennessee 

18, 000 
34,411 

37,500 

33,000 

120,000 

191,028 

50,000 

7,383 

3 350, 000 
360, 238 

285,475 

409,000 

University  of  Texas 

79, 920 
20,000 

175,000 

25,000 

315,000 
174, 455 

147,000 

48,320 

1, 181, 000 
928,000 

2,080,000 

205,000 

Agricultural  and  Mechanical 

19,710 

College  of  Texas. 

Agricultural  College  of  U tah  — 
pj  niversity  of  U tah 

19,470 

33.040 

83.040 

15,513 
42,000 
125, 000 

66,693 
153, 100 
90, 000 

13,758 

25,200 

34,500 

76,000 

333.000 
349,400 

940. 000 

147,441 

University  of  Vermont  and 

10,000 

999,360 

Agricultural  College. 

Virginia  Polytechnic  Institute. . 

12, 400 

8,000 

125, 000 

61,200 

483,000 

344,312 

University  of  Virginia 

Virginia  Military  Institute 

75. 000 
16, 227 

17.000 

100, 000 
20, 000 
37,000 

115, 500 
100, 000 
11,500 

800 

600.000 
100, 000 
50,000 

1, 209, 000 
200,000 
147,500 

1,583,792 

College  of  William  and  Mary 

173,000 

(Va.). 

State  College  of  Washington — 

28, 156 

40, 195 

144,549 

14, 668 

115,900 

1,008,793 

517,238 

University  of  Washington 

43, 793 

99,534 

349, 138 

750 

1,059, 000 

1,086,441 

3,000,000 

West  Virginia  University 

43,000 

35, 000 

90, 000 

5,000 

250, 000 

625, 000 

115, 104 

University  of  Wisconsin 

169, 602 

387, 022 

715,919 

30,508 

1.804,549 

2,722,074 

659, 349 

Universitv  of  Wyoming 

30,000 

60,000 

159,000 

9,000 

110, 000 

300, 000 

31,500 

1 Includes  appropriation  for  the  experiment  stations. 

2 Includes  appropriations  for  buildings. 

3 Includes  value  of  grounds. 


23 


other  State-aided  institutions  of  higher  education. — Continued. 


Income  from — 


Analysis  of  State  appropriations. 


Student 
fees,  ex- 
cluding 
board 
and 
room 
rent. 


Pro- 

ductive 

funds. 


10 


The 

State. 


11 


United 

States 

Gov- 

ern- 

ment.1 


1*2 


Private 

benefac- 

tions. 


All 

other 

sources. 


14 


Total 

working 

income. 


15 


Mill- 

tax 

rate. 

Receipts 
from 
mill  tax. 

16 

« 

fOff 

TJ55 

25(7 

$48, 124 

79,433 

97,073 

386,628 

79,399 

(4) 

182,776 

(6) 

56,268 

I 

783,765 

33,884 

Appro- 
priation 
for  cur- 
rent ex- 
penses. 


18 


Appro- 

priation 

for 

building 
and  per- 
manent 
improve- 
ments. 


19 


$32, 190 

4,500 

17,272 

17,922 
102, 100 
17, 135 
4,937 
5,000 

16,025 

7,250 

45,388 


$7,500 

58,514 

47, 992 

6,709 

55,462 

6,499 

19,312 

28,448 

11,033 

9,239 

31,020 


2,568 
40, 852 

3,200 

10,512 

7,223 

2,415 

15, 100 
56,090 
29, 521 
7,720 

8,609 

15,215 

47,281 

26,479 

54,865 

27,500 

5,059 

15,000 

15,567 

18,234 

249,670 

2,313 


2,500 


5, 754 


29,857 

3,170 

11,591 
26, 604 
157,878 
8,234 

10.659 
27, 142 
39,930 

20. 659 
85,308 

1,200 

8,048 

29,000 


6,085 
36, 503 
12,655 


$103, 

175, 

175, 

153, 

667, 

147, 

253, 

235, 


$00, 150 
75,000 


45,000 


183, 725 


70,500 

75,000 


125, 

265, 


75.000 

45.000 

75.000 


182, 776 

93,263 

59,979 

28,000 

112, 500 
56,745 

295.000 
259,250 

87,350 
162, 796 
16,000 

71.000 

80.000 
40,000 
55,495 

277,268 
336, 661 

138.000 
1,227,900 

62,378 


52,400 


75,000 


75,000 
63, 750 

75.000 
75*666 

60.000 


75,000 


66,000 
75, 000 
75,000 


$4,297 

2,313 


$34, 437 

11.398 

50,000 

17, 793 
35,428 
580 


9,000 

6,433 


25,825 

5,454 


3,512 


11,339 

6,950 
24, 588 


41,972 


222,589 


5.000 

1.000 


619 

11,718 

1,143 

25,875 

6, 986 

17,539 

56,802 

11,600 


30,000 


354 

21,942 


45,463 

400 


20, 922 
154,933 
8,926 


$237,283 

324,788 

290,224 

195, 994 
910, 158 
193,571 
277. 744 
348,576 

292,816 

141,489 
442, 733 
130, 755 
119,263 
120,852 

258.981 

110, 725 
196,646 

33,585 

139, 810 
268, 129 
483,542 
364,828 

188,604 
205, 153 
418,339 

234,940 
246, 770 
69,700 
68,946 

418,210 
382,228 
249, 241 
1,789,470 
161,672 


2$103,000 

7, 190 

36,810 

27, 657 
109, 894. 

51.725 
128,495 

85,928 

78. 725 

2125,000 
265, 500 
70,301 
35, 195 
30,000 


$120,000 

58,817 

28,839 

171,346 

16,352 

125.000 
149,700 

105.000 


10,000 

4,000 

50,000 


67,069 

59,979 

28,000 

80,500 


26, 194 


295. 000 

86,000 

87,350 

160,446 

16,000 

65.000 

80.000 
40,000 
40,495 

277,268 
313, 812 

138.000 

230. 000 


32,000 
172,350 
' 2,350 
6,000 


15,000 


22,849 


214. 135 
28,493 


4 Fertilizer  tax. 

5 Part  of  this  money  is  used  for  the  benefit  of  affiliated  schools  of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts 
for  negroes. 

6 One  and  three-fourths  per  cent  of  gross  revenue  of  the  State. 


O 


* 


United  states  bureau  of  education 

BULLETIN,  1911.  NO.  19 WHOLE  NUMBER  468 


STATISTICS  OF  STATE  UNIVERSITIES  AND 
OTHER  INSTITUTIONS  OF  HIGHER 
EDUCATION  PARTIALLY  SUP- 
PORTED  BY  THE  STATE 


FOR  THE  YEAR  ENDED 
JUNE  30.1911 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1912 


BULLETIN  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION. 


1906. 


No.  1.  The  education  bill  of  1906  for  England  and  Wales,  as  it  passed  the  House 
of  Commons.  By  Anna  Tolman  Smith,  of  the  Bureau  of  Education.  2d  edition, 
1907.  pp.  48/:;  ,/^  ; 

No.  2.  German  views  of  American  education^  with  particular  reference  to  indus- 
trial development.  Collated  from  the  Reports  of  the  Royal  Prussian  Industrial 
Commission  of  1904.  By  William  N.  Hailmann,  Professor  of  the  History  and 
Philosophy  of  Education,  Chicago  Normal  School.  3d  edition,  1907.  pp:  55. 

No.  3.  State  school  systems:  Legislation  and  judicial  decisions  relating  to  public 
education,  October  1?  1904,  to  October  1,  1906.  By  Edward  C.  Elliott;  Professor  of 
Education  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin.  2d  edition,  revised,  1907.  pp.  156. 


1907. 


No.  1.  The  continuation  school  in  the  United  States.  By  Arthur  J.  Jones,  Fellow  in 
Education,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  pp.  157.  - - > 

No.  2.  Agricultural  education,  including  nature  study  and  school  gardens.  By 
James  Ralph  Jewell,  sometime  Fellow  of  Clark  University.  2d  edition,  revised, 
1908.  pp.  148.  . ' 

No.  3.  The  auxiliary  schools  of  Germany.  Six  lectures  by  B.  Maennel,  Rector  of 
JSdittelschule  in  Haile.  Translated  by  Fletcher  Baseom  Dresslar,  Associate  Pro- 
fessor of  the  Science  and  Art  of  Teaching,  University  of  California,  pp.  187. 

No.  4.  The  elimination  of  pupils  from  school.  By  Edward  L.  Thorndike,  Professor 
of  Educational  Psychology,  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  pp.  63. 

1908. 

No.  1.  On  the  training  of  persons  to  teach  agriculture  in  the  public  schools.  By 
Liberty  Hyde  Bailey,  Director  of  the  New  York  State  College  of  Agriculture  at 
Cornell  University,  pp.  53. 

No.  2.  List  of  publications  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  1867-4907.  pp.  69. 
No.  3.  Bibliography  of  education  for  1907.  By  James  Ingefsoll  Wyer,  jr.,  and  Martha 
L.  Phelps,  of  the  New  York  State  Library,  pp.  65.  • '•  ' ^ : . i . 

No.  4.  Music  education  in  the  United  States:  Schools  and  departments  of  music. 
By  Arthur  L.  Manchester,  Director  of  the  Department  of  Music,  Converse  College, 
Spartanburg,  S„.  C.  pp.  85.  - < ■ ' 

No.  5.  Education  in  Formosa.  By  Julean  H.  Arnold,  American  Consul  at  Tamsui, 
Formosa,  pp.  70.  • ,'Y‘\ 

No.  6.  The  apprenticeship  system  in  its  relation  to  industrial  education.  By  Car- 
roll  D.  Wright,  President  of  Clark  College,  Worcester,  Mass.  pp.  116.  ' ' • 

No.  7.  State  school  systems:  Legislation  and  judicial  decisions  relating  to  public 
education,  October  1,  1906,  to  October  1,  1908,  By  Edward  C.  Elliott,  Professor 
of  Education  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  pp.  364.  V ' - 1 

No.  8.  Statistics  of  State  universities  and  other  institutions  of  higher  education  par- 
tially supported  by  the  State,  1907-8,  pp.  15.  ^ 

1909. 

No.  1.  Facilities  for  study  and  research  in  the  offices  of  the  United  States  Government 
at  Washington.  By  Arthur  Twining  Hadley,  President  of  Yale  University,  pp.  73. 
No.  2.  Admission,  of  Chinese  students  to  American  universities.  By  John  Fryer, 
Professor  of  Oriental  Languages  and  Literature,  University- of  California,  pp.  221. 
No.  3.  Daily  meals  of  school  children.  By  Caroline  L..  Runt.  pp.  62. 

No.  4.  The  teaching  staff  of  secondary. schools  in  the  United  States:  Amount  of  edu- 
cation, length  of  experience,  salaries.  By  Edward  L.  Thorndike,  pp.  60.  o 
No.  5.  Statistics  of  public,  society,  and  school  libraries  haying  5,000  volumes  and 
over  in  1908.  pp.  215.  ? 

No.  6.  Instruction  in  the  fine  and  manual  arts  in  the  United  States.  A statistical 
monograph.  By  Henry  Turner  Bailey,  editor  of  the  School  Arts  Book.  pp.  184. 
No.  7.  Index  to  the  Reports  of  the  Commissioner  of  Education:  1867-1907.  pp.  103. 
No.  8.  A teacher’s  professional  library.  Classified  list  of  one  hundred  titles,  pp.  14. 
No.  9.  Bibliography  of  education  for  1908-9.  pp.  134. 

No,  10.  Education  for  efficiency  in  railroad  service.  By  J.  Shirley  Eaton,  formerly 
statistician  Lehigh  Valley  Railroad,  pp.  159. 

No.  11.  Statistics  of  State  universities  and  other  institutions  of  higher  education 
partially  supported  by  the  State,  1908-9.  pp.  15. 

(Continued  on  page  3 of  cover.) 


BULLETIN  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF  EDUCATION. 

(Continued  from  page  2 of  cover.) 

1910. 

No.  1.  The  movement  for  reform  in  the  teaching  of  religion  in  the  public  schools  of 
Saxony.  By  Arley  Barthlow  Show,  Professor  of  Medieval  History,  Leland  Stan- 
ford Junior  University.  pp.  45. 

No.  2.  State  school  systems:  III.  Legislation  and  judicial  decisions  relating  to  pub- 
lic education,  October  1, 1908,  to  October  1, 1909.  By  Edward  C.  Elliott,  Professor 
of  Education  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  pp.  305. 

No.  3.  List  of  publications  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  1867-1910. 
• pp.  55.  ;■ 

No.  4.  The  biological  stations  of  Europe.  By  Charles  Atwood  Kofoid.  pp.  360. 

No.  5.  American  schoolhouses.  By  Fletcher  B.  Dresslar,  Professor  of  Philosophy 
and  Education,  University  of  Alabama,  pp.  133. 

No.  6.  Statistics  of  State  universities  and  other  institutions  of  higher  education  par- 
tially supported  by  the  State  for  the  year  ended  June  30,  1910.  pp.  29. 

1911. 

No.  1.  Bibliography  of  science  teaching.  Compiled  by  a committee  of  the  Amer- 
ican federation  of  teachers  of  the  mathematical  and  the  natural  sciences,  pp.  27. 

No.  2.  Opportunities  for  graduate  study  in  agriculture  in  the  United  States,  pp.  16. 

No . 3 . Agencies  for  the  improvementof  teachers  in  service . By  William  Carl  Ruediger, 
Professor  of  Educational  Psychology,  Teachers  College,  George  Washington  Uni- 
versity, Washington,  D.  C.  pp.  157. 

No.  4.  Report  of  the  commission  appointed  to  study  the  system  of  education  in  the 
public  schools  of  Baltimore,  pp.  112.  V :• 

No.  5.  Age  and  grade  census  of  schools  and  colleges,  a study  of  retardation  and  elimi- 
nation. By  George  Drayton  Strayer,  Professor  of  Educational  Administration, 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University.  pp.*144.  V -V 

No.  6.  Graduate  work  in  mathematics  in  universities  and  other  institutions  of  like 
grade.  Being  the  report  of  Committee  Xll  in  the  American  report  to  the  Inter- 
national commission  on  the  teaching  of  mathematics,  pp.  63.  >-Y‘ 

No.  7.  Undergraduate  work  in  mathematics  in  colleges  of  liberal  arts  and  universities. 
Being  the  report  of  Committee  X in  the  American  report  to  the  International  com- 
mission on  the  teaching  of  mathematics.  ••  pp.  30.  • ' V 't' 

No.  8.  Examinations  in  mathematics  other  than  those  set  by  the  teacher  for  his  own 
classes.  Being  the  report  of  Committee  VII  in  the  American  report  to  the  Inter- 
national commission  on  the  teaching  of  mathematics,  pp.  72. 

No.  9.  Mathematics  in  technological  schools  of  collegiate  grade.  Being  the  report  of 
Committee  IX  in  the  American  report  to  the  International  commission  on  the 
teaching  of  mathematics,  pp.44.  , < 

No,  10.  Bibliography  of  education  for  1909-10.  pp.  166. 

No.  11.  Bibliography  of  child' study  for  the  years  1908-9.  pp.  84. 

No.  12.  Training  of  teachers  of  elementary  and  secondary  mathematics.  Being  the 
report  of  Committee  V in  the  American  report  to  the  International  commission  on 
the  teaching  of  mathematics,  pp.  23. 

No.  13.  Mathematics  in  the  elementary  schools.  Being  the  reports  of  Committees 
I and  II  in  the  American  report  to  the  International  commission  on  the  teaching 
of  mathematics,  pp.  185. 

No.  14.  Provision  for  exceptional  children  in  the  public  schools,  pp.  92. 

No.  15.  The  educational  system  of  China  as  recently  reconstructed.  By  Harry 
Edwin  King,  Vice  President  of  the  Peking  University,  pp.  105. 

No.  16.  Mathematics  in  the  public  and  private  secondary  schools  of  the  United  States. 
Being  the  reports  of  Committees  III  arid  IV  in  the  American  report  to  the  Inter- 
national commission  on  the  teaching  of  mathematics,  pp.  187. 

Nck  17.  List  of  publications  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  pp.  47. 

No.  18.  Teachers  ’ certificates  issued  under  general  State  laws  and  regulations.  By 
Harlan  Updegraph,  Specialist  in  School  Administration,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educa- 
tion. pp,  269.  . ' •; ; • - • Y . 


